ministry on education secondary engagement programme

Ministry on Education

Secondary Engagement Programme

January 2021

Week 1

Lesson # 1

Grade: 9

Subject: Agricultural Science

Topic: Preparation and Marketing of Livestock Produce

Subtopic: Preparation of Meat

Objectives:

-To be knowledgeable of the stages of meat preparation

-To be familiar with the popular cuts of meat on the market

Classes of animals, meat and approximate age and weight at slaughter

The main purpose of preparation of livestock produce is to offer consumers commodities which

are clean, wholesome, disease free and unadulterated in hygienic environments.

Name of animal Name of meat Approximate age at

slaughter

Approximate weight

Cattle Beef 16 to 24 months 500-600 kg

Pig Pork to 8 months 54to 60 kg

Sheep Mutton to 8 months 40 to 60 kg

Goat Chevon 6 to 8 months 40 to 60 kg

Fowl Chicken 2 months 1.75 to 2 kg

Duck Buck 2 months 3 to 5 kg

Rabbit Rabbit 2 months 2 to 2.5 kg

Preparation of Meat

Preparation of meat for marketing may be done by the farmer or the butchers

-Before slaughtering, animal are taken to holding pens at an abattoir where they will be provided

with much water to drink, but no food for 18-24 hours, before the time of slaughter.

-This practice does not reduce the carcass weight and carcasses are easier to dress since the

stomach will be empty

-Animals for slaughter are examined by a qualified Animal Health Inspector

Stage 1

-The meat preparation process involves restraining the animals, slaughtering, dressing and

chilling.

-The popular method of slaughtering meat animals is “sticking”.

-Sticking-during this process, large animals are shackled with the hind legs attached to overhead

rails and the ventral part of the body facing the worker

-Pigs are positioned on their sides on large concrete tables

-Birds are placed in a killing cone which restrain them and expose the neck which arereadily

cutoff, allowing their carcasses to bleed out

-The trend of slaughtering today is towards humane method are made unconscious immediately

before slaughter.

-The electrical knife is used on birds

-Pigs to be slaughtered are driven onto to a moving floor, which travels and exposes pigs to

carbon dioxide. This renders the animal unconscious and ready for bleeding.

-The captive bolt method is used on larger animals. The bolt is pushed forward. The animal is

stunned by the blow on the head.

-After slaughter, ruminants and rabbits are skinned.

-Pigs are scalded in a scalding vat which contains water at 65°𝑐-71°𝑐.Then scraped immediately.

- Birds are scalded in water at 64°c to loosen the feathers which are later plucked by hand or

machine.

Stage 2

-This stage of preparation is dressing the carcass.

-With the exception of poultry, a long cut is made ventrally (along the belly) from the chest to

hind legs to expose the internal organs.

-Care must be taken not to cut the intestine.

-All the internal organs and other structures are removed from the chest and the abdominal

cavities.

-Carcasses, at this stage are displayed for post-mortem inspection by the Public Health

Inspectors.

-Meat acceptable for human consumption is stamped after inspection.

-Diseased or unfit carcasses and/or parts are condemned by the Public health Inspector and in

whose presence they are destroyed

Stage 3

-Chilling is the cooling of carcasses to a temperature of about 2.2°c-4.5°c (37°F-40°F).

-carcasses are usually hung up at room temperature for about two hours before chilling.

-Quick chilling of carcasses is done to check and prevent the growth of spoilage on the meat.

-The actions of enzymes in the meat also slow down during chilling and this prevents sour meat.

-Chilling should be done for about twenty four hours before the carcass is cut up.

PREPRATION OF MEAT

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Answer the following question

1) List four classes of animals and the names of their meat

2) State the main objective of preparation of livestock meat

3) In one paragraph explain the duties of the Public Health Inspector.

4) Compare traditional slaughtering to modernized slaughtering of livestock.

Home Work

Slaughter a Broiler/Chicken using the traditional method under the supervision of your parents or

guardian.

REFERENCES

S. Ragoonanan (2011) ‘Agriculture for CSEC Revision course’ New Edition, Caribbean

Educational Publisher Ltd, Trinidad, WI

F. Weever et al (2014) Agricultural Science for Secondary Schools in Guyana, Book 3,

Ministry on Education NCERD, Georgetown, Guyana

S. Ragoonanan (1991) CXC Agriculture- A Revision Course, Caribbean Educational

Publisher Ltd, Trinidad, WI

Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_lAkPyvSnA&has_verified=1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_lAkPyvSnA&has_verified=1

Week 1 Lesson # 2

Topic: Preparation and Marketing of livestock produce

Subtopic: Marketing meat

Objectives

-To be cognizant of the factors that influence market price of meat

-To be aware of the cuts of meat per animal

Reasons for the demand of meat

-The demand for meat is increasing due to

*Urbanization

*Nutritional needs of people

*Higher earing capacity of people

-the total number of animals plus the yield of meat per animal have increased due to

*Improved breeding stock

*Better husbandry practices

*The injection of capital

-Meat is considered to be the most important protein food of all.

Cuts of beef

Whole cuts Retail cuts

Round steak Round steak, top round stack, bottom round

stack, heel of round, ground beef, hind shank

Rump Rolled rump, rump roast

Loin end Sirloin rump, rump roast

Short loin Porter house stack-bone steak, club steak

Flank Flank steak, rolled flank, flank stew, flank

steak fillet

Rib Standing rib roast, rolled rib roast, rib steak

Plate Plate boiling beef, rolled plate, short ribs

Brisket Beef brisket, corned beef

Shank Knuckle soup bone, cross cut fore shank

Chunk Blade steak, blade pot roast, triangle pot roast,

shoulder fillet, rolled neck, boneless neck,

arm steak, arm pot roast

Cuts of beef

Cuts of pork

The order of cuts is as follows:

-Shoulder -Fore shank

-Clear plate -Spare ribs and belly

-Loin and back fat -Jowl

-Neck bone -Ham

Wholesale and retail cuts of pork

Cuts of lamb/Mutton

Factors which cause the price of meat to be lowered Cuts of chicken

-Too much of fat (in pig and chicken).In beef when fat is spread uniformly through the meat, it is

known as marbling and the cuts are costlier

-Dark colour of meat (sticky and labby).

-Too many connective tissues (stringy)

-Old animals (tough muscle fibres)

After cutting, meat is package for storage at a temperature of 9.4°F.

Review Questions

Answer the following questions

1. List three reasons why the demand for meat is increasing.

2. Meat is considered to be the most important ___________ _________ of all.

3. State three cuts of market chicken

4. Discuss three factors that cause the price of meat to be lowered

Home work

Investigate the reasons for choices of meat used in your household.

REFERENCES



F.Weever et al (2014) Agricultural Science for Secondary Schools in Guyana, Book 3,




Week 1 Lesson # 3


Subtopic: Methods of cooking

Objectives

-To be knowledgeable of the methods of cooking the different cuts of meat per animal

Sheep/Goat

Sheep meat or Sheep’s meat is the meat of the domestic sheep. A sheep in its first year is a lamb

and its meat is also lamb. A sheep in its second year, meat is called hogget. Older sheep meat is

mutton.

Goat meat or Goat's meat is the meat of the domestic goat .The common name for goat meat is

simply "goat”. An adult goat is referred to as chevon while there from young goats can be called

a kid.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_goat


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_goat

Methods of cooking of Mutton/Chevon

Pig

Pork is the culinary name for the meat of a pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat

worldwide.

Methods of cooking of pork

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culinary_name

Cow

Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle.



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscle

Methods of cooking of beef

Chicken

Chicken is the culinary name for meat from domesticated fowl.

Methods of cooking Chicken

Roasted Chicken

Roasted chicken is one of the tastiest, most satisfying dishes you can make.

Baked Chicken

Baked chicken is different from roasted chicken in two ways. First, baked chicken is prepared with

chicken parts (i.e., individual drumsticks, thighs, breasts, and wings) whereas roasted chicken is

cooked whole. Second, baked chicken is dredged in seasoned flour before we cook it, which we

don't do when roasting a whole bird.

