miocene connectivity between the central and eastern paratethys: constraints from the western dacian...

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 412 (2014) 45–67

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

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Miocene connectivity between the Central and Eastern Paratethys:Constraints from the western Dacian Basin

Marten ter Borgh a,⁎, Marius Stoica b,d, Marinus E. Donselaar c, Liviu Matenco a, Wout Krijgsman a,d

a Netherlands Research Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Science (ISES), Utrecht University, Faculty of Geosciences, Postbus 80021, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlandsb Department of Geology, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, University of Bucharest, Bălcescu Bd. 1, Bucharest 010041, Romaniac Dept. of Geoscience and Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlandsd Paleomagnetic Laboratory ‘Fort Hoofddijk’, Utrecht University, Postbus 80021, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 30 253 7322.E-mail address: [email protected] (M. ter Borgh).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.07.0160031-0182/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 16 December 2013Received in revised form 27 June 2014Accepted 15 July 2014Available online 23 July 2014

Keywords:ParatethysDacian BasinBasin connectivitySedimentary basinsMessinian Salinity CrisisMaeotian

TheDacianBasin formed an important link between the central and eastern parts of the Paratethys, a chain of lateTertiary inland seas and lakes. This study presents constraints on Miocene sea and lake level fluctuations in theDacian Basin and on the connectivity between it and other Paratethys basins, based on the interpretation ofseismic lines, a micropalaeontological study and lithofacies analysis of a large number of outcrops. It is shownthat relative sea level fluctuations in the western part of the Dacian Basin during the Middle Miocene wereprimarily driven by tectonic activity in the nearby Carpathian Mountains. From the Maeotian (Late Miocene)onwards, however, tectonic activity was minor and relative sea level fluctuations were primarily driven bychanges in basin connectivity and climate. The connection between the Central and Eastern Paratethys wasbroken at the end of the Middle Miocene, leading to the development of an endemic fauna in the former, butnew data presented here suggest that isolation was not sustained completely as Central Paratethys speciesappeared in the Dacian Basin during the Maeotian (Late Miocene). Besides the isolation two falls in water leveloccurred in the basin during the latest Miocene: Of these, the intra-Pontian sea-level drop is the best known.We show, however, that this dropwas preceded by a larger sea or lake-level drop in the late Sarmatian/Maeotian.This latter event may have affected much larger parts of the Paratethys, and we recommend more study of thebordering basins. The hypothesis that the connection between the Dacian and Central Paratethys basins waslocated in the region where the Danube River presently crosses the Carpathians was tested, but no supportingevidence was found.

© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

This study focusses on the Miocene connections between threemajor Central and Eastern Paratethys basins, the Pannonian Basin, theDacian Basin and the Black Sea Basin, during the Miocene (Fig. 1). TheParatethys comprised a chain of basins that stretched across Europefrom Oligocene times onwards (e.g., Steininger et al., 1988; Rögl,1999). Although a significant amount of research has been carried outrecently (e.g., Çağatay et al., 2006; Harzhauser and Piller, 2007;Krijgsman et al., 2010; Leever et al., 2010, 2011; Karami et al.,2011; Munteanu et al., 2012; Jipa and Olariu, 2013) there is still con-siderable discussion on the exact nature, cause and impact of relativesea and lake level changes, on basin connectivity and on the locationsof gateways between these basins (e.g., Magyar and Sztanó, 2008;Krijgsman et al., 2010; Suc et al., 2011; Bache et al., 2012; Bartol et al.,2012; Csato et al., 2013). Changes in connectivity between semi-enclosed sedimentary basins can have far-reaching effects on the

water and sediment exchange between basins, the salinity, the forma-tion of regional unconformities, the occurrence of flooding events, thedevelopment and migration of (endemic) faunas, and on the regionalclimate (e.g., Rögl, 1999; Steininger and Wessely, 1999; Popov et al.,2004; Krijgsman et al., 2010).

In this study three events during which connections between theDacian Basin and neighbouring areas of sedimentation may havechanged were investigated. The first of these records the separation ofthe Dacian Basin from the Pannonian Basin towards the end of MiddleMiocene times. This was most probably related to uplift of theCarpathian Mountains and corresponded to a major extinctionevent in the Central Paratethys (Horváth, 1995; Vasiliev et al., 2010;Ter Borgh et al., 2013), but the location of the closure point is not wellconstrained (Marinescu, 1985; Magyar et al., 1999; Popov et al., 2004;Jipa and Olariu, 2013).

The second event that was investigated is the intra-Pontian event(latest Miocene). It resulted in a sea-level drop that has been estimatedat 50–200 m in the Dacian Basin (Krijgsman et al., 2010; Leever et al.,2010; Stoica et al., 2013). In the Black Sea, however, a drop of morethan 1 km has been proposed (Hsü and Giovanoli, 1979; Munteanu

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Fig. 1.Map of the western part of the Eastern and the Central Paratethys. Shown are themain tectonic units, the extents of the individual Paratethys basins and the location of the study area. C.B.— Comăneşti Basin, C-J.F.— Cerna-Jiu Fault,F.D. — Focşani Depression, G.D. — Getic Depression, I.G. — Iron Gates, S.G. — Scythian Gateway, T.F. — Timok Fault.Modified after Schmid et al. (2008).

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47M. ter Borgh et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 412 (2014) 45–67

et al., 2012). Whether these two were linked to each other and to thesea-level drop recorded during the Messinian Salinity Crisis of theMediterranean Sea is the subject of debate (Çağatay et al., 2006;Popov et al., 2006; Krijgsman et al., 2010; Suc et al., 2011; Bache et al.,2012; Grothe et al., 2014).Whether theMessinian sea-level drop affect-ed the area as far west as the Pannonian Basin is subject to debate also(Csató, 1993; Juhász et al., 1999, 2007; Magyar and Sztanó, 2008;Csato et al., 2013). Constraints from the Dacian Basin may prove criticalto resolve these debates. During the late Sarmatian or Maeotian (LateMiocene) another less studied but potentially important sea-leveldrop may have affected the Eastern Paratethys (Kojumdgieva, 1983;Leever et al., 2010; Jipa and Olariu, 2013).

For all of the events investigated, the locality most often proposed tohave formed the palaeogeographic connection between the Dacian andPannonian basins lies close to the area where the Danube currentlycrosses the South Carpathians (e.g., Magyar et al., 1999; Clauzon et al.,2005; Jipa et al., 2011; Leever et al., 2011; Suc et al., 2011) (Fig. 1).This area was studied in order to define the links between theParatethys basins, sea and lake level fluctuations, the evolution of sedi-mentary processes in the Dacian Basin and the palaeogeographic evolu-tion of the Paratethys. To achieve these goals a multidisciplinaryapproach was employed: Sedimentological fieldwork was carried outin order to constrain the temporal and spatial evolution of the deposi-tional systems and ages and palaeo-environments were obtained fromthe fossil record. The resulting sedimentary model was projected intothe subsurface and linked to basin-wide events using seismic data.

Fig. 2.Geologicalmapof the study area (from the geologicalmapspublished byMarinescu (1978the results of the present study). Location in Fig. 1. In the inset the location of a number of addseismic lines. The seismic lines displayed in Fig. 11 (4_1994 & 15_1992) and Fig. 12 (92_14_14

2. The Dacian Basin: the link between the Central and EasternParatethys

The development of the Paratethys was closely related to the conti-nental collision of Africa and Europe. From Oligocene times onwards,the oceanic domain between the two tectonic plates was fragmentedinto sub-domains by the formation of Mediterranean mountain chains.The two most important residual oceans were the Paratethys to thenorth and the Mediterranean to the south (Seneš, 1973; Steiningerand Wessely, 1999). Apart from uplift-induced fragmentation andsubduction, the whole area was affected and/or enlarged by back-arcextension related to the rapid roll-back of Mediterranean slabs(e.g., Faccenna et al., 2004). As a result of their gradual isolation,the semi-isolated Paratethys basins recorded brackish to freshwater conditions, interrupted by occasional marine incursions(Papaianopol et al., 1995; Krijgsman et al., 2010).

Towards the end of Middle Miocene times uplift of the Carpathiansresulted in the separation of the Central Paratethys, comprising thePannonian, Transylvanian and smaller basins (Magyar et al., 1999;Harzhauser and Piller, 2007) from the Eastern Paratethys (Fig. 1;Marunţeanu and Papaianopol, 1995; Çağatay et al., 2006; Popov et al.,2006). A periodic connection between the twodomainswasmaintainedthrough the Dacian Basin (Fig. 1) which, however, retained an EasternParatethys affinity for most of its Late Miocene–Quaternary evolution(e.g., Popov et al., 2006). As a consequence of this isolation an endemicfauna developed in the Central Paratethys. Isolation of the Pannonian

), theGeological Institute of Romania and theGeoinstitute Belgrade, Serbia, improvedwithitional outcrops outside the main study area are shown, as are the locations of the studied) are highlighted.

image of Fig.�2

Table 1Lithofacies associations, description of the sedimentary features, constraints from fauna, and interpretation of the depositional environment.

Facies Description Interpretation

Facies association I: basement derived brecciaI.1:Basement derived breccia(Bn)

Decimetre-scale alternation of mostly unconsolidatedclast-supported breccia and granules. Blocks angular,size up to 40 cm. Large-scale fining upwards.

Scree (basal few 10's of m, angular fragments) overlain byfiner sediments representing a developing river system(finer sediments flow in between the coarse blocks).

Facies association II: fan delta to alluvial fanII.1:Clast-supported gravel, pebble andcobble sheets(Bn–Sm)

Decimetre-scale alternation of gravel, cobble, pebble andsand sheets. Clast-supported, subangular to subroundedclasts. Sands are immature and have a high mica content.Imbrication, inverse grading. Occasional tabularcrossbedding of ~5°.

Coarse grained fan delta; subaqueous debris flows.Interbedded with facies from facies association III, whichcontain a marine fauna, indicative of the inner shelf andbeyond.

II.2:Matrix-supported gravel, pebble andcobble sheets(Bn–Sm)

As II.1 but matrix-supported. Coarse grained fan delta. See II.1.

II.3:Coarse grained lenticular bodies(Bn–Sm)

Lenticular sediment bodies of clast-supportedsubangular to subrounded pebbles and cobbles. Theclasts are chaotic and do not show any sorting. Thelenses are b1 m thick and have a high width/thicknessratio; widths are in the order of 10 m or more.Occasionally cemented. Occasionally intercalated withfacies association III.

Coarse grained fan delta, possibly debris flows in shallowunstable low-sinuosity channels on an alluvial fan surface.

Facies association III: shallow marine deposition in front of fan deltaIII.1:Sand/silt sheets(Bn–Sm)

As II.1, but sands and silts instead of conglomerates.Intercalated silts and clayish silts. Slight planarcross-bedding.

Shallow water; deposition in front of the fan deltas ofassoc. II; marine conditions. Turbidity currents.

III.2:Sand/silt alternation(Bn–Sm)

Centimetre-scale interbedded sands and silts. Distortedas a result of loading, synsedimentary faulting andslumping. Coal and wood fragments occur.

Shallow water; deposition in front of the fan deltas ofassoc. II; marine conditions. Turbidity currents.

III.3:Marls to clays(Bn–Sm)

Centimetre-scale layered fossil rich marls and massivemarls (clays). Interbedded with sands and silts (III.2).Sands become more prominent towards the top.Occasionally wood fragments are present. Slumpingoccurs.

Lower part of front of fan delta to prodelta, area betweenthe fans. Turbidity currents to hemipelagic settling.

Facies association IV: marine carbonatesIV.1:Limestones(Sm-2/Sm-3)

Packstones and rudstones with a significant clasticcontent.

Shallow marine, formed on top of a palaeorelief, oftenconsisting of mounts of Jurassic limestones.

Facies association V: shelf depositsV.1:Laminated and layered marls(Bn–Sm)

Laminated and layered marls, organic and coccolith-richlayers. Iron oxides present abundantly.

Inner shelf. Marine deposition in between the mass flowfans. Disoxic to anoxic lacustrine to low-salinity marine.

V.2:Marls/clays and tuffs with sands(Bn–Sm)

Decimetre-scale marls and clays, interbedded withmassive, centimetre-scale graded and layered sands.Occasionally contain tuff. Unconsolidated.

Inner shelf and beyond below storm wave-base withfrequent hyperpycnal flows, tempestites or turbidites.

V.3:Massive and layered marls(Bn–Sm)

Massive and centimetre-scale layered marls. Silty andcalcareous levels present.

Inner to outer shelf. Marine deposition in between themass flow fans.

Facies association VI: braided riversVI.1:Coarse grained sheets(Me)

Coarse-grained sheet- to lens-shaped bodies. Alternationof sheets of sandstone and pebble-/cobble-sized clasts.Organised in foresets which occasionally grade intotrough cross-beds with set heights of 10–30 cm.

Braided river. The steep crossbeds formed by frontal andlateral accretion of migrating mid-channel bars. The sandytrough cross-sets formed on the channel floor and werecovered by prograding avalanche bar foresets.

VI.2:Lenticular sand bodies(Me)

Thin (10–50 cm), wide lenses of fine to coarse-grainedsands. Often associated with VI.1.

Braided river, depression fills in lower-energy sidechannels and/or stranded mid-channel bars.

VI.3:Cross-bedded sands(Me)

Well sorted steep angular crossbedded sands andlaminated alternations of sands and silts with dispersedpebbles and cobbles.

Braided river, avalanche foresets of bank-attached bars.

Facies association VII: shallow lacustrine depositsVII.1:Marl(Me-1)

White marls rich in reworked material as well as fossils.Interbedded with matrix supported conglomerates withwell-rounded fragments.

Shallow brackish environment (salinity N 10 g/l).Lacustrine to restricted marina. Fauna with fresh wateraffinities become more prominent in younger layers.

Facies association VIII: shallow restricted marine to lacustrine clasticsVIII.1:Sands(Pt-1/Pt-2)

Centimetre-scale cross-bedded frequently bioclasticwell-sorted silts to sands to gravels. Coarseningupwards.

Littoral zone.

VIII.2:Rhythmites(Pt-1/Pt-2)

Centimetre to decimetre-scale alternation of sands andclays. Abundant evidence of slumping and sedimentinstability. Horizontal lamination as well asunidirectional ripplelamination.

Tidal flat/mixed sand mudflat (rhythmites).

48 M. ter Borgh et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 412 (2014) 45–67

Table 1 (continued)

Facies Description Interpretation

VIII.3:Sandy to silty lacustrine marls andclays(Pt-1)

Centimetre-scale layered fossil rich silty and sandy marlsand clays.

Lacustrine.

VIII.4:Fine sands(Pt-1/Pt-2)

Well sorted fine sands, silts.Small gravels/granules present.

Bn-(1/2/3)— (lower/middle/upper) Badenian; Sm-(1/2/3) — (lower/middle/upper) Sarmatian; Me — Maeotian; Pt-(1/2) — (lower/middle) Pontian.

Facies association VIII: shallow restricted marine to lacustrine clastics (continued)


and Transylvanian basins most likely occurred in two steps, around11.7 Ma (Ter Borgh, 2013; Ter Borgh et al., 2013) and around 11.3 Ma(Vasiliev et al., 2010) respectively.

2.1. The Southern Carpathians

The highly arcuate orogenic system of the Carpatho-Balkanides wascreated during the Late Jurassic–Miocene in response to subduction ofthe Alpine Tethys and Neotethys oceans and associated continental

Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphic column, stratigraphic sequences, a qualitative indication of salinity basedbrackish water/restricted marine; M— normal marine salinity. Salinities may have varied signifiassociations is indicated with Roman numerals. Proximal deposits are shown on the left, distalshown; global stages on the left (Gradstein et al., 2012), and regional Paratethys stages on the(Hardenbol et al., 1998) is shown for reference, many of the locally observed relative sea levelKhersonian.

collisions (e.g., Dimitrijević, 1997; Kräutner and Krstić, 2003; Csontosand Vörös, 2004; Schmid et al., 2008). They surround the Dacian Basinon three sides; the Carpathian Mountains to the west and north andthe Balkanides to the south (Fig. 1). Towards the east the Dobrogea up-lift forms a sill between the basin and the remainder of the EasternParatethys (Fig. 1; Leever et al., 2010; Jipa and Olariu, 2013, and refer-ences therein).

In the southeastern part of the Carpatho-Balkanides, where the studyarea is located, the orogen comprises a thick-skinned Cretaceous nappe

on the fauna and important events affecting the western Dacian Basin; F— fresh water; B—

cantly across the basin during the Sarmatian s.l.; see Section 5.1.1. The position of the facieson the right, and grey indicates a hiatus. Both global and regional stratigraphic stages areright (Vasiliev et al., 2004, 2005, 2011; Krijgsman et al., 2010). An eustatic sea level curvefluctuations are not eustatic in origin, however. Vh — Volhynian, Bs— Bessarabian, Kh —

image of Fig.�3


image of Fig.�4


stack (Berza et al., 1983; Kräutner and Bindea, 2002; Fügenschuh andSchmid, 2005; Iancu et al., 2005). Following the formation of thisthick-skinned nappe sequence, the sediments situated in their fore-land continued to be deformed until Late Miocene times. They aregrouped into a unit, generically named the Getic Depression, that is alateral equivalent of the thin-skinned East and SE Carpathians nappesystem (Sandulescu, 1988; Krézsek et al., 2013). This unit contains upto ~10 km of dominantly siliciclastic sediments deposited in a basinup to 100 km wide that was subsequently deformed during rotation,translations and docking of the South Carpathians against the Moesianforeland (Dicea, 1996; Răbăgia et al., 2011).

2.2. Late stages of orogenic build-up, back-arc collapse and post-kinematicevolution

The Carpatho-Balkanides orogen acquired its highly arcuate geome-try during Palaeogene–Miocene rotations of the Dacia mega-unitaround the Moesian promontory, partly driven by the rapid roll-backof a slab attached to the European–Moesian foreland (Royden andBáldi, 1988; Ratschbacher et al., 1993; Csontos, 1995; Schmid et al.,2008). These movements were accompanied by the formation of twodextral strike–slip faults with curved geometry, the Lower OligoceneCerna-Jiu Fault with 35 km offset, and the Miocene Timok Fault, whichis located in the study area (Fig. 1; Berza and Drăgănescu, 1988;Kräutner and Krstić, 2003; Moser et al., 2005). The total dextraloffset along the latter has been estimated at 65 km (Fügenschuh andSchmid, 2005), and its maximum vertical offset at about 2.5–3 km inthe study area (Tărăpoancă et al., 2007). Along these strike–slip faultsminor sedimentary basins formed locally (Bojar et al., 1998).

Interpretation of seismic profiles has demonstrated that the TimokFault splays towards the NE into an Early Miocene (early Burdigalian)transtensional system comprising several faults that veer from N–Sto E–W. They resulted from the oblique divergent movement of theSouth Carpathians relative to the Moesian margin (Rabăgia andMatenco, 1999; Tărăpoancă et al., 2007; Răbăgia et al., 2011; Krézseket al., 2013). Subsequent Middle–Late Miocene E- to SE-ward move-ment of the Carpathian units was associated with strike–slip faultingin the internal parts of the orogen and thrusting of the Getic unit overtheMoesian platform (Sandulescu, 1988;Maţenco et al., 1997). The his-tory of thrusting started in the Oligocene and ended in the Sarmatian,since when significant exhumation has occurred (Bojar et al., 1998).