Braised Chicken

Braising is a great technique for when we want to cook cheaper or less tender cuts of meat, but it's

also a wonderful way to cook chicken. Braised chicken is a warming, soulful dish, and the meat

will almost fall off the bone.

Poached Chicken

Whether you're just poaching chicken breasts or you're poaching a whole chicken, poaching is an

easy and delicious method for cooking chicken. Poached chicken is naturally low in fat and always

comes out moist and juicy. And as an added bonus, when you're done poaching the chicken, you're

left with a delicious, savory chicken broth that you can use for making sauces, soups and all kinds

of dishes.



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowl

https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-roast-a-chicken-995350

https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-roast-a-chicken-995350

https://www.thespruceeats.com/seasoned-oven-baked-chicken-pieces-995365

https://www.thespruceeats.com/seasoned-oven-baked-chicken-pieces-995365

https://www.thespruceeats.com/what-are-chicken-breasts-4766659

https://www.thespruceeats.com/braised-chicken-recipe-995355

https://www.thespruceeats.com/braised-chicken-recipe-995355

https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-poach-chicken-breasts-995346

https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-poach-chicken-breasts-995346

Fried Chicken

The key to deep-frying is maintaining the oil's temperature between 325 F and 400 F.Fried

chicken is a great example of the basic deep-frying technique where items are dipped in a simple

batter or seasoned flour before we cook them, which helps to protect and further seal in moisture.

Broiled Chicken

Broiled chicken is prepared using a smaller bird called a "broiler" (typically around two to three

pounds) which is either split open around the backbone so that it can be cooked flat or simply

halved. Either way, flattening out the chicken helps it cook faster, which is important given that

broiling involves very high heat.

Grilled Chicken

Grilled chicken is always a favorite dish. You can grill an entire cut up chicken, which is great

because the breasts cook a lot faster than the thighs or drumsticks. Skinless, boneless chicken

breasts are especially popular for the grill.

Sautéed or Pan-Fried Chicken

Sautéed or pan-fried chicken is really a two-stage procedure that involves cooking in a hot pan

with a small amount of fat and finishing it either in the oven or by simmering it in some sort of

sauce. This lets flavors develop while also ensuring that the chicken is fully cooked. Boneless

chicken breast cutlets are great for this method.

Smoked Whole Chicken

Using the smoker (or grill set up as a smoker) is a nice alternative to simply roasting a whole bird

in the oven. The chicken is covered with a flavorful spice rub and then left to slowly cook over low

heat. The result is moist, rich-tasting meat with a crispy outer skin.

https://www.thespruceeats.com/crispy-buttermilk-fried-chicken-995356



https://www.thespruceeats.com/herb-broiled-chicken-recipe-995366

https://www.thespruceeats.com/herb-broiled-chicken-recipe-995366

https://www.thespruceeats.com/sesame-ginger-grilled-chicken-breasts-995369

https://www.thespruceeats.com/sesame-ginger-grilled-chicken-breasts-995369

https://www.thespruceeats.com/chicken-piccata-recipe-995841

https://www.thespruceeats.com/chicken-piccata-recipe-995841

https://www.thespruceeats.com/smoked-chicken-recipe-4687599

https://www.thespruceeats.com/smoked-chicken-recipe-4687599

Review Questions

Answer the following questions

1. List the names of three domesticated animals’ meat.

2. Complete the table below

Name of Animals

Sheep/Goat Cattle Chicken Pig

Cuts of

meat

Method of

cooking

Cuts of

meat

Method of

cooking

Cuts of

meat

Method of

cooking

Cuts of

meat

Method of

cooking

Shank

Leg

Racks

Shoulder

Brisket

Leg

Ribs

loin

Neck

Leg

Ribs

Fillet

Steak

Leg

Ribs

Shoulder

Home work

Visit the local meat shop and identify the different of meat and their cuts

REFERENCES







Week 2 Lesson # 1



Subtopic: Structure of Meat and Tender Vs Tough Meat

Objectives:

-To be familiar with the factors which constitute good meat quality

-To differentiate between tough and tender meat

- To be aware of the methods used to tenderize meat

- To be knowledgeable of what is marbling

STRUCTURE

-Lean meat or muscles tissue is composed of bundles of very tiny fibres which contain protein,

mineral salts and extractives dissolved in water.

-Each fibre is surrounded by a wall of elastin, a tough connectives tissue.

- Fat cells are distributed between the fibres. This is called marbling.

There are more fat cells in some meat than others, e.g. Pork has more than chicken.

Fat is also present on the outer surface as adipose tissue.

As the animals’ ages, there is a build –up of fat.

Tender Vs Tough Meat

There are several factors that make meat either tender or tough; age of animal, muscle activity

and method of hanging meat after the animal has been slaughtered.

AGE-meat from an old animal is generally tough because there is a greater amount of connective

tissue.

ACTIVITY- When a muscle is very active, its fibres become longer and thicker and connective

tissues are built up to hold these large fibres.

HANGING - Before slaughtering, it is essential that animals are rested and do not struggle

during slaughter because stores of glycogen are used up, which make the meat tough.

-

Correct hanging can do much to improve the tenderness of meat.

Tenderizing

Meat can be tenderized in several ways:

-By injecting tenderizing enzymes into the live animal before slaughter.

-Mechanically – pounding the meat with a machine or steak hammer

-Chemically- treating the meat with proteolytic enzymes.

-Cooking – slow methods, use of pressure cookers.

Tenderizing Meat

Meat Quality

-The numerous biochemical reactions governing the actions of the muscles do not stop

immediately after the animal is killed.

-In living muscles, one of the most important reactions involving generation of energy is

glycolysis.

-When oxygen is not available, after the animal is killed or is under stress, the glycogen is

broken down to lactic acid.

-The quality of meat is related to the amount of fat which is distributed uniformly through the

muscle. This is known as marbling.

-Meat should not have a dark colour, since the s a result of high p H associated with killing an

animal with a low glycogen reserve.

-Rigor mortis results in a sequential toughening of the meat.

It is important that the carcass be ‘aged ‘.This is the time when the meat returns to pre- rigor

tenderness due processes involved in muscle stretching.

Review Questions

1) Define the following terms:

a) Marbling b) Tenderizing

2) Differentiate between tough and tender meat.

3) List and discuss two ways of tenderizing meat.

4) Explain how glycogen is broken down in lactic acid after the animal is killed.

Home Work

Investigate the importance of rigor – mortis in meat tenderizing.

REFERENCES







Week 2 Lesson # 2



Subtopic: Dressing Percentage and Meat Requirements

Objectives:

-To be familiar with the term dressing percentage of animals.

-To understand how to calculate the dressing percentage of farm animal.

-To discuss the quality requirement for various meat cuts.

Meat Products

Listed below are the names of some products:

- Chops

- Roasted

- Minced Meat

- Sausages

-Salami

-Beef

-Pork

-Ham

-Offal Products

Offal Products

The term ‘offal products’ refer to all the edible internal organs of an animal.

- Liver

- Tongue

- Kidney

- Heart

- Sweet bread

1) Pancreas

2) Thymus glands

-Brain

-Tripe

Dressing Percentage

Dressing percentage is the relationship between the live weight and the dressed weight.

Dressing percentage = Dressed weight x100

Live weight

The dressed weight is the weight of the dead animal after all the offal has been removed.

Animal Dressing Percentage

*PIG -65-80%

*GOAT -50-55%

*CATTLE -50-60%

*RABBIT -55-65%

*BROILER -76-80%

QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS MEAT CUTS

CATTLE[BEEF] Ribs, sirloin, rump, brisket,

neck,

And clod ,leg, Silverside

*Rosy red colour

*Bright white fat

*As meat ages, there will be a reddish

brown colour

*Firm to the touch

PIG[PORK] Loin rib end ,belly, neck,

bacon, ham

*Pale pink to pink

*White fat

*Firm to the touch

*Good marbling

SHEEP [MUTTON] Shoulder, rack, chops, breast,

loin, leg

*Brick red in colour

*Fat firm and white

*Fine textured and firm

*Good marbling

POULTRY[BROILER] Leg , thigh , breast ,wings *Pink in colour

*Free of bruising

*Clean, cold and tightly sealed

Review Questions

1) List five meat products.

2) a) Define the term ‘offal products’.

b) List five examples of offal products.

3) Calculate the dressing percentage of a broiler from the given information: Live weight – 3.0

Kg and Dressed weight – 2.5 Kg.

4) Mark is going to the market to purchase ribs and sirloin to cook. Advise him on the qualities

to look for when purchasing these choices of cuts.

Home Work

Conduct a session with your family members, informing them of the quality requirements for the

various meat cuts, regularly consumed by the family.

REFERENCES







Week 2 Lesson # 3



Subtopic: Requirements of Slaughtering

Objectives:

- To be aware of all the requirements for effective slaughtering of farm animals

- To know the recommended age and weight of farm animals at the time of slaughter

Requirements of a slaughter house

1. The essential considerations in any slaughterhouse are:

- Protection of the consumer

- Production of meat with good keeping quality

- The utilization of the offal

2. The main requirements of a slaughterhouse are:

- A smooth impervious, non-slipping floor

- Gallows with hoisting facilities

- An adequate water supply

- Hanging rails

-Scalding vats

-Proper effluent disposal

-A fence to keep away stray animals

Requirements for efficient slaughtering

- Proper pre-slaughter care

- The stock is fasted, but with access to clean water 16-24 hours before slaughter.

- The animal is not to be excited.

- A humane method of slaughter is adopted. E.g. the animal is stunned first, using a captive bolt

gun

- After slaughter, the animal is bled completely.

- Contamination of meat is avoided.

- The carcass is hung in an open space to allow for cooling.

- Provision of facilities for meat inspection

Time to slaughter

-The optimum time for slaughter in influenced by knowledge of the normal age/weight of

slaughter of the various farm animals.

-Another guide to deciding time for slaughter is the specific marker or consumer demand, e.g.,

‘baby beef, lamb, mutton, etc.

Age and weight for slaughtering farm animals

Animal Age

Approximately

(in months)

Weight

Approximately

(in kg)

Cattle 16 - 24 500 – 600

Goat/Sheep 6 - 8 40 – 60

Pig 5 – 8 54 – 60

Rabbit

(medium breed)

2 2 – 2.5

Poultry 2 1.72 - 2

Review Questions

1) List three main requirements of a slaughter house

2) Explain why the carcass is hung in an open space after slaughtering

3) Discuses two factors that influence the time to slaughter farm animals

Home Work

“A humane method of slaughter in adopted”

Research one other method of slaughtering under the following headings:

-Name of method

- Description of method

- Pictures of method

REFERENCES







Week 3 Lesson # 1



Subtopic: Preservation of meat

Objectives:

-To be aware of the methods of preserving meat

-To know the appropriate methods of preserving meat according to the choice of cuts

Preservation of meat

Methods of preserving meat are curing, drying, smoking, canning and refrigeration. Meat is

preserved to weaken or destroy the undesirable micro-organisms and enzymes so that spoilage is

reduced considerably.

Curing

There are two main methods of curing- pickle cure (or wet cure) and dry cure. The main

ingredient is common salt. When salt (sodium nitrate) is used, it preserves the meat as well as

improves it colour and flavor. Vinegar and spices are usually added to enhance the flavor of the

meat. In wet cure, a concentrated salt solution (called pickle or brine) made and the meat

immersed in it.

In dry cure, the pickle is pumped into the arteries of the meat or it is spray pumped onto the

meat. This method is used in ham production.

Drying

This process is used to reduce most of the moisture in the meat tissues. It creates an unfavourable

environment for the growth of spoilage organisms. Salt can be rubbed on the surface of the meat

which is later allowed to dry in the shade.

Smoking

Meat is exposed to wood smoke. The smoke kills bacteria and prevents the growth of other

spoilage organisms. It also slows up the action of fat, become rancid and adds flavour to the

meat. Smoking sometimes is used together with drying and curing.

Canning

By this method, meat previously processed by curing, smoking or cooking may be packed with

salt solution into specially designed aluminium cans which are then heated to remove the air

before they are sealed. The vacuum created in the tin slows up growth of micro-organism. Tins

labelled “Perishable” must be kept under refrigeration.

Refrigeration

Meat frozen quickly to a temperature of -26.1°C can be kept in storage for a long time, if the supply

of electricity is continuous. At this temperature, the meat appears to retain its colour after thawing.

Refrigeration at this temperature freezes and bacterial growth is suppressed so that spoilage is

delayed. It is advisable to start this process as soon as possible after slaughter. Frozen meat should

not be placed on racks in a warm room to be defrosted since the surface meat can begin to spoil

before the interior parts of the cut are fully defrosted. Frozen meat should be placed in a large

container of circulating water with temperature up to 32.2° 𝐶.

Preservation of Meat

-Curing - Smoking

-Drying -Canning

- Refrigeration

Review Questions

1) List three methods of preserving meat

2) There are two methods of curing- ____________ cure and___________cure.

3) Frozen meat can be kept up to a temperature of _____°C when placed in a large container of

circulating______.

4) List four ingredients that are used in the processes of preserving meat.

Home Work

- Chose a method of preserving meat and practice same

- Record the following

(i) Activity done

(ii) Change in appearance

REFERENCES







Week 3 Lesson # 2



Subtopic: Preparation of milk

Objectives:

- To be aware of the steps involved in the preparation of milk

Preparation of milk

Milk is the fluid produced by the secretory cells of mammary glands. For consumers, it is the white

emulsion which contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins. It should be free

from colostrums, flakes, blood and other abnormalities. Milk is withdrawn from dairy animals

during the process of milking, whereby it is removed from the gland and teat cisterns after

successful milk let down. Consumers require milk of high quality so it must be clean, of good

flavour and must contain very low levels of bacteria.

-The cow produces milk only when it has a calf.

-The lactation period is that period during which milk is produced.

-The lactation period states when the animal gives birth, and peaks around 3-3 ½ months after.

-The lactation period continues until about 6-8 weeks before the next calving.

‘Milk Let Down’

‘Milk let down’ is controlled by a combination of nervous and hormonal actions.

*The cow needs a stimulus. The udder is stimulated by:

-Feeding -Touch massage -Warm water -Familiar sights, smells and sounds

-Suckling

*The nervous system relays a message to the posterior pituitary which releases the hormone,

Oxytocin.

*Oxytocin circulates in the blood and is carried to the udder.

* ‘Milk let down’ is initiated.

* The action of Oxytocin lasts for about four minutes, thus, during this time the milk is

withdrawn.

Processes involved in Milk let down

Condition inhabiting ‘Milk Let Down’

-Adrenalin, a hormone produced by the adrenals, inhibits the action of Oxytocin.

-Any practice that induces the production of adrenalin inhibits ‘milk let down’.

-Lactating cows should therefore not to be excited or angered.

Methods of milking

There are two methods of milking:

-by hand -by machine

Review Questions

1) Define the following terminologies

(a) Milk (c) The Lactation cycle

(b) ‘Milk let down’

2) Explain two conditions that inhabit ‘milk let down’

3) List the two methods of milking

4) Differentiate between the two methods of milking

5) The _____ is released into the blood stream and cause milk let down.

Home-Work

Research animals whose milk is used for human consumption

REFERENCES







Week 3 Lesson # 3



Sub topic: Marketing Milk

Objectives:

-To be familiar with the causes of low butterfat content in milk

-To be aware of the popular tests done before marketing

-To detect the signs of milk spoilage

Marketing Milk

Before milk is marketed, tests can be done to ensure that it is of very high quality. Popular tests

are the Methylene Blue Test for the level of bacteria and the solid Non Fat test which indicates

how dense the milk is. There tests are carried out on farmers’ milk before it is sold for processing.

However, it is not usually done when farmers sell their milk on the farm or retailed to customers

at their homes. Milk of poor quality is rejected by the buyers and farmers suffer great loss.

Processed milk such as pasteurized milk is more expensive than fresh milk sold by farmers on the

farms.

Structure of an udder

Spoilage of milk

-Bacteria in milk feed on the sugar present in the milk (lactose).