Following these large-scale tectonic movements, the late-stagepost-tectonic evolution of the SE and South Carpathians has beendominated by regional subsidence, generally regarded as resultingfrom subduction slab-pull at the exterior of the Carpathians (Matencoet al., 2003; Cloetingh et al., 2004; Tărăpoancă et al., 2004). A high-velocity anomaly observed beneath the Vrancea seismogenic zone hasbeen interpreted as a remnant of this subduction zone (Martin andWenzel, 2006; Ismail-Zadeh et al., 2012). The regional subsidenceresulted in the formation of the superposed Dacian Basin (Jipa andOlariu, 2009), in which up to 3 km of latest Miocene (upper Sarma-tian)–Quaternary sediments were deposited. They overlie the GeticDepression, the Moesian foreland and part of the neighbouring

Fig. 4.Badenian foraminifera from thewestern DacianBasin (Q021-VM2 (V.1), Ko: Q021— outc1. Karrerotextularia inopinata (Luczkowska) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 2. Karrerotextularia concaKo); 4. Spirorutilis carinatus (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 5. Martinottiella karreri (CushKo); 7. Cylindroclavulina rudis (Costa) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 8. Bigenerina agglutinans (d'OrbigLachlanella undosa (Karrer) (Q012-TS12, Wi); 11. Quinqueloculina regularis Karrer (Q021-VM2simplex (d'Orbigny) (Q012-TS12, Wi); 14. Nummoloculina contraria (d'Orbigny) (Q021-VM11VM11 (V.1), Ko); 17. Quinqueloculina gracilis Karrer (Q021-VM11 (V.1), Ko); 18. Sigmoilinitahexagona (Williamson) (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 21. Lagena geminensis Popescu (Q005-TS5 (Vd'Orbigny (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 24. Siphonodosaria sp. (Q016A-TS16 (V.3), Wi); 25. Amphic(V.3), Wi); 27. Amphicoryna hispida (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 28. Amphimorphina(Q016A-TS16 (V.3), Wi); 30. Nodosaria ambigua Neugeboren (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 31. De(Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 33. Stilostomella consobrina (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo).

Balkanide nappes. The sedimentary facies in the Dacian Basin indi-cate an overall regressive pattern of basin fill, characterised byprogradational facies with near-shore and deltaic environmentspresent in the Maeotian and early Dacian sequence (Jipa andOlariu, 2009).

3. Data and methods

Lithofacies characteristics were recorded at 145 outcrops (Fig. 2).Samples were collected for micropalaeontological analyses, which pro-vided age and environmental constraints. Taxonomic identificationsand ecological inferences were based on Popescu (1979, 1995, 1999),Papp and Schmid (1985), Cicha et al. (1998), Rögl et al. (2002),Popescu and Crihan (2005a, 2005b, 2008), and Rögl et al. (2008) andreferences therein.

Based on these data, facies types and facies associations wererecognised in the Middle Miocene (Badenian) to Pliocene (Pontian)(Table 1) and then correlated with 2D seismic profiles (Tărăpoancăet al., 2007) to define depositional systems. Formation tops from indus-try wells were used, and converted to time using velocity informationfrom check shots. As only limitedwell data were available outcrop geol-ogy was used to enhance the stratigraphic interpretation of the seismicsections. This was possible because most of the sequences identified onthe seismic data extend towards the surface. Because the Paratethyswas (partly) isolated from the marine realm for significant parts of itsevolution, regional Paratethys stratigraphic stages were used; seeFig. 3 for a correlation between global and regional stratigraphic stages(e.g., Rögl, 1996, 1999; Gradstein et al., 2012).

4. Results

The Middle Miocene–Pliocene sediments that crop out on the basinmargin consist of unconsolidated coarse to fine grained clastics andmarls with rare carbonates. Depositional environments varied throughtime due to sea and lake level fluctuations, and laterally, due to faciesshifts (Fig. 3). In the western part of the study area the deposits onlaponto metamorphic basement. About 15 km east of this basal unconfor-mity the Middle–Upper Miocene units thicken across the buriedTimok fault from a maximum of about 500 m to the west to over 2 kmto the east. Three unconformity-bounded sequences can be recognisedin the Middle Miocene–Pliocene basin fill (Fig. 3); (1) the Badenian–Sarmatian units (Middle–Upper Miocene), which themselves containa number of internal unconformities locally; (2) the Maeotian–lowerPontian units (Upper Miocene) and (3) the middle and upper Pontianunits (uppermost Miocene to lowermost Pliocene) (Fig. 3). The Pontianin turn is covered byDacian and Romanian (Pliocene) depositswhich lieoutside the scope of this study.

4.1. Facies associations

4.1.1. Facies association IA decimetre-scale alternation of coarse polymict clast-supported

breccias deposited directly over the basement (Table 1).

rop, VM2— sample, V.1— facies, Ko: age;Mo—Moravian,Wi—Wielician, Ko—Kossovian).va (Karrer) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 3. Spirorutilis mariae (d'Orbigny) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3),man) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 6. Martinottiella communis (d'Orbigny) (Q019A-VM2 (V.3),ny) (Q011-TS11 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 9. Cornuspira striata (Czjzek) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 10.(V.1), Ko); 12. Quinqueloculina triangularis d'Orbigny (Q010-GV09 (V.3), Ko); 13. Pyrgo(V.1), Ko); 15. Pyrgoella sp. (Q012-TS12, Wi); 16. Triloculina gibba (d'Orbigny) (Q021-

tenuis (Czjzek) (Q012-TS12, Wi); 19. Pseudonodosaria sp. (Q012-TS12, Wi); 20. Favulina.2), Mo); 22. Lagena striata (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 23. Marginulina hirsutaoryna badenensis (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 26. Amphycorina sp. (Q016A-TS16haueriana Neugeboren (Q016A-TS16 (V.3), Wi); 29. Neugeborina longiscata (d'Orbigny)ntalina acuta d'Orbigny (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 32. Stilostomella adolphina (d'Orbigny)


image of Fig.�5


4.1.1.1. Interpretation: basement derived breccia. This facies associationrepresents a developing river system; the basal few 10's of metresconsisting of a scree deposit that was gradually replaced by finer sedi-ments of a river system.

4.1.2. Facies association IIThis association consists of clast and matrix-supported conglom-

eratic sheets and lenses (Fig. 9; Table 1). The deposits are organisedin sheets and occasionally lenses with high width to thickness ratios,sometimes alternatingwith sands. Clasts are subangular to subrounded,are occasionally imbricated and appear to have been derived frommetamorphic rocks and limestones of the Carpathian hinterland. Thecomposition and texture of the sheets point to immature rocks with ashort transport pathway.

Bed thicknesses are of the order of decimetres, rarely up to 1–2 m. Inthose that demonstrate grading inverse grading is themost common. Thebeds are either conformable or display low angle straight truncations. Allof the facies in this association are locally and variably cemented.

Where the conglomerates alternate with silts, sands and marls offacies association III (see below) the finer deposits are commonlyaffected by scouring, slumping and loading (Fig. 9). In most outcropsthe maximum pebble size is around 30 cm, but occasionally blocks 1–2m in diameter are present. Fauna is absent in deposits from this faciesassociation but intercalated deposits from facies association III containa marine fauna (see Section 4.1.3.1).

4.1.2.1. Interpretation: fan delta to alluvial fan. The presence of coarseclastics, interbedded with marine deposits and the close proximity tothe orogen demonstrate that this facies association must have beenpart of a coarse-grained gravel-rich depositional environment close tothe coast. Conglomerates can be deposited in a wide range of settings,however, and these deposits either may represent: 1) debris flows orsheet washes, as part of subaerial alluvial fans, or 2) subaqueous debrisflows in the subaqueous part of a fan delta. Discriminating betweenthese types of deposits is notoriously difficult, asmany sedimentologicalfeatures of the deposits are identical (e.g., Nemec and Steel, 1984). Dis-crimination is achieved by looking at the faunal character of the inter-vening inner to outer marine shelf and prodelta strata (Nemec andSteel, 1984), and thus most of this facies association is interpreted torepresent the foreset beds of a fan-delta. We cannot rule out that partof the deposits was deposited in a subaerial setting, however, as alluvialfans; in this case the deposits from facies type II.3 are the most likelycandidates (Table 1).

4.1.3. Facies association IIIThis facies association consists of sands, silts and sand/marl alterna-

tions (Table 1). It commonly alternates with facies association II andcontains both coal and wood as well as a marine microfauna. The de-posits consist of centimetre-scale sand and silt interbeds that have com-monly been distorted as a result of loading, syn-sedimentary faultingand slumping (Fig. 9).

Fig. 5. Badenian foraminifera from thewestern Dacian Basin (continued). 1.Glandulina ovula d'O4.Hoeglundina elegans (d'Orbigny) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 5.Bolivina viennensisMarks (Q005-T(Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 8. Lapugyina schmidi Popescu (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 9. Coryphostoma dMo); 11. Bulimina konkensis Livental (Q021-VM 11 (V.1), Ko); 12. Bulimina elongata d'Orbigny (spinulosa (Reuss) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi); 15. Praeglobobulimina pyrula (d'Orbigny) (Q041A-(d'Orbigny) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 18. Angulogerina alticarinata Popescu & Crihan (Q041A-GBSchmid (Q011-TS11 (V.2), Wi); 22. Uvigerina ex. gr. aculeata d'Orbigny (Q011-TS11 (V.2), Wi)(Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 25. Fursenkoina acuta (d'Orbigny) (Q012-TS12, Wi-Ko); 26. Pleurostom(Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 29. Cancris auriculus (Fichtel & Moll) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi); 30. S(d'Orbigny) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi); 33, 34. Melonis pompilioides (Fichtel & Moll) (Q016A-TGyroidinoides soldanii d'Orbigny (Q010-GV9 (V.3), Ko); 39, 40. Hanzawaia boueana (d'Orbigny)

4.1.3.1. Associated fauna. In thefinermiddle to upper Badenian beds nor-mal marine (~35 g/l) faunas were found, but the lowermost Sarmatianis devoid of benthic fauna and contains only fish remains, suggestingdysoxic conditions. The remainder of the lower Sarmatian contains afauna indicative of salinities that were brackish (20–22 g/l).

In all Badenian sediments belonging to this facies association benthicforaminifera are well represented and diverse (Figs. 4, 5 and 6; Table 2).Although the known stratigraphic range for many of them spans theentire Badenian, some associations, mainly the ones that also containplanktonic taxa, can be used for more precise dating.