-Bacteria convert the lactose to lactic acid.

-The acid curdles the milk and thus the milk takes on a spoilt appearance (milk solids floating at

the surface with lactic acid and water at the bottom).

-The milk is not fit for drinking but can be made into cheese or yogurt.

Test for Butterfat

-10 ml of concentrated Sulphuric acid (𝐻2𝑆𝑂4), 1 ml of milk and 1 ml amyl alcohol are put in a

butyrometer.

-The a stopper is placed in the opening of the test tube which is then placed into a centrifuge.

-The acid separates the fat which is dissolved in the amyl alcohol.

-The butyrometer is removed and turned upside down and the percentage of fat read on the

butyrometer scale.

Causes of low Butterfat

Low butterfat content in milk is caused by:

*Age of cow – the older the cow the greater the decrease of butterfat

*Stage of lactation-as the yield of milk increases, the butterfat tends to decrease

*Feeding- insufficient roughage in cow’s diet. Good hay is important in maintaining a high

butterfat content.

*Ill-health- animals exhibiting signs of ill health would produce milk with low butterfat

*The breed – Guernsey produces milk with the highest butterfat content

Test for Bacteria

The Methylene Blue Test

*The Methylene blue test involves adding a blue dye to the sample of milk.

*If there is a high concentration of bacteria, the blue colour changes to white in a short time.

*If there are few bacteria in the milk, the blue colour remains for a long time.

*The specific procedure for the Methylene blue test is as follows:

-10 ml of milk is mixed in a sterile stoppered test tube with 1 ml of Methylene blue thiocyanate.

-The test tube with the mixture is placed in a water bath held at 35-36°c.

-After 30 minutes, the sample is examined.

*Within this time the factor which is of critical importance, the dye resazurin is used.

*If the milk is fresh (few bacteria) the sample turns blue.

*If there is bacteria build up, the sample turns pink.

Test for Solid Non Fat (S.N.F)

*In the test for S.N.F a lactometer is used.

*The lactometer floats in a measuring cylinder containing milk.

*The degree of density of the milk governs the depth to which the lactometer sinks.

*The higher the lactometer stands, the denser the milk and therefore the more solids it contains.

A reading is taken from the lactometer scale and the S.N.F is then calculated.

Reviews Questions

1) List two tests done on milk in preparation for marketing

2) Discuss the two tests mentioned in question (1)

3) Draw and label an udder

4) Explain the importance of milk tests

5) In one paragraph explain the causes of low butterfat.

Home-Work

Add two teaspoons of lemon or lime juice to a glass of milk

-Observe the changes

-Record changes made

-Name two products that can be made from this substance

REFERENCES







Week 4 Lesson # 1



Subtopic: Processed milk

Objectives:

-To be cognizant of the reasons for processing milk

-To be knowledgeable of the methods used for processing milk

-To be aware of the steps involved in the processing of milk and the forms of milk product

marketed.

Reasons for processing milk

The main purpose of processing milk is to destroy harmful bacteria. Milk which is not used in its

fresh form must be processed. Processing is done so as to prolong the shelf life of the milk. The

bacteria present in unprocessed milk for a period of time would result in milk spoilage.

Milk and methods of processing

Grade of Milk Definition Method of Processing

Untreated milk Milk which has not undergone

any form of heat treatment.

Milk is strained and may be

cooled on the farm. Sold as

fresh milk.

Homogenized milk Milk processed to break up fat

globules and scatter them

evenly throughout the milk so

that they do not float on top

Warm milk is forced through

very tiny valves so that the fat

globules break up into tiny

globules and are evenly

scattered in the milk. Fat does

not float to the top.

Pasteurised milk Milk which has been mildly

heated to destroy disease

causing bacteria.

Milk heated to 72°c for 15

seconds, than rapidly cooled to

10°c or below. It is then bottled

and sealed.

Ultra Heat treated milk

(UHT)

Homogenized milk which has

been subjected to a very high

temperature

Milk heated to 132°c for 1

second, destroying micro-

organisms without producing

undesirable chemical changes

that would affect flavor.

Sterilized milk Homogenized milk which has

been treated in the bottle and

vacuum sealed. The taste of the

milk is expected to change and

most of the Vitamin B and C

destroyed but the milk can be

kept for several months.

Pre-heated, homogenized,

bottled and sealed. The filled

sealed bottles are that heated to

104°c for 20-30 minutes and

allowed to cool.

Milk products

Curd

Sour cream

yogurt

Butter cream

Cheese

Butter

Ghee

Dhoa

Condensed milk

Dried(powered) milk

Ice cream

Evaporated milk

Butter milk

Milk Products

Processing milk

Milk from farm→ Factory→ Clarification(removes foreign matter) →Separation(removes 50%

of fat content) →pasteurization(Kills harmful bacteria) →Cooling(temperature reduced to 5°c)

→Storage(stored at 5°c before filling→ Sterilization(U.H.T. method→ Removal of al bacteria)

→Homogenization(reduces size of fat globules) →Filing and Packing(packs formed around

milk) →Incubation Holding(milk tested and released 10 days later).

Review Questions

1) State the main purpose of processing milk

2) List three grades of milk

3) Discuss the three, grades of milk listed in question 1 under the headings

Grades of milk Definition Method of processing

4) Explain three forms of milk products that are marketed

5) List five milk products

Home-Work

-Record the milk products that you have consumed for the past month

-State the names, describe the taste and the form in which they were consumed whether cooked

or in their natural state.

REFERENCES







Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DxK4yYSEZ4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DxK4yYSEZ4

Week 4 Lesson # 2



Sub topic: Milk composition

Objectives:

- To be aware of the nutrient composition of milk

-To be knowledgeable of the factors that influence milk composition

Milk composition

The Milk Composition includes the chemical and physical properties of milk. Milk provides

essential nutrients and is an important source of dietary energy, high-quality proteins and fats. Milk

can make a significant contribution to the required nutrient intakes for calcium, magnesium,

selenium, riboflavin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic acid. Milk and milk products are nutrient-dense

foods.

The species of dairy animal, its breed, age and diet, along with the stage of lactation, parity

(number of parturitions), farming system, physical environment and season influence the colour,

flavour and composition of milk and allow the production of a variety of milk products:

Cow milk: Fat constitutes approximately 3 to 4 percent of the solid content of cow milk, protein

about 3.5 percent and lactose 5 percent, but the gross chemical composition of cow milk varies

depending on the breed.

Variations in milk composition are due to:-

Carbohydrate (Lactose) content

Fat content

Protein content

http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Composition/Carbohydrate.htm

http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Composition/Fat.htm

http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Composition/Protein.htm

Vitamins and Minerals contents

Enzymes content

Factors that influence milk composition

Milk is composed of water, lactose, fats, protein and minerals and vitamins and is influenced by

breed, genetics, stage of lactation, age, nutrition and health status

Breed – generally, the high production breeds such as Holstein tend towards lower milk solids

than the lower production breeds such as Jersey or beef breeds.

Genetics – within breeds, selection of sires with high solids percentages is critical to maintain herd

milk composition.

Stage of lactation – fat and protein concentration generally increases towards the end of lactation.

Age – milk fat and protein both decrease with subsequent lactations.

Nutrition – lactose is the driver of milk volume and its percentage is independent of nutritional

influences. Butterfat percentage is dependent on forage intake, ingested fats and bodyweight loss.

Protein percentage can be manipulated by varying concentrate feed level, starch concentration and

amino acid balance.

Health status – udder health is critical to maintaining optimum milk composition while general

cow health and energy balance play an important role in milk quality.

Review Question

1) State your understanding of what is milk

2) List 2 sources of milk

3) List 4 nutrients that are found in milk

4) Explain 3 factors that influence milk composition

http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Composition/VitaminsMinerals.htm

http://milkfacts.info/Milk%20Composition/Enzymes.htm

Home-Work

Check your milk packages or tins at home and write down the nutrient content and percentage of

each.

REFERENCES







Week 4 Lesson # 3



Sub topic: Preparation of eggs

Objectives:

- To be aware of the measures practiced for the best quality eggs.

- To demonstrate the skill of sorting, grading, cleaning and packaging

- To accurately draw and label the external and internal parts of an egg.

Preparation of eggs

To ensure that the best quality eggs are marketed, the following measures should be practiced:

*Feed suitable rations with minerals and grit to laying hens.

*Provide clean nesting materials.

*Gather eggs from the nesting boxes frequently.

*Clean dirty eggs and keep them in a cool place with a temperature of 18° C to 21° C and a

relative humidity of 18.3° C – 21.1° C.

*Candle eggs, to check for meat and blood spots.

*Separate eggs into small, medium and large sizes.

*Pack eggs carefully and market immediately.

On the large markets, the external and internal qualities of table eggs are of great importance.

The external qualities are measured by shell quality, cleanliness, shape, colour, size and weight.

Shell quality

Eggs should have strong sound shells which must be attractive and even. Cracked, hair-line

cracked or broken eggs are rejected. Eggs with chalk heads and heads are disqualified.

Cleanliness

Eggs shells should be clean. Dirty and contaminated egg shells are rejected.

Shape and Colour

A normal egg is oval shaped. Very round or very long eggs must not be selected because of

transportation problems. Abnormal shaped eggs are also rejected. They do not fit well into the

egg flats and are easily broken. An even shell colour adds to the attractiveness on the egg. Some

consumers have special preferences for either white shell or brown shell eggs.

Size and weight

Eggs must be uniform in size. Double yolk and extremely large eggs are rejected became of

transportation problems. Eggs weight is important in grading eggs by weight. This system allows

eggs of similar weight to be put in a particular class for market.

Internal qualities

The internal qualities of eggs are measured by the (i) size and condition of the air space, (ii)

condition of the yolk egg white (albumen) and the (iii) presence of blood and meat spots or other

abnormalities in the egg white. These qualities can be assessed by the use of a Candler which is

used to see the egg against a light in a darkened room. The following checks are made during

candling:

Quality Checked Accepted eggs Rejected eggs

Egg shell Whole Hair crack, thin

Air space 1 cm- 1.5 cm, fixed 1.5 cm or more, loose

Yolk Firm, well centered, free from

blood and meat spots

Loose at the side

Egg white Clear, thick, firm Blood and meat spots

Grading of eggs

European American African

Class Weight Size Weight Size Weight

1 70 g and

above

Jumbo 65g to 70 g Large 65g to above

2 60g to 70 g Extra large 65g to 70 g Medium 55g to 65 g

3 60g to 65 g Large 56g to 65 g Small 45g to 55g

4 55g to 60 g Medium 49g to 56 g

5 50g to 55g Small 42g to 49g

6 45 to 50g Pee wee 35g to 42g

7 45 g and

below

Review Questions

1) List five measures that should be practiced to ensure very high quality eggs.

2) Compare accepted egg and rejected egg under the quality check of egg shell, yolk and egg

white

3) Grade the following eggs based on the individual weight using the American grading

(i) 49g to 56g (iv) 56g to 65g

(ii) 35g to 42g (v) 49g to 56g

(iii) 65g to 70g

Home-Work

Select one dozen eggs and carefully carry out the following steps:

(i) Sort eggs based on size and write down the sizes

(ii) Damp a cotton piece of cloth or rag.

(iii) Gently hold the eggs individual in your hand and rub the damp cloth gently on the surfaces,

until each egg is clean.

(iv) Place clean eggs in an egg tray based on the sizes.

REFERENCES









January 2021

Week 5

Lesson # 1

Grade: 9



Sub topic: Preservation, storage and marketing of eggs

Objectives

- To accurately draw, label and identify the internal and external parts of an egg

- To discuss the practices of preservation, storage and marketing of eggs

External and Internal parts of an egg

Parts of an egg

Chalazae: the chords attached to either side of the yolk to keep it in the centre of the egg. It’s

important because without them, the yolk would settle at the side and the chick could become

malformed.

Eggshell: there is a shell around the egg to protect it. Few people are aware that the eggshell is

not airtight: it has about 10,000 tiny holes. We call these the pores, and they give the growing

chick a sufficient air supply.

Shell membrane: the membrane protects the contents of the egg against unwelcomed visitors,

such as bacteria.

Thin egg white: the thin egg white is found between the shell membrane and the yolk.

Thick egg white: the thick egg white is thick and cloudy and found around the yolk.

Yolk: the yolk provides the chick with the food it needs.

Blastodisc: this is where the egg will potentially be fertilized.

Air space: this is where the chick draws its first breath before pecking through the shell

Preservation, storage and marketing of eggs

Treatment to egg shells prevents the evaporation of moisture from the egg content, during hot

weather conditions eggs may be dipped or sprayed with light mineral oil.

Eggs may be marketed in the liquid form as frozen eggs. Before freezing, eggs should be

pasteurized. This process destroys micro-organisms which would have multiplied and spoiled the

eggs.

Eggs may also be purchased in the dry state for making cake mixes, sweets and meringue powders.

The liquid egg is first clarified of bits of egg shell, the pasteurized and preheated it is then pumped

under pressure trough nozzles and released in to a large room where it is exposed to a stream of

hot air. The moisture evaporates from the liquid egg causing the fine power to fall to the floor. It

is cooled, packed and sealed in containers.

Review Questions

1) Draw and label the external parts of an egg.

2) Discuss how eggs are (i) Preserved

(ii) Stored

(iii) Marketed

Home Work

Select a clean large egg and identify the external parts

REFERENCES







Video-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_kljC4aRIg&t=12s

Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4W2ZLoczNw

Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHburN5ARdA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_kljC4aRIg&t=12s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4W2ZLoczNw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHburN5ARdA

Week 5

Lesson # 2


Sub topic: Nutritive value of eggs

Objectives

- To know the nutrient content of eggs and the importance of these nutrients.

Nutrition Facts

Eggs are one of nature’s most nutrient-dense foods. One large (53g) Grade-A egg contains 6g of

protein and only 70 calories.

Protein

Eggs are one of the few foods considered to be a complete protein, because they contain all 9

essential amino acids. Amino acids are considered ‘building blocks for the body’ because they

help form protein.

In addition to giving you energy, your body uses the protein found in eggs to:

build and repair body tissues and cells

build and maintain healthy muscles

grow strong hair and nails

help fight infections

help keep your body fluids in balance

Nutrients

Eggs are not only an excellent source of high quality protein, but they also contain many

vitamins and minerals

Cholesterol

An egg a day is ok!

If you’ve been avoiding eggs because of concerns linking them to dietary cholesterol and coronary

heart disease, it’s time to reconsider. The latest research shows that dietary cholesterol, like what’s

in eggs, has very little effect on your blood cholesterol levels. Healthy adults can enjoy an egg

every day without increasing their risk of heart disease.

According to the American Heart Association, lutein found in egg yolks also protects against the

progress of early heart disease.

Review Questions

1) List four benefits obtained from egg consumption

2) Complete the table below

Nutrients Benefits

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

Home Work

“Egg is a cheap source of Protein”.

Explain in one paragraph the phrase above.

REFERENCES







Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_kljC4aRIg&t=12s

Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHburN5ARdA

Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4W2ZLoczNw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_kljC4aRIg&t=12s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHburN5ARdA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4W2ZLoczNw

Week 5

Lesson # 3


Sub topic: Methods of cooking eggs

Objectives

- To be aware of the common methods of cooking eggs

Methods of cooking eggs

1. Hard boiled

A hard- boiled egg is cooked in its shell in boiling water. The “hard” refers to the consistency of

the egg white (or albumen) and the yolk.

2. Soft Boiled

Soft boiled eggs follow the same process as hard boiled eggs, but you cut the cooking time

roughly in half. This gets the egg white cooked while leaving the yolk runny

https://www.breakfastwithnick.com/wp-content/uploads/IMG_6009.jpg

3. Hard Scrambled

Scrambled technically means that the whites and yolks are broken and mixed together. Hard

scrambled eggs are cooked all the way through.