The early Badenian foraminiferal associations are characteristicfor the Praeorbulina glomerosa and Orbulina suturalis/Globorotaliabikovae zones, equivalent to the lower part of the of upper LagenidaeZone (Popescu, 1999; Rögl et al., 2002, 2008) and the top part ofZone 5 and Zone M6 of Berggren et al. (1995). These index taxaare recorded in large numbers in the analysed samples togetherwith other planktonic species such as Globigerinoides triloba, G.bisphericus, Praeorbulina sicana, Globoquadrina dehiscens, Globigerinapraebuloides, G. bulloides, G. diplostoma, G. eamesi and Globigerinellaobesa. Foraminiferal associations from the middle Badenian are dom-inated by calcareous benthic foraminifera (especially Lagenidae andBuliminidae) that can be correlated to theplanktonicGloboturborotaliitadrury/Globigerinopsis grill Zone and probably also with the uppermostpart of the benthic foraminiferal Lagenidae and Pseudotriplasia minutazones. The upper Badenianmicrofauna is dominated byplanktonic fora-minifera belonging to the Velapertina Zone, as well as by pteropods(Limacina spp.).

Ostracods are abundant in the lower and middle Badenian sedi-ments (Fig. 7), where 24 species were identified. They are representedby almost all fully marine taxa recognised in the Central and EasternParatethys (Table 2) (Gross, 2006; Olteanu and Jipa, 2006; Zorn, 2010;Seko et al., 2012). The upper Badenian assemblage is less diverse.

The base of the Sarmatian is marked by a bloom the foraminiferaAnomalinoides dividens (Luczkowska) (Popescu, 1995). This level iswell represented in almost all sections in this facies association. In themiddle and upper parts of the lower Sarmatian, species of Miliolidaeand Elphididae foraminifera become frequent in the Varidentella reussiand Elphidium reginum zones (together equivalent of the Articulinasarmatica Zone). The most important taxa at this level are representedby Varidentella reussi, V. cf. pseudocostata, Pseudotriloculina angustioris,P. consobrina, Cornuspira striata, Orthomorphina dina, Affinetrina gurianaand Bolivina dilatata maxima. In the upper part of the lower Sarmatian,close to the boundary with the middle Sarmatian, an abundance ofArticulina problema together with Elphidium reginum and E. hauerinumwasnoticed. Ostracods fromVolhynian sediments (Fig. 8) are character-istic mainly of shallow water (Table 2).

Deposits from this facies association were found interbedded withthe conglomerates from facies association II. In silty intercalations (out-crop Q041a; Fig. 2) a very rich benthic and planktonic foraminiferalfauna has been found (see Jipa et al., 2011), characteristic for theVelapertina zone of the upper Badenian. At outcrop Q099 a faunal asso-ciation representative for the lower part of the middle Badenian wasfound in marls interbedded with the conglomerates, while lenses of

rbigny (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 2. Lenticulina inornata (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 3,S5 (V.2),Mo); 6.Bolivina hebesMacfadyen (Q005-TS5 (V.2),Mo); 7.Bolivina dilatata Reussigitalis (d'Orbigny) (Q006-TS6 (V.2), Mo); 10. Bolivina antiqua d'Orbigny (Q005-TS5 (V.2),Q011-TS11 (V.2), Wi); 13. Ehrenbergina serrata Reuss (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 14. ReussellaGB9 (III.3), Ko); 16. Chilostomella ovoidea Reuss (Q012-TS12, Wi); 17. Brizalina antiqua9 (III.3), Ko); 19. Uvigerina urnula d'Orbigny (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 20. 21. Uvigerina grilli23. Uvigerina cf. urnula d'Orbigny (Q011-TS10 (V.3), Wi); 24. Uvigerina brunensis Karrerella alternans Schwager (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 27, 28. Valvulineria complanata (d'Orbigny)phaeroidina bulloides d'Orbigny (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 31, 32. Biasterigerina planorbisS16 (V.3), Wi); 35, 36. Pullenia bulloides (d'Orbigny) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Wi); 37, 38.(Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 41, 42. Heterolepa dutemplei (d'Orbigny) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko).


image of Fig.�6


silts in outcropQ101 contain amixture of lower Sarmatian and reworkedupper Badenian foraminifera.

4.1.3.2. Interpretation: shallow marine deposition in front of fan delta.Based on the presence of marine sediments and elements indicativefor the proximity of terrestrial environments this facies association isinterpreted to represent deposition in front of the fan delta environ-ments of facies association II, most probably through turbidity currents.The observed slumping and dewatering is consistent with rapid sedi-mentation. The transition from basement through the (partly) alluvialsetting of facies association II to this facies association occurs over a dis-tance of only a fewkilometres, suggesting that the reliefmust have beensteep.

4.1.4. Facies association IV: marine limestonesThis facies association consists of packstones and rudstones with a

Sarmatian fauna and a significant clastic content (Table 1) and is juxta-posed to deeper water marly facies (facies association V). For a detaileddescription the reader is referred to Marinescu (1978) and Krstić et al.(1997).

4.1.4.1. Interpretation. These limestoneswere deposited close to the shelfedge, sufficiently far from the fans for carbonates to accumulate, butclose enough for them to receive a significant clastic influx. Theyare commonly located on top of topographic palaeo-highs of Jurassiclimestones.

4.1.5. Facies association VFacies association V consists of variable marls with a significant

siliciclastic content (Table 1). The deposits are horizontally laminated,layered or massive and the bed boundaries are usually non-erosional.Themarls are commonly interbeddedwithmatrix-supported conglom-erates and silty, sandy and organic-rich layers.

4.1.5.1. Associated fauna. Early Badenian to middle Sarmatian microfau-nal assemblages are found, indicative of shallow water environmentsslightly more distal than those of facies association III. Although forami-nifera are less abundant and diverse than in the latter they share manycharacteristics, the main differences being the balance between plank-tonic and benthic species; planktonic species dominate facies associa-tion V whereas benthic species dominate facies association III.

Badenian ostracods are present, albeit in lower abundance than infacies association III. In addition to assemblages found in the latter, afew species indicative of deeper environments were identified. The Sar-matian ostracod fauna is dominated by species characteristic for envi-ronments that are deeper waters (Table 2) than those of association IIIand the species Cytherois sarmatica and Xestoleberis glabrescens aredominant.

4.1.5.2. Interpretation: shelf deposits. This facies association is linked tofacies associations II and III and represents deposition through tur-bidity currents and hemipelagic settling between fans and in deeperwaters.

4.1.6. Facies association VIThis facies association consists of unconsolidated sands and pebbly

sands alternating with pebble and cobble conglomerates (Figs. 3 and

Fig. 6. Badenian foraminifera and gastropods. 1, 2.Cibicidoides austriacus (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS5ungerianus (d'Orbigny) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 6. Alliatina excentrica (di Napoli Alliata) (Q010-crispum (Linné) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 9. Elphidium crispum (Linné) (Q006-TS7 (V.2), Mo);glomerosa circularis Blow (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 12–15. Globigerinoides triloba (Reuss) (Q0Globquadrina dehiscens (Chapman, Parr & Collins) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 19, 20. Globoturbo(Q011-TS11 (V.2), Wi); 23, 24. Globigerinella obesa (Bolli) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi); 25, 26. G(Luczkowska) (Q019A-VM2 (V.3), Ko); 28. Planostegina costata (d'Orbigny) (Q006-TS7 (V.2)(Q021-VM 11 (V.1), Ko).

9; Table 1). Some of the conglomerates are organised in sheets and inforesets that grade downdip into trough cross beds. The sandstonesare organised in cross-beds and lenticular bodies with thicknesses inthe order of decimetres and widths in the order of metres.

4.1.6.1. Interpretation: braided rivers. The sediments suggest fluid flow ina braided river system, comprising a network of unstable channels withmid-channel bars, local lower-energy sand-filled channels and bank-attached bars. Cross-bedded sandstone beds formed as bank-attachedbars (facies type VI.3; Table 1) and by avalanche foresets of migratingmid-channel bars (facies type VI.1). The finer-grained facies (faciestype VI.2) formed as depression fills in lower-energy side channels.

4.1.7. Facies association VIIThis facies association contains only one facies type; white marls to

sands (Table 1) that lie directly on top of an unconformity. The depositscontain a Maeotian fauna suggestive of shallow fresh to brackish water.At the basin margin the thickness of the deposits is limited to a fewmetres.

4.1.7.1. Associated fauna. Outcrops are scarce but an extremely rich asso-ciation of ostracods characteristic for the lowerMaeotian and small num-bers of foraminifera (species of Ammonia, Porosononion,Quinqueloculina)were found. The fauna suggests that the rocks were deposited ina brackish shallow water environment with salinities that werelower than during the Sarmatian. Surprisingly, a number of ostracodtaxa characteristic for the upper Pannonian s.str. (Krstić, 1985) of thePannonian Basin (Central Paratethys) were identified; prominent ex-amples are Typhlocyprella lineocypriformis, Maeotocythere praebaquanaand Candona (Thaminocypris) trapezoidalis.

4.1.7.2. Interpretation: shallow lacustrine deposits. Deposition probablytook place close to shore of a lake that may have had periodic connec-tion to the ocean.

4.1.8. Facies association VIIIAssociation VIII consists of well sorted and well-rounded sands with

silts, gravels and rhythmites (Table 1). The latter consist of centimetre-to decimetre-scale alternations of sand and clay. Horizontal and unidi-rectional ripple-lamination and stratification are present and slumpedbeds are common. Small scale syn-sedimentary normal faults limitedto individual beds, isoclinal recumbent folds in slumped deposits, ero-sional contacts between beds and clay rip-ups are also common.

In the sandy facies, planar cross-beds with dip angles of up to 40°and set thicknesses of up to 40 cm occur. Average grain sizes varyfrom 300 to 2000 μ and sorting is very good, but no grading is presentwithin the sets — changes occur at the set boundaries. Fragments ofshells up to a few centimetres in size are abundant.

4.1.8.1. Associated fauna. The lower Pontian ostracod fauna indicates ashelf to basinal brackish environment and is characteristic of the‘Paradacna abichi beds’. The basal part is dominated by Candonidae(Table 2). During the middle Pontian the fauna was replaced by littoraland lacustrine species, but in the upper Pontian a ‘second Pontianbloom’ occurs (Stoica et al., 2013), comprising a lower Pontian associa-tion together with several new species (Table 2).

(V.2),Mo); 3. Lobatula lobatula (Walker& Jakob) (Q016A-TS16 (V.3),Wi); 4, 5. CibicidoidesGV9 (V.3), Ko); 7. Elphidium fichtelianum (d'Orbigny) (Q011-TS11 (V.2), Wi); 8. Elphidium10. Elphidium flexuosum flexuosum (d'Orbigny) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 11. Praeorbulina05-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 16. Praeorbulina sicana (Di Stefani) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 17, 18.rotalita woodi (Jenkins) (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 21, 22. Globigerina bulloides d'Orbignyloboturborotalita cf. woodi (Jenkins) (Q041A-GB9 (III.3), Ko); 27. Velapertina indigena, Mo); 29, 30. Amphistegina bohdanowiczi Bieda (Q006-TS7 (V.2), Mo); 31. Limacina sp.


image of Fig.�7


4.1.8.2. Interpretation: shallow restricted marine to lacustrine clastics. Therhythmites were deposited along the coast of a restricted marine tolacustrine basin. They resemble the lowermud flats of theWash in east-ern England described by Evans (1965), although in the Dacian Basin itis unlikely that therewas significant tidalmotion. The rhythmicity in thesediments must therefore be attributed to other periodic phenomena,most likely seasonal variability. The sands are interpreted as littoraldeposits.

4.2. Seismic interpretation

4.2.1. Strike–slip faulting: Badenian–Sarmatian (Middle–Late Miocene)Well and seismic data show that no clear differences exist between

the Sarmatian and Badenian deposits (Fig. 11) and they have beenincluded in the same sequence. At shallow and intermediate depth thesequence onlaps basement units, while southwest of the transtensionalTimok strike–slip fault it overlies Palaeogene deposits at depths of over2 s TWT. Although part of the apparent tilting seen (Fig. 11) may be anartefact of the contrast between the seismic velocities between thebasin fill and the basement, we conclude that significant vertical move-ments must have occurred along the Timok fault.

We use a systems tract terminology for syn-kinematic extensionaldeposits. Two systems tracts are distinguished within the extensionclimax sequence, the first of which shows extensive tilting of the de-posits against the fault and erosion of the western fault block. Duringthe second phase deposition extended onto the western fault blockand faulting and associated tilting were less intense (Fig. 11). TheMaeotian and overlying units are post-kinematic and are interpretedusing normal sequence stratigraphic terminology.

Both syn-tectonic systems tracts are characterised by high ampli-tude, low frequency and continuous reflections with occasional sets oflower amplitude and less continuous reflections (Fig. 11). In seismiclines parallel to the basin margin the low amplitude reflection setsappear to form bodies with widths of around 5 km that are embeddedin the continuous high amplitude reflection sets. Perpendicular to theorogen they appear to be more continuous than parallel to it. Withinthe low-amplitude-reflection bodies the individual reflections pinchout against each other, showing a pattern thatmay result from compen-sational stacking and/or differential compaction of the coarse clasticsand the fines next to it (Fig. 12). These features are more abundant onthe lines parallel to the basin margin than on those perpendicular toit, suggesting that sediment transport was directed towards the south-east on average.

4.2.2. LST1: Maeotian (Late Miocene)West of the Timok fault, close to the basinmargin,Maeotiandeposits

onlap Badenian and Sarmatian deposits unconformably (Fig. 11). Thissequence is interpreted as a Lowstand Systems Tract, deposited at astage when base-level rise was outpaced by the sedimentation rate(cf. Catuneanu, 2006). East of the Timok fault sigmoid reflections be-longing to theMaeotian downlap onto the Badenian–Sarmatian surface,indicating that progradation filled the available accommodation spaceaway from the basin margin. Within the sequence an alternation ofprogradational and aggradational clinoforms is apparent (Fig. 11).

The subdued structure in the Maeotian deposits is likely to haveresulted from contrasts in availability of accommodation space acrossthe Timok fault and differential compaction.

Fig. 7. Badenian ostracods. 1. Cytherella russoi Sissingh (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 2. Paranesidea brEucytherura aff. textilis tridentata Carbonel (Q005-TS4 (V.2), Mo); 5, 6. Phlyctenophora affinis(V.2), Mo); 8. Argilloecia acuminata Mueller (Q006-TS6 (V.2), Mo); 9, 10. Krithe papillosa (BosCytheridea (Cytheridea) acuminata (Bosquet) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 13. Pokornyella deform(V.2), Wi-Ko); 15. Aurila (Aurila) opaca (Reuss) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 16. Aurila (Aurila(Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 18. Aurila (Euaurila) punctata (Muenster) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko(Reuss) (Q005-TS5 (V.2),Mo); 21. Loxocorniculum schmidi (Cernajsek) (Q005-TS4 (V.2),Mo); 22(Q006-TS6 (V.2), Mo); 24, 25. Loxoconcha punctatella (Reuss) (Q006-TS7 (V.2), Mo); 26, 27. Xe(Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko).

4.2.3. TST1/HST1: early Pontian (Late Miocene)The lower Pontian exhibits a clear sigmoid geometry near the basin

margins and highs, with reflection patterns that are parallel to slightlydivergent at depth. The sequence toplaps onto LST1 and coastal onlapcan be observed locally at the base of the sequence. It overlies older de-posits concordantly and is interpreted as a Highstand Systems Tract.There may be a Transgressive Systems Tract at its base (Fig. 11; TST1),but this cannot be established with certainty due to the limited seismicresolution.

4.2.4. LST2: middle Pontian (Late Miocene)This sequence overlies truncated units and is interpreted as a

Lowstand Systems Tract. At the basin margins coastal onlap is evidentfrom surface outcrops while at depth downlap is apparent. The unit isrelatively thin and thins further away from the basin margins. No clearsigmoidswere observed and the strong reflections are parallel to slightlydivergent.

4.2.5. TST2 and HST2: late Pontian (Late Miocene/Pliocene)The upper Pontian onlaps onto the middle Pontian and across the

Timok fault takes on a sigmoid configuration (Fig. 11). The remainingreflections are divergent, continuous and commonly chaotic. Based onthe foregoing, this sequence is interpreted as a Highstand SystemsTract. At the base of the sequence some terminations are present thatare compatible with a Transgressive Systems Tract.

5. Discussion

5.1. Evolution of depositional systems

5.1.1. Late stages of orogenic build-up: Badenian–Sarmatian (Middle–LateMiocene)

During the Badenian and Sarmatian the South Carpathians adjacentto the study area experienced the last phases of exhumation (Bojar et al.,1998; Fügenschuh and Schmid, 2005; Merten et al., 2010). Apart fromexhuming the source area, tectonic processes also resulted in strike–slip faulting parallel to the orogen, accompanied by significant verticalmovements (Fig. 13). In the study area, the transtensional Timokstrike–slip fault was active, as is evident from the large expansion ofthe Badenian–Sarmatian across it (Fig. 11; see also Tărăpoancă et al.,2007). This tectonic activity is clearly reflected in the depositional sys-tem; coarse clastics originating from the exhuming Carpathians weredeposited in sinks formed in areas subject to strike–slip faulting. Thetransition from basement to alluvial and shallow marine environmentsoccurs over a relatively short distance, and the relief must have beensteep. On the basin margins fan deltas developed, resulting in the depo-sition of various types of clastics, most of whichwere deposited by sub-aqueous debris flows in part of a delta front (facies association II). In thesubaerial part of the system debris flows and braided rivers formingunstable shallow channels were developed on the fan surface. Shallowmarine deposits consisting of various types of sands, silts, clays andmarls were deposited in front of (facies association III) and in betweenthe fans (facies association V) (Figs. 3 and 9). In the subaqueous partof the system shifts in the locations of the fans resulted in an alternationof facies associations II with III and the formation of internal unconfor-mities and hiatuses.

evis (Lienenklaus) (Q006-TS6 (V.2), Mo); 3. Triebelina boldi Keij (Q006-TS6 (V.2), Mo); 4.(Schneider) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 7. Parakrithe rotundata (Aielo et al.) (Q005-TS5quet) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi); 11. Kangarina coarctata Ruggieri (Q005-TS5 (V.2), Mo); 12.is (Reuss) (Q006-TS6 (V.2), Mo); 14. Tenedocythere sulcatopunctata (Reuss) (Q012-TS12) cicatricosa (Reuss) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 17. Aurila (Euaurila?) angulata (Reuss)); 19. Grinioneis haidingeri (Reuss) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 20. Henryhowella asperrima. Loxocorniculumhastatum (Reuss) (Q012-TS12 (V.2),Wi-Ko); 23. Loxoconcha kochiMehesstoleberis dispar (Mueller) (Q012-TS12 (V.2), Wi-Ko); 28, 29. Xestoleberis tumida (Reuss)


image of Fig.�8

Fig. 9. Examples of Badenian and Sarmatian deposits; a — facies association II; Badenian conglomerate sheets and lenticular bodies, Danube river section, east of Turnu Severin (outcropQ053); b— alternation of marls containing a lower Sarmatian fauna, silts and sands (shallowmarine clastics and marls; facies association III) and conglomerates (facies association II; fandelta to alluvial fan) (outcrop Q101); c, d — features suggestive of slumping, facies association III (shallow marine) (outcrops Q037 and Q025).


Micropalaeontological analyses show that deposits fromall Badeniansubstages as well as the first two Sarmatian substages are present. Asignificant palaeoenvironmental change occurred at the Badenian/Sarmatian boundary, when isolation of the Paratethys from openmarine basins (theMediterranean Sea or Indian Ocean) caused a region-al extinction event (Rögl, 1996; Piller and Harzhauser, 2005). The faunafound in the studied lower Sarmatian deposits from the basin marginsuggests a transition to brackish conditions but this was not necessarilythe case for the entire basin; marine conditions may have occurredaway from the basin margins (Piller and Harzhauser, 2005).