4. Soft Scrambled

Soft scrambled eggs sometimes referred to as “wet.” The texture is ten times better, and they

play more nicely with other ingredients. The difference between soft and hard scrambled eggs is

cooking time.

https://www.breakfastwithnick.com/wp-content/uploads/img_8795.jpg

http://breakfastwithnick.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/img_3631.jpg

5. Omelets & Frittatas

An omelet or frittata indicates that the scrambled eggs are cooked until they’ve stabilized into a

usable form. A frittata is typically open-faced, whereas an omelet is folded over in half onto the

additions.

6. Sunny Side up

Sunny side up means your egg yolk looks like a bright morning sun. We refer to these as runny

or “dipping” eggs.



7. Over easy

Eggs over easy and sunny side up are often using interchangeably, but they are different. You go

from sunny side up to over easy by simply flipping your egg when the edges are brown. The

“easy” doesn’t refer to the simplicity of turning over an egg, but the state of your yolk. “Over

easy” means the egg is flipped and cooked just long enough to make a film on the top of the

yolk. When served, the yolk and some of the whites are still runny.

8. Poached



It’s like boiling but without the shell, or like over medium that skips contact with the pan. These

means you’re avoiding any hard edges. The white is cooked through and the yolk is warm and

runny.

.

Review Questions

1) List 5 methods of cooking eggs.

2) Describe the methods you have listed in (1) in your own words.

Home Work

With the help of your parents /guardians prepare eggs using two of the methods and display your

finished product. You may also take photos of your cooked eggs and post on social media for

your peers to see.


REFERENCES







Website: https://www.breakfastwithnick.com/2014/04/08/how-do-you-want-your-eggs-

eleven-ways-to-cook-an-egg/

https://www.breakfastwithnick.com/2014/04/08/how-do-you-want-your-eggs-eleven-ways-to-cook-an-egg/

https://www.breakfastwithnick.com/2014/04/08/how-do-you-want-your-eggs-eleven-ways-to-cook-an-egg/

Week 6

Lesson # 1

Topic: Sheep and Goat Production

Subtopic: External Features of Sheep and Goat

Objectives:

-To identify the difference between a sheep and a goat

-To identify the external parts of a sheep and a goat.

-To state the benefits of rearing sheep and goat.

Goat

*A goat is considered to be “poor man’s cow” because it does not cause as much as a cow to

rear.

*Goats supply food as cows do – meat and milk.

*Goats provide hides and manure.

*Goats do not eat much and can be kept on a small piece of land.

*Because of their size, a large number can be kept in a small area and are easily controlled.

*Goats feed on poor scrubby plants and convert them into valuable animal products.

*They have a F.C.R. of 5:1 and a D.P. of 50-55%

External Features of a Goat

Sheep

*The sheep has its origin in temperate countries.

*It was introduced into the Caribbean to increase the protein level in our diet.

*The importance of sheep rearing in the Caribbean is for its mutton.

*Production of wool, manure, skin and milk are incidental.

External Features of a Sheep

Review Questions

1) A goat is considered to be “poor man‘s cow “, explain why?

2) Goat provides _________ and __________ while sheep provides ________ and ________.

3) List five external parts of a sheep and five internal parts of a goat.

4) Discuss the benefits of rearing sheep and goat.

References

S.Ragoonanan (2011) ‘Agriculture for CSEC Revision course’ New Edition, Caribbean




S.Ragoonanan (1991) CXC Agriculture- A Revision Course, Caribbean Educational


Week 6

Lesson # 2


Sub Topic: Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goat

Objectives:

- To know the sub-families that sheep and goat belong to.

-To identify the breeds of sheep and goat.

-To be aware of the basic types of sheep and goat.

Sheep and Goat

*Sheep belong to the sub -family Ovidae while goats belong to the sub – family called Capra.

*Sheep and goats are ruminants.

*They are classified in to three basic types.

*The types are wool, meat and milk.

Breeds of Sheep

Texel

*This is a white faced breed of sheep with no wool on the head or legs.

*The breed is characterized by a distinctive short, wide face with a black nose and widely placed,

short ears with a nearly horizontal carriage.

*These sheep also have black hooves.

The outstanding feature of the Texel breed is its remarkable muscle development and leanness.

Barbados Black Belly

*This breed was developed in Barbados.

*Black belly sheep range in colour from light tan to a dark mahogany red, with black stripes on

the face and black legs, belly, inguinal region, chin and chest, which gives this herbivore its

name.

*The ears point forward and are black with white margins.

*Both male and female are polled.

*This is a very prolific breed.

*It can be bred twice a year.

*The breed is noted for giving birth to twins.

The Black Head Persian

*This breed originated in Somalia (Africa) and was introduced into the Caribbean.

*It is a large fat –rumped sheep having a pale coat with a fine woolly under coat.

*Its colour is white or light brown except for the head, neck and feet which are dark brown to

black.

*It is polled with long legs, semi – lopped ears and a well – developed dewlap.

*It is polled with long legs, semi – lopped ears and a well – developed dewlap.

*The tip of the tail is thin.

Breeds of Goats

Anglo Nubian

*This breed originated in India, Ethiopia and Egypt but was perfected in England.

*It has a characteristically long large drooping ears and a convex shaped face.

*The hair is short and fine with colour ranging between black, dark brown or tan, with or without

white markings.

*It is the largest of all the recommended breeds and gives the best quality milk, which is high in

butter fat.

Saanen

*This breed originated in Switzerland.

*The colour ranges from pure to creamy white.

*The breed is susceptible to skin cancer, under tropical conditions.

*It is the highest producer of milk among goats.

The Toggenbury

*This breed originated in Switzerland.

*The colour is brown or chocolate with a light stripe down each side of the face.

*The legs below the knees and hocks are light grey or white.

*They are very quiet animals with an extremely pleasing appearance.

Alpine

*There are four main types of Alpines.

1. The French Alpine which ranges from pure white to pure black, with white spots on the neck,

legs and underneath the body, if the animal is not white.

2. The Swiss Alpine, from Switzerland, has a rich brown colour with black markings.

3. The Rock Alpine was developed in America from Swiss goats and pure French Alpine rams.

They resemble the French Alpine in colour.

3. The British Alpine resembles the Toggenburg facially, but is black instead of brown.

1 2

Review Questions

1) Sheep belong to ______sub-family while the goat belongs to _________ sub-family.

2) Sheep and goats are _______ and are classified into _____, ____and _____types.

3) a) List two breed of sheep and goat.

b) Explain each breed listed in ‘a’.

4) State the physical differences between a sheep and a goat.

Home Work

Prepare a scrap book on the types and breeds of sheep and goats.

4 3

References







Week 6

Lesson # 3


Sub Topic: Management of Sheep and Goats

Objectives:

- To be aware of the similarities in stages of reproductive cycle between a sheep and a goat.

-To know the ratio of buck to ewe for sheep and goat

- To be able to define the term ‘flushing’.

Management of Sheep and Goats

*Sheep are easier to control and restrain than goats.

*The latter are much more active and require freedom of movement to maintain good health.

*Both classes of livestock can be reared under the semi – intensive system which allows for

better development and productivity.

Breeding and Reproduction

*Male goats may be ready for servicing as early as 5 – 6 months old but under a semi-intensive

system, they are not used for breeding until they are 12 months old.

*The females also experience very early Oestrous (4-6 months) but are not allowed to mate until

9 -12 months old.

Similarities in Stages of Reproductive Cycle

Age of puberty 5 -6 months

Age of mating 10 -12 months

Duration of oestrus 24 - 36 hours

Gestation period 145 -153 days

Sheep Breeding

*Under good management, the male sheep (ram) can service between 20 – 30 ewes.

*Two rams should be allowed to run with 50 ewes.

*For good reproductive performance, older rams should be allowed to mate with younger ewes

and young rams with older ewes.

*Ram should be kept with their ewes for about 50 -60 days, so as to ensure that the ewes are

pregnant.

*Ewes meant for breeding should show good udder development.

*They should also have strong legs.

*About two weeks before breeding, ewes should be put on good pastures or should be provided

with high protein concentrate.

*This practice is called flushing and is practiced to ensure a high percentage of twinning and a

good crop of lambs.

*Pregnant ewes are separated from the rams about 2- 3 months in to pregnancy.

*After birth, the lambs are allowed to run with their mothers until weaning.

*Male lambs not wanted for breeding can be castrated at age 4 – 6 weeks.

*Weaning is done around 2 – 3 months of age.

Goat Breeding

*Under semi- intensive management, male goats (bucks) are not used for mating until they are

12 months old.

*The females should also be mated at the same age even though they would be ready earlier.

*One buck can service up to 20 does.

*The doe is served after 12 hours from the start of oestrus which lasts for about 24 – 36 hours.

*Her feed can be reduced gradually.

*After giving birth, the kid is allowed to run with the mother.

*The kid is not weaned until 3 – 4 months old.

*At three weeks the kid should be introduced to grass or starter rations.

*Clean fresh water and minerals should be provided

Review Questions

1) Sheep are easier to control and restrain than goats. Explain why.

2) Discuss the similarities in the stages of reproductive cycle between sheep and goats.

3) Male lambs are castrated at the age of ____to ____ weeks old.

4) Explain why flushing is important in the rearing of ewes.

References







Week 7

Lesson # 1


Sub Topic: Management of Sheep and Goats

Objectives:

- To know the methods of milking goat.

-To understand the systems of management of sheep

- To be aware of the feeding methods for sheep and goats.

Milking Goats

*Goat‘s milk is not widely used by people in the region. Milking may be done by machine or by

hand.

*The lactation period of the doe lasts for 180 - 230 days with a total yield of up to 400 Kg

*Milk production increases to its peak at 6 - 8 weeks after which it declines.

Housing Sheep and Goats

*Sheep and goats may be reared intensively, semi – intensively or extensively

*Owing to our weather conditions and abundant vegetation, the system most used is the semi –

intensive.

*The animals are grazed freely in the open pastures during the dry season and are kept indoors at

nights and during the wet season.

*These are very small animals and do not require very elaborate housing

*Houses should be covered, well ventilated and have facilities for feeding, watering and mineral

licks.

*The floor of the pen should be wooden, raised about 0.5 meters from the ground.

Intensive system Semi-Intensive system

Extensive system

Feeds and Feeding

*Generally, sheep and goats maintain themselves by grazing unimproved pastures containing a

wide variety of vegetation which include grasses, legumes and shrubs.

*Goats feed on a wide range of vegetation.

*Commercial rations like starter and growing rations, rice bran and soya bean meal are used to

supplement the grazing.

*The feed can be supplemented with about 1 kg of a mixture of cereal and soya bean meal in

equal parts daily.

Review Questions

State whether the following statements are true or false

1) Milk productions increases at its peak at 6 – 8 weeks

2) Sheep and goats are reared only by semi- intensive system.

3) Elaborate housing is needed for rearing sheep and goat.

4) Goats do not feed on a wide range on vegetation.

5) People in the Caribbean region widely use goat’s milk

6) Animals are allowed to graze freely in open pastures in the dry season.

Home Work

Make a model of one of the systems of management of sheep and goats.

References







Week 7

Lesson # 2


Subtopic: Diseases

Objectives

- To be aware of the diseases that affect sheep and goats.

- To identify the symptoms of each disease.

-To state the preventative measures and treatment for each disease.

Diseases

Sheep and Goats are affected by similar diseases

The diseases are:

*Mastitis

*Foot rot

*Scouring

1) Mastitis

This is a bacterial infection of the udder and teats.

-The infected quarters or quarters become swollen and painful to touch.

-The milk is watery with clots of blood.

-Body temperature rises and the milk yield drops.

Prevention and Treatment

-Keep animals and pens clean.

-Use disinfectant to treat all wounds on the udder promptly.

-Milk healthy animals before milking infected ones.

-Use warm application and gently milk non-infected quarters.

-inject infected teats with antibiotics.

-Get rid of infected milk.

-Use clean equipment for milking.

Infected udder (Mastitis)

2) Foot Rot

-This disease is prevalent among sheep and goats that are rear in damp pastures.

-It is a fungal infection which causes animals to have difficulty in walking.

-This results in the animal being unable to feed itself well.


-Provide dry housing and pastures.

-Keep the feet in good condition – infected feet should be washed, cleaned and the diseased

tissue cut away.

-The area should be treated with a 10% formalin or 30% copper sulphate solution.

-Treated animals should be kept indoors until the condition is over.

Foot Rot

3) Scours or Diarrhoea

-Scours or diarrhoea in goat softens results from heavy infestation of the stomach and intestines

with harmful bacteria, coccidian and / or worms.

-These organisms damage the walls of the digestive tract and cause bleeding and digestive

disorders.

-scour or diarrhoea also results from the eating of stale mouldy food or very young grass.


-Frequent deworming.

-Keep stock away from food that is stale or mouldy and grass that is too young and succulent.

Scours or Diarrhoea

Review Questions

State whether the sentences are True or False

1) Mastitis is a bacterial infection of udder and teats.

2) Sheep and goats are not affected by similar diseases

3) Frequent deworming is a preventative measure of controlling Scours.

4) Foot rot is not prevalent among sheep and goats that are reared in damp pastures.

5) Treated animals should be kept indoors.

Home Work

As an Extension Officer advice Farmers on the benefits of preventative measures of diseases as it

relates to sheep and goat rearing.

References






Publisher Ltd, Trinidad, WI.

Week 7

Lesson # 3


Subtopic: Internal and External Pests

Objectives

- To know the internal and external parasites of sheep and goat

- To be knowledgeable of the preventative measures and treatments of each parasite.

Parasites

Sheep and Goats are affected by similar parasites

The pests are:

Internal External

Tape worms Screw worms Mites Lice

Lung worms Liver Flukes Ticks

Round worms

Internal Parasites

-These are parasites living inside the body of the animals.

-Tapeworms, roundworm, lungworms, and liver-flukes infest different internal organs of the

animals.

-These organs include the stomach, intestine, liver and lungs.

-Internal damage is done and the animal suffers from diarrhoea, anemia, loss of hair, loss of

condition and general weakness.


-Good sanitation and feeding prevent the animal from becoming susceptible to these parasites.

-Rotational grazing reduces the buildup of any infestation in the pastures.

-Regular deworming with drugs such as Miliven, being administered in the feed, should be

carried out.

Life cycle of a lung worm

Life cycle of a liver fluke

Review Questions

State whether the sentences are True or False

1) Liver – flukes and lung worms are internal parasites that affect sheep and goats.

2) Rotational grazing does not reduces the build – up of any of my infestation in the pastures.

3) Diarrhoea and hair loss are symptoms of internal parasites

4) All worms affect the same organs of the animals

5) The life cycle of an internal parasite begins from the pasture grass

Home Work

In one paragraph, explain the benefits of regular deworming of sheep and goat.

References







Week 8

Lesson # 1


Subtopic: External Parasites

Objectives

- To identify the external parasites based on their specific symptoms.

- To know the correct preventative and treatment of specific parasite.

External Parasites

- These parasites live on the outside of the animals.

Ticks

These suck the blood of the animals and cause Anemia.

-When ticks bite an animal, it cause irritation which result in an itch.

-Itching causes restlessness and damage to the skin of the animal.

-The lesions are openings for other external parasites.


-Ticks can be treated with tickicides, e.g., Bercotox.

-Rotational grazing also controls the infection by ticks in pastures.

Life Cycle of a Tick

Lice

-These can be spread by contact and infected animals become itchy and restless.

-They rub themselves against trees and fences causing damage that can lead to secondary

infection.


-Lice can be treated in the same way as ticks by:

*Dipping, spraying or dusting with an appropriate chemical.

Life Cycle of Lice

Screw Worm

-These are common among most classes of livestock.

The larvae are derived from eggs laid by the screw worm fly.

-These eggs are laid at the edge of fresh wounds or sores (lesions)

-The maggots then enter the wounds, where they feed on the tissues of the animals causing the

wounds to become more severe and to give off a foul odour.


-The maggots must be picked out and the wound should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.

-A screw worm spray can be sprayed into the wound to control any further attack.