5.1.2. LST1: Maeotian (Late Miocene)The Maeotian depositional system differs significantly from that of

the Badenian/Sarmatian: the influx of coarse clastic material stopped,facies became continuous over larger distances and differences inwater depth and relief were significantly smaller. Both thrusting anduplift in the nearby Carpathians as well as strike–slip faulting alongthe Timok fault had largely ceased by this time and the Dacian Basin be-came subject to steady subsidence (e.g., Bertotti et al., 2003; Matencoet al., 2003). As a result factors such as regional climate, eustasy andbasin connectivity events started to control relative sea and lake levels.

The Maeotian is separated from the Badenian and Sarmatian by anangular unconformity at the basin margin and by a contrast in seismicfacies SE of the Timok fault (Fig. 11). This shows that a significant rela-tive sea level fall must have occurred during the late Sarmatian orearly Maeotian, pre-dating a minor initial sea level rise that marked

Fig. 8. Sarmatian foraminifera and ostracods (Q097-CG05 (V.1), Vh: Q097: Outcrop, CG05: samVM08 (III.3), Vh); 3. Orthomorphina dina (Venglinski) (Q097-CG05 (V.1), Vh); 4. Affinetrina gu(III.3), Vh); 6, 7. Varidentella reussi (Bogdanowicz) (6-VM14 (III.3), 7-Q097-CG05 (V.1), Vh); 8sp. (Q105-IL08 (III.3), upper Vh), 10. Bolivina dilatatamaxima Cicha & Zapletalova (Q097-CG05 (striata (Czjzek) (Q097-CG05 (V.1), Vh); 14. Anomalinoides dividens (initial part) (Q097-CG05 (V(III.3), Vh); 17. Elphidium reginum (d'Orbigny) (Q025-VM17 (III.3), upper Vh); 18, 19. Aurila (AuVM17 (III.3), Vh); 22, 23. Euxinocythere (Euxinocythere) diafana (Stancheva) (Q025-VM17Callistocythere postvallata Pietrzeniuk (Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh); 27, 28. Amnicythere tenuis (Reusarmatica (Jiřiček) (Q097-CG05 (V.1), Vh); 32. Loxoconcha cf. curiosa Schneider, juvenile (Q02Loxocorniculum hastatum (Reuss) (Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh); 35. Xestoleberis glabrescens (Reuss)

the onset of Maeotian LST1. The relative sea level was still much lowerthan previously, however, andfluvial, lacustrine and shallowmarinede-posits overlie the marine Badenian–Sarmatian. TheMaeotian age of thedeposits is evident from a brackish and sometimes fresh water faunafound in deposits from facies association VII.

On seismic lines the Maeotian is characterised by an overallprograding sequence with alternating progradational and aggrada-tional clinofoms (Fig. 11) with geometries similar to those describedfrom the Pannonian Basin (Sztanó et al., 2013; Ter Borgh, 2013). Thealternation could be the result of fluctuations of the water level in thebasin (i.e. higher order cyclicity), but may also have resulted fromautocyclic behaviour of the depositional system. At present, there isinsufficient data available to rule either option out. The overallprogradation is reflected in the regressional trend in surface depositsdescribed from other parts of the Dacian Basin (South CarpathianForedeep–Madulari and Cerna Sections) where brackish to freshwater deposits pass up into fluvial-continental facies (Krijgsmanet al., 2010; Stoica et al., 2013).

5.1.3. TST1/HST1 (Pontian; Late Miocene)A transgressive event that can be correlated to similar events

in other Paratethys basins took place at the base of the Pontian(Krijgsman et al., 2010; Stoica et al., 2013). In the study area it is rep-resented by levels rich in the bivalve Congeria (Andrusoviconca)amygdaloides novorossica (Marinescu, 1978). As with the Maeotian,Pontian sediments are scarce at the surface, probably due to erosion.

ple, V.1— facies, Vh: age; Vh— Volhynian). 1, 2. Articulina problema Bogdanowicz (Q022-riana Djanelidze (VM14 (III.3), Vh); 5. Varidentella cf. pseudocostata (Venglinski) (VM14. Pseudotriloculina angustioris (Bogdanowicz) (Q105-IL08 (III.3), upper Vh); 9. SigmoilopsisV.1), Vh); 11, 12.Anomalinoides dividens Luczkowska (Q101-IL01 (III.3), Vh); 13.Cornuspira.1), Vh); 15, 16. Elphidium hauerinum (d'Orbigny) (15, Q097-CG05 (V.1); 16, Q027-VM19rila)mehesi (Zalanyi) (Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh); 20, 21. Cytheridea hungarica Zalányi (Q025-(III.3), Vh); 24, 25. Callistocythere incostata Pietrzeniuk (Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh); 26.ss) (Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh); 29. Amnicythere sp. (Q097-CG05 (V.1), Vh); 30, 31. Cytherois7-VM19 (III.3), Vh); 33. Loxocorniculum schmidi (Cernajsek) (Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh); 34.(Q025-VM17 (III.3), Vh).

image of Fig.�9


LST1 and TST1 represent a phase of overall sea level rise; an initialsea/lake level rise occurred during theMaeotian and resulted in the de-velopment of LST1. Subsequently, during the late Maeotian and/or earlyPontian, the sea level rose further and faster, resulting in the develop-ment of TST1, and reached its highest point during the early Pontian(HST1). The increase in accommodation space is reflected inwell sortedsands, silts and clays in the coastal environment, commonly formingrhythmites. Offshore, marls with faunas indicative of relatively shallowwater depths of the order of 10's of metres were deposited.

5.1.4. LST2 (Pontian; Late Miocene/Pliocene)During the middle Pontian the depositional system remained simi-

lar, but a drop in sea level is inferred from the transition from marls tomore sandy deposits and the replacement of brackish fauna by littoralto lacustrine faunas. This change has been observed in other parts ofthe Dacian Basin (Stoica et al., 2007; Krijgsman et al., 2010; Leeveret al., 2010), where it was assumed to have occurred within the sametime frame as the Mediterranean Messinian Salinity Crisis.

The base of LST2 commonly corresponds to an angular unconformityclose to the basinmargin,while on the seismic lines HST1 reflections aretoplapped by LST2 reflections (Fig. 11). SE of the Timok fault, however,

Table 2Overview of the microfauna identified in samples from the western Dacian Basin.

BadenianAgglutinated foraminifera: Martinottiella karreri, Martinottiella communis, Semivulvulin

Karrerotextularia concava and Bigenerina agglutinans.The most frequent calcareous Miliolids foraminifera: Cornuspira striata, Sigmoilinita tenuQuinqueloculina gracilis, Triloculina gibba, Pyrgo simplex, Nummoloculina contraria, and PyLagenidae foraminifera: Dentalina acuta, Marginulina hirsuta, Lagena geminensis, Lagen

Amphimorphina haueriana, Neugeborina longiscata, Nodosaria ambigua, PseudonodosariaBuliminidae foraminifera: Bolivina viennensis, Bolivina retiformis, Bolivina hebes, Bolivin

konkensis, Bulimina elongata, and Bulimina cf. lappa.The Uvigerina genus is well represented in the middle Badenian sediments from facie

urnula, Uvigerina grilli, Uvigerina ex. gr. aculeata, and Uvigerina brunensis. Other species fdigitalis, Ehrenbergina serrata, Reussella spinulosa, Praeglobobulimina pyrula, Brizalina antStilostomella vernuilli.The Robertinidae foraminifera are represented by the high frequency of Hoeglundina e

bulloides, Cibicidoides austriacus, Cibicidoides ungerianus, Lobatula lobatula, BiasterigerinaChilostomella ovoidea, Heterolepa dutemplei, Gyroidinoides soldanii, Hanzawaia boueana, Aflexuosum and Planostegina costata.The ostracods are most frequent in the shallower environment (facies association III)

Paranesidea, Triebelina, Eucytherura, Aurila, Callistocythere, Cytheridea, Pokorniella, PhlyctLoxoconcha, Loxocorniculum and Xestoleberis genera. The main species are: Cytherella rusPhlyctenophora affinis, Parakrithe rotundata, Argilloecia acuminata, Krithe papillosa, Kangasulcatopunctata, Aurila (Aurila) opaca, A. (A.) cicatricosa, A. (Euaurila?) angulata, A. (E.) pLoxocorniculum hastatum, Loxoconcha kochi, Loxoconcha punctatella, Xestoleberis dispar, a

SarmatianIdentified foraminifera are: Anomalinoides dividens, Varidentella reussi, Varidentella cf.

striata, Orthomorphina dina, Affinetrina guriana, Bolivina dilatata maxima, Articulina problThe ostracod taxa from the lower Sarmatian are mainly characteristic for shallow wate

Callistocythere incostata, Callistocythere postvallata, Amnicythere tenuis, Loxocorniculum sXestoleberis glabrescens. In the deeper environment (facies association V) the species Cy

MaeotianEucypris corrugata, Eucypris gajtanensis, Caspiolla balcanica, Caspiolla acronasuta, Cand

Candoniella suzini, and Typhlocyprella lineocypriformis. The Hemicytheria genus is well reThe Leptocytheridae ostracods are frequent: Maetocythere praebacuna, Maetocythere bacLoxoconcha originalis, Loxoconcha ancila, Loxoconcha dobrotici, Loxoconcha placida, and Loindividuals of the Xetoleberis mariposa species.

PontianThe basal part of the unit is dominated by Candonidae (ostracods): Caspiocypris ponti

Pontoniella acuminata striata, Hastacandona hysterica, Caspiolla venusta, and Caspiolla basuch as Amnicythere andrusovi, Amnicythere cornutocostata, Amnicythere cymbula, AmnicMaetocythere bosqueti, Maetocythere praebaquana, Maetocythere sp., as well as frequentCytherissa bogatschovi, Cytherissa sp., Loxoconcha djaffarovi, Loxoconcha eichwaldi, LoxocoLoxoconcha babazananica, Mediocythereis apatoica, Pontoleberis pontica, and TyrrhenocythIn the upper Pontian, beside the lower Pontian species, some new species appear that

gr. dorsobrevis, Amplocypris sp., Caspiocypris alta, Caspiolla ossoinaensis, Caspiolla balcaniCandona neglecta, Candoniella sp., Cypria tocorjescui, Cypria sp., Scottia sp., Bacunella dorsTyrrhenocythere motasi, Tyrrhenocythere filipescui, Tyrrhenocythere taurica, Amnicythere cAmnicythere ex. gr. lata, Maeotocythere ex. gr. bosqueti, Maeotocythere bacuana, Maeotocy

LST2 deposits downlap onto HST1 without erosional features (Fig. 11).In large parts of the study area LST2 deposits rest on units older thanthe Pontian; commonly the upper Badenian to middle Sarmatian andoccasionally even on the basement. Apparently a phase of erosionoccurred prior to LST2.

5.1.5. TST2/HST2 (Pontian; Late Miocene/Pliocene)In outcrop the HST2 deposits show a return to conditions similar to

those of TST1/HST1. On seismic the clinoforms prograde both obliquelyand parallel to the orogen, but in all cases they seem to be directedtowards the subbasins that formed during the Badenian and Sarmatian.These subbasinswere inmany cases bounded by strike–slip faults acrosswhich variations in thickness are large (e.g., Fig. 11), leading to differen-tial compaction in the Maeotian–Pliocene.

5.2. Basin connectivity during the Badenian–middle Sarmatian s.l.

When discussing connections between basins it is important to dis-tinguish between one-way connections, which may consist of rivers orsubsurface flowing from one basin to the other, and two-way connec-tions, which allow for the transport of water, sediments and fauna in

a deperdita, Spirorutilis carinatus, Cylindroclavulina rudis, Karrerotextularia inopinata,

is, Lachlanella undosa, Quinqueloculina regularis, Quinqueloculina triangularis,rgoella sp.a striata, Favulina hexagona, Amphicoryna badenensis, Amphicoryna hispida,sp., Nodosarella rotundata, Lenticulina inornata, and Glandulina ovula.a dilatata dilatata, Bolivina gracilis, Bolivina antiqua, Bulimina subulata, Bulimina

s association III. The most common species are: Uvigerina macrocarinata, Uvigerinarom this group are: Lapugyina schmidi, Angulogerina alticarinata, Coryphostomaiqua, Pleurostomella alternans, Sifonodosaria sp., Stilostomella adolphina and

legans and the Rotaliidae by Valvulineria complanata, Cancris auriculus, Sphaeroidinaplanorbis, Amphistegina bogdanowiczi, Melonis pompilioides, Pullenia bulloides,lliatina excentrica, Elphidium fichtelianum, Elphidium crispum, Elphidium flexuosum

and are represented by almost all fully marine Paratethyan taxa: Cyherella,enophora, Parakrithe, Krithe, Argilloecia, Tenedocythere, Grinioneis, Henryhowella,soi, Paranesidea brevis, Triebelina boldi, Eucytherura aff. textilis tridentata,rina coarctata, Cytheridea (Cytheridea) acuminata, Pokornyella deformis, Tenedocythereunctata, Grinioneis haidingeri, Henryhowella asperrima, Loxocorniculum schmidi,nd Xestoleberis tumida.

pseudocostata, Pseudotriloculina angustioris, Pseudotriloculina consobrina, Cornuspiraema, Elphidium reginum and Elphidium hauerinum.r: Aurila (Aurila)mehesi, Cytheridea hungarica, Euxinocythere (Euxinocythere) diafana,chmidi, Loxocorniculum hastatum, Loxoconcha cf. curiosa, Cytherois sarmatica andtherois sarmatica and X. glabrescens are dominant.

ona combiba, Candona inclinata, Candona scomlensis, Candona subtrapezoidalis,presented by Hemicytheria cancellata, Hemicytheria inflata and Hemicytheria strabella.uana, Maetocythere bosqueti, Euxinocythere crebra as well as the Loxoconchidae withxoconcha potentis. The Xestoleberis genus is represented by a large number of

ca, Caspiocypris alta, Caspiocypris labiata, Pontoniella lotzi, Pontoniella acuminata,lcanica. Upwards the fauna was enriched with other taxa like Leptocyderidae speciesythere palimpsesta, Amnicythere lata, Amnicythere naca, Amnicythere subcaspia,individuals of Cypria tocorjescui, Cypria sp., Bacunella dorsoarcuata, Bacunella sp.,ncha granifera, Loxoconcha petasa, Loxoconcha pontica, Loxoconcha schweyeri,ere pontica.will continue to exist up to the Dacian. The main ostracod species are: Amplocypris ex.ca, Caspiolla venusta, Pontoniella acuminata, Pontoniella quadrata, Pontoniella striata,oarcuata, Cytherissa boghatschovi, Cyprideis ex. gr. torosa, Cyprideis sp.2,ymbula, Amnicythere costata, Amnicythere andrussovi, Amnicythere palimpsesta,there incusa, Loxoconcha babazananica and Loxoconcha petasa.


both directions. During the late Badenian until 11.7 Ma a two-way con-nection must have been present between the Pannonian Basin and theCarpathian foredeep because the two realms had similar faunas. Marineto restricted marine conditions prevailed during this period in thePannonian Basin (e.g., Rögl, 1999; Piller and Harzhauser, 2005; TerBorgh et al., 2013), so there must have been an influx of saline water.From the late Badenian onwards, the only likely source of saline waterfor the Central Paratethys is from the Eastern Paratethys via theCarpathian foredeep (Rögl, 1999), but the exact location for such a con-nection is unknown. Recentwork suggests that the Transylvanian Basinmay have formed a link between the two basins (Vasiliev et al., 2010;Filipescu et al., 2011; Ter Borgh et al., 2013) and the present studyarea has often been proposed as a location for this connection as well(e.g., Leever et al., 2011).

Based on the results it cannot be ruled out that a two-way connec-tion was present in the study region during the early Badenian asdeposits from this substage were deposited at significant water depths.In the late Badenian to Sarmatian, however, the presence of a two-wayconnection in the study area is less likely as proximal deltaic deposits ofthis age are present continuously along the basin margin.

There is no proof either for a one way connection in the study area,and in fact local sediment-transport from the uplifting orogen into thebasin fits the depositional model better. If a one-way connection waspresent, for instance in the form of a river flowing from the Pannonianarea into the Carpathian foredeep, it clearly did not have a significantimpact on deposition in the basin.

5.3. Late Sarmatian/early Maeotian sea-level drop

Maeotian deposits are separated from middle Sarmatian units byan angular unconformity and a faunal hiatus. Althoughmost workershave focussed their attention on the intra-Pontian unconformity(e.g., Clauzon et al., 2005; Krijgsman et al., 2010; Jipa et al., 2011;Leever et al., 2011; Suc et al., 2011), it appears that another regression,

Fig. 10. Examples of Maeotian and Pontian deposits; a— unconformity separating Sarmatian co(facies association VII) (outcrop R017). Note the scree deposits at the contact; b—MaeotianfluvPontian deposits (facies association VIII). The block intervals on the ruler have a length of 1 dm

during which the relative sea-level drop was at least of the same orderof magnitude and possibly even larger, occurred at this time in the Da-cian Basin.

The fact that fluvial and lacustrine Maeotian deposits are bothunderlain and overlain by restricted marine deposits (from the middleSarmatian and Pontian, respectively) shows that even though theonset of Maeotian deposition coincided with a minor transgression,the relative sea/lake level was still lower than during themiddle Sarma-tian and the entire Pontian (Figs. 2; 3). The drop correlates with obser-vations elsewhere in the Dacian Basin (Leever et al., 2010) and is coevalwith a sea-level drop observed in the Black Sea (sequence boundary SB2or possibly SB3 of Munteanu et al. (2012); see Section 5.5).

5.4. Basin connectivity during the late Sarmatian s.l.–Maeotian

From about 11.7Ma onwards the Dacian and Pannonian basinswerecut off from each other and an endemic fauna developed in the latter(e.g., Magyar et al., 1999). This moment coincides with the start of thelate Sarmatian s.l. in the Dacian Basin and with the boundary betweenthe Sarmatian s.str. and the Pannonian s.str. in the Pannonian Basin(e.g., Magyar et al., 1999).

In the Maeotian deposits ostracod taxa with affinities to those in theupper part of the Pannonian s.str. of the Pannonian Basin (CentralParatethys) were found. This finding, combined with earlier reports offreshwater molluscs with Pannonian affinities in Maeotian deposits ofthe western Dacian Basin (e.g., Olteanu, 1979), suggests that at least aone-way connection between the two existed. Moreover, modellingsuggests that in order to maintain brackish conditions in Lake Pannona one-way connection with an outflow in the order of 15 m3/s is re-quired (Uhrin, 2011). As late Sarmatian deposits are absent in thestudy area, it is not impossible that such a one-way connection alreadyexisted before the Maeotian. If this is the case, the connection betweenthe basins would have been blocked in one direction only.

nglomerates below (facies association II; fan delta to alluvial fan) fromMaeotian depositsial deposits (facies association VI) (outcropQ109); c, d— features suggestive of slumping ineach (outcrops Q077 and Q080).

image of Fig.�10


Alternatively, a new connection could have formed at the beginningof the Maeotian. At least two mechanisms could have been responsiblefor this; firstly, the earlyMaeotian transgression (Krijgsman et al., 2010;Stoica et al., 2013) and secondly, the continuous rise in the relative lakelevel of the Pannonian Basin that followed isolation (Sztanó et al., 2013).If part of this rise was absolute it may have created an outlet fromthe lake, either episodically or permanently along a river (e.g., Leeveret al., 2011) or through subsurface flow (Menkovic and Koscal, 1997;Uhrin, 2011). Subsurface flow can only explain the migration of speciesif it occurred along karst networks. The Iron Gates area contains signif-icant amounts of limestone formations and networks of caves are

Fig. 11. Seismic section, westernmargin of the Dacian Basin. Location in Fig. 2 (inset). Uninterpris evident across the Palaeogene–Sarmatian Timok strike–slip fault. A significant part of this overtical offset is limited to about 1500ms TWT (see also Tărăpoancă et al., 2007). From the start ointerpretation of the section both formation tops from two wells and surface constraints wereline, resulting in the shown uncertainties. Bn — Badenian, Sm — Sarmatian, Me— Maeotian, Pt

known to be present (e.g., Ljubojević, 2001). Flow along faults or ingroundwater, as suggested by Menkovic and Koscal (1997), would notallow for such a migration.

It is not known where the two basins were connected, but seismicinterpretation has shown that a large influx of sediments along a~65 km Maeotian–Pontian progradational system took place in theDacian Basin in front of the Iron Gates (Leever et al., 2010). This ismore than in the Maeotian–Pontian system observed elsewhere (seeFig. 11), but the depositional environments in the western part of theDacian Basin show no evidence to suggest that a connection betweenthe two basins was located here.

eted profile above, interpreted seismics in the two lower panes. A significant vertical offsetffset of the fault predates the Middle Miocene; in the study area the Badenian–SarmatianfMaeotian sedimentation onwardsno significant fault activity occurs. For the stratigraphicused. In some cases the nearest outcrop was located some distance away from the seismic-1/2/3 — lower/middle/upper Pontian.

image of Fig.�11


5.5. Intra-Pontian regression and the Messinian Salinity Crisis (LST2)

The initial Pontian transgression (HST1) was followed by a signifi-cant regression (LST2). Constraining the regional extent of the latter isimportant for understanding the effects of the Messinian Salinity Crisis(MSC) on the Paratethys. It has been shown that this intra-Pontianevent coincided with the MSC (Krijgsman et al., 2010), but the magni-tude of the sea-level drop in the Paratethys basins is still the subject ofdebate: The outcrops indicate a drop of about 50–200 m (Krijgsmanet al., 2010) and the findings from this study support this. Based on seis-mic interpretation, however, a sea-level drop in the order of 1.3–2.2 kmwas proposed for the Black Sea (Hsü and Giovanoli, 1979; Munteanuet al., 2012). This mismatch can be explained in at least two ways; first-ly, the timing of the event in the Black Sea is subject to debate; it iscurrently based on biostratigraphic dating of upper Pontianprograding highstand deposits that post-date the sea level fall, butthese deposits may also be late Sarmatian s.l.to Maeotian in age(Kojumdgieva, 1983; Grothe et al., 2014). Secondly, a submarine sillmay have been present between the Dacian Basin and Black Sea. If thewater balance for an isolated Dacian Basin was positive, the waterlevel will not have dropped below the level of this barrier and a one-way river would have flowed across the exposed barrier into the BlackSea, leaving the Dacian Basin to evolve as an elevated lake (Bartol

Fig. 12. Detail from seismic line 92_14_14. Two seismic facies have been distinguished; one dLocation in Fig. 2 (inset).

et al., 2012). A gradual drop in lake level may have occurred as a resultof incision into the barrier. If the balance between precipitation andevapo(transpi)ration in the catchments draining into the lake is nega-tive, the lake will disconnect completely and its level will continue tofall, but the drop will be independent from the one in the Black Sea.

Both seismic and sedimentary facies suggest that LST2was followedby a significant transgression, as is widely observed elsewhere in theDacian Basin and the Black Sea (TST2/HST2) (e.g., Leever et al., 2010;Munteanu et al., 2012). This transgression probably resulted from achange in the hydrological balance in the region, consequent onwarmerand more humid conditions (Krijgsman et al., 2010). Alternatively, itmay have been caused by a reconnection of the Paratethys to the Med-iterranean Sea at the time of the Mio-Pliocene Zanclean transgression(5.33 Ma), which ended the Messinian Salinity Crisis (e.g., Clauzonet al., 2005).

5.6. Impact of the intra-Pontian event on the Central Paratethys

Whether the Central Paratethys was affected by the intra-Pontianregression is subject to discussion. Some authors have proposed that aMessinian (Pontian) Gilbert-type delta was present in the study area(Clauzon et al., 2005; Suc et al., 2011), which would imply that a riverflowed from the Pannonian Basin (C. Paratethys) into the Dacian

ominated by weak, discontinuous reflections, the other by strong, continuous reflections.

image of Fig.�12

Fig. 13. The depositional system thatwas active during the Badenian and Sarmatian. Active tectonics results in a steep relief. Rivers and debris flows transport detritus to the basin, fanningout east of the transtensional strike–slip fault. The fans consist of coarse clastics while fines are deposited in between the fans. Compensational stacking results in shifts in the positions ofthe fans. The Roman numerals refer to the facies associations indicated in Table 1 and Section 4.1.


Basin. The presence of a delta of this age was challenged recently (Jipaet al., 2011), however, based on palaeontological data that showedthat the foreset deposits belonged to the Badenian, and predated theMessinian Salinity Crisis by at least 6.7 My. In this study we show thatthe foreset deposits of Clauzon et al. (2005) and Suc et al. (2011) belongto facies association II (fan delta to alluvial fans), part of the depositionalsystem that was active during the Badenian and Sarmatian and was in-terbedded with sediments containing a rich upper Badenian fauna atoutcrop Q073 (Fig. 2) and a lower Sarmatian fauna at outcrop Q101

Fig. 14. Overview of major events affecting the Central and Eastern Paratethys during the MTransylvanian and Pannonian Basin after Vasiliev et al. (2010b), Ter Borgh et al. (2013) and Tmigration of fauna.

(Figs. 2 and 9). Previously, the Badenian to Sarmatian age of the con-glomerates had been demonstrated by the fauna found in interbeddedfines (Fig. 2; outcrops Q040 and Q041A of this study; Jipa et al., 2011)and by the fact that they unconformably lie below lower Maeotian(Jipa et al., 2011; Figs. 2; 10; outcrop R017, this study) and lower Pontiandeposits (Fig. 2; outcrop R015).

Although the exact location and scale of a connection between theCentral and Eastern Paratethys can thus not be resolved at present, itis highly likely that a one-way connection existed during the Pontian.

iocene and Pliocene. Paratethys timescale after Gradstein et al. (2012), Isolation of theer Borgh (2013). Infill of the Pannonian Basin after Magyar et al. (2013). Arrows denote

image of Fig.�14

image of Fig.�13


The most important evidence for this is the migration of CentralParatethys species towards the Eastern Paratethys during this period(Müller et al., 1999).

6. Conclusions

This study provides new constraints on relative changes in lake andsea level and fluctuations in basin connectivity that affected the semi-enclosed Dacian Basin and neighbouring Paratethys basins during theMiocene and Pliocene. The findings show that the Dacian Basin expe-rienced a large number of changes in a rather short period of ~10 Myin response to the tectonic uplift of the Carpathians. The results demon-strate the importance of the concept of connectivity in basin studies.

Relative sea level fluctuations were tectonically driven during theBadenian and Sarmatian (Fig. 14), when exhumation occurred in theorogen and transtensional strike–slip faults such as the Timok faultproduced accommodation space in the adjacent area. At the end of theSarmatian tectonic activity in the region ceased and the Dacian Basinbecame subject to steady subsidence. From the Maeotian onwards, theinfluence of tectonics on relative sea and lake levels was secondaryand regressive–transgressive cycles were governed by climate andlocal developments in basin connectivity. The effects of these factorswere enhanced by the limited accommodation space; in effect, theDacian Basin was a large shallow embayment connected to the BlackSea. This study demonstrates that sea level changes in such a systeminduce changes of the depositional environments over large areas.

From the early Badenian onwards the two-way connection betweenthe Pannonian and Dacian basins was gradually reduced, to be finallysevered during the Sarmatian s.l., establishing Lake Pannon as anendorheic basin (Fig. 14). This study has significant implications forthe history of connectivity between the two basins. Firstly, the deposi-tional environments in the western part of the Dacian Basin shows noevidence that the last Badenian–Sarmatian connection was locatedhere. Secondly, Pannonian Basin faunas in the Dacian Basin show thatthe isolation did not persist throughout the Maeotian. It is also possiblethat the regional lake level rise recorded in the Pannonian and Transyl-vanian basins during the early Pannonian and the coeval transgressionin the Dacian Basin may have led to the latest Miocene–Pliocene con-nectivity event(s).

A significant regression occurred in the Dacian Basin during the lateSarmatian s.l. or earlyMaeotian. The regional nature of this event is con-firmed by seismic stratigraphic studies at the scale of the entire westernDacian Basin and the Black Sea (Leever et al., 2010; Munteanu et al.,2012). Our study shows that while water levels in the Dacian Basindropped to their lowest point in these post-Badenian times, the Pontianstarts with a rapid transgression, which brought the lake to its highestlevel in post-Sarmatian history. This event was followed by a sea leveldrop during the middle Pontian, which may be equivalent to theMessinian Salinity Crisis of the Mediterranean Sea. The magnitude ofthis drop was about 50–200 m in the Dacian Basin, much less than thedrop of 1.3–2.2 km proposed previously for the Black Sea. Two possibleexplanations are offered for this mismatch; firstly, the sea-level drop inthe Black Sea may in fact correlate with the older late-Sarmatian–earlyMaeotian drop in the Dacian Basin. Alternatively, the Dacian Basinmay have been separated from the Black Sea by a sill during this periodand acted as a suspended lake with a positive water balance. Moreresearch focussed on the late Sarmatian–Maeotian event, includinghigh-resolution dating of this stratigraphic interval, is recommended,as its effects on the region may have been large. It has been proposedthat the Pontian event resulted in the reconnection of the Eastern andthe Central Paratethys (Clauzon et al., 2005) as well as to increasedexhumation rates in the Southeast Carpathians (Merten et al., 2010).However, we show that in the western Dacian Basin the Maeotiandrop was of larger magnitude and lasted longer than the Pontian event.

This study underlines that semi-enclosed basins with low amountsof accommodation space experiencing periodic connectivity events

are more sensitive to changes in forcing parameters than are openmarine environments. Events that occur in a basin do not necessarilyoccur in surrounding basins and changes in environments, fauna andsea level can be rapid and short-lived.

Acknowledgements

The research presented in this paper is part of the ESF TOPO-EUROPESourceSinkprogrammeandwasfinancially supported by theNetherlandsResearch Centre for Integrated Solid Earth Science (ISES). We thank theeditor and reviewers for their constructive criticism, Harry Doust forsuggestions and comments that greatly improved the manuscript andSierd Cloetingh for suggestions and permanent support.

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miocene connectivity between the central and eastern paratethys: constraints from the western dacian...

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