Life Cycle of Screw Worms

Review Questions

Complete the Table Below

1)

Name of Parasites Symptoms

Animals rub themselves against trees and

fences

Screw worms

Animals itching which cause restlessness

2) Identify two examples of external parasites.

3) State the preventative control measures and treatment of each example listed in ‘a’.

4) Explain two similarities amongst the external parasites.

References







Week 8

Lesson # 2


Topic: General Agronomic Practices of Crops

Subtopic: Varieties of Banana

Objectives

- To identify the varieties of banana cultivated in Guyana.

- To know the origin and distribution of the crop.

Banana

Botanical Name: Musa acuminate

Family : Musaceae

Origin and Distribution

*A banana is an edible fruit produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in

the genus Musa.

*In some countries, bananas are used for cooking and may be called plantains.

Picture of a bunch of banana

*The fruit is variable in colour, size and firmness, but usually elongated and curved, with soft

flesh rich in starch and covered with a rind which may be green, red, purple, yellow or brown

when ripe.

*The fruit grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant.

*Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come two wild species – Musa

acuminate and Musa balbisianna.

Varieties

Gros Michel

- The fruit of this variety are of good flavor and high quality.

-Various species of the Cavendish banana, a hardier group, have been crossed with Gros Michel

to produce commercial varieties.

Other Varieties include the Cavendish, Valery, Lacatan and Robusta. The Valery, Lacatan and

Robusta are the three most important.

*Locally we have Sweet Fig, Sour Fig and Apple.

Apple Banana Sweet Fig Banana

Cavendish bananas

Cavendish bananas are the fruits of one of a number of banana cultivars belonging to

the Cavendish subgroup of the AAA banana cultivar group.

Gran Enano or Giant Cavendish

Greater fruit, greater weight and cylindrical, although shorter and more curved than those of the

clone ‘Robusta’. Plant of low growing habit, thick pseudo stem and wide foliar system.

Lacatan

It is considered as a primitive type of ‘Cavendish’ from which all the other cultivars originated

by mutation. The main producing countries are Brazil and Cameroun. The fruits are similar to

‘Valery’. High and vigorous plant, similar to ‘Gros Michel’.

Robusta

Mainly exported from the Ivory Coast. Also named ‘Poyo’, this variety developed from

‘Cavendish’. Shorter fruit with a very sweet flavour.

Valery

Great fruits but less cylindrical than those of ‘Gros Michel’. Sweet and consistent flavour. The

name is registered as a brand.

Sour Fig Banana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_banana_cultivars#AAA_Group

Cavendish banana

Characters used to classify banana cultivars derived from M. acuminata and M.

balbisiana

Character M. acuminata M. balbisiana

Color of pseudostem Black or grey-brown spots Unmarked or slightly marked

Petiole canal Erect edge, with scarred inferior

leaves, not against the pseudostem

Closed edge, without leaves,

against the pseudostem

Stalk Covered with fine hair Smooth

Pedicels Short Long

Ovum Two regular rows in the locule Four irregular rows in the

locule

Elbow of the bract Tall (< 0.28) Short (> 0.30)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudostem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petiole_(botany)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locule

Bend of the bract The bract wraps behind the opening The bract raises without

bending behind the opening

Form of the bract Lance- or egg-shaped, tapering

markedly after the bend

Broadly egg-shaped

Peak of the bract Acute Obtuse

Color of the bract Dark red or yellow on the outside,

opaque purple or yellow on the inside

Brown-purple on the outside,

crimson on the inside

Discoloration The inside of the bract is more bright

toward the base

The inside of the bract is

uniform

Scarification of the

bract

Prominent Not prominent

Free petal of the

male flower

Corrugated under the point Rarely corrugated

Color of the male

flower

White or cream Pink

Color of the

markings

Orange or bright yellow Cream, yellow, or pale pink

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bract

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepal

Review Questions

1) The botanical name for banana is ______ and the family is_______.

2) A banana is an ______fruit produced by large herbaceous _________plants in the genus

_______.

3) The fruit grows in ______ hanging from the top of the plant.

Home Work

Identify two local varieties of banana and state two differences between the varieties.

References







Week 8

Lesson # 3

Topic: General Agronomic Practices of Crops

Subtopic: Planting and Cultivation of Banana

Objectives

-To be aware of the methods of propagation of banana.

- To identify the three main types of suckers.

Planting and Cultivation

*The banana is propagated exclusively by vegetative methods.

*The pseudo stem produce three main types of suckers: Maiden, water and sword.

*The water sucker is one in which the stem is the same width from top to bottom. These are

usually produced by the remote or grandparents corm and must never be used for planting.

*The sword suckers are very vigorous and produced by the main stem. These are the best suckers

for planting.

*Maiden suckers also make good planting materials.

*The best plants are obtained from the corms of old stems which have one or two buds on them.

*Bananas keep growing for several years.

*The average period of productive growth, without replanting is about five years.

*This is particularly true of crops planted on clayey soils commonly found in Guyana.

*All new planting materials for banana should be free from pests and diseases.

*The farmer’s aim is to produce a high tonnage per hectare, although individual fruits may be

smaller.

*This means that if the spacing between plants is reduced, more plants can be planted per hectare

and higher yields can be obtained.

Pictures of the type of suckers

Maiden

Suckers

Review Questions

1) Banana is propagated by ________method.

2) Differentiate amongst the three main types of suckers.

3) (a) State the best type of sucker used for planting banana

(b)Explain your choice

References







Week 9

Lesson # 1

Topic: Cultivation of Banana

Subtopic: Application of Fertilizers

Objectives

- To identify the types of fertilizers used.

- To know how to apply fertilizers with varying methods.

- To be knowledgeable of the process of pruning.

- To become aware of the steps involved in harvesting banana.

Application of Fertilizer

*Banana requires fertilizer, if a high level of production is to be maintained year after year.

*At least two applications per year are recommended, but the rate of application and type of

fertilizer used has to be determined by soil testing.

*A mixed fertilizer is generally recommended since bananas do not appear to be show any major

mineral deficiency.

Pruning

*The attitude towards cutting out suckers has changed considerably since the introduction of the

practice of selling banana by weight.

*In fertile soils, as many as four or five suckers may be allowed to develop from the parent plant;

whereas in less fertile soil, it is advisable to allow only two suckers to be produced at different

stages of development.

*When a sucker needs to be removed from the parent plant, this should be done with a sharp

cutlass or machete, by inserting it between the sucker and the parent.

*A smooth, clean cut is essential since it discourages possible infection of the plant.

Pruning

Harvesting

*The top portion of the pseudo stem is cut off and allowed to remain as the base of the plant.

*Most losses occur during harvesting.

*In some plantations, the young fruits are wrapped in polythene bags to prevent gazing of the

fruit.

*The bananas are transported from the field to boxing plants.

*Hands of bananas may be dipped in growth regulators substances gibberellins to improve post –

harvest storage.

*Keeping at temperature of 13°c -15°c and 85 % relative humidity also prolongs the storage

time.

Harvesting Banana

Review Questions

1) ‘Banana requires fertilizer ‘.State why.

2) What type of fertilizer is recommended for banana?

3) Discuss the process of pruning.

4) Explain the terms –suckers and pseudo – stem.

5) Explain the steps involved in harvesting banana.

Home Work

In one paragraph explain the nutritive value of banana.

References







Week 9

Lesson # 2

Topic: Cultivation of Banana

Subtopic: Pests and Diseases of Bananas

Objectives

- To identify the diseases that affects the different cultivars.

-To know how diseases can be controlled.

-To become aware of the economic importance of banana.

Diseases

1) Panama Disease

This disease is caused by fusarium soil fungus, which enters the plants through the roots and

travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gel and gums that cut off the flow of

water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts

of sunlight.

2) Black Sigatoka

*This is a fungal leaf spot disease. It is also known as black leaf streak.

*It has spread to all main cultivars of banana.

*Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received

commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.

3) Banana Bunchy Top Virus (Bbtv)

*This moves from plant to plant by aphids.

*It stunts leaves, resulting in a “bunched” appearance.

*Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruits.

*There is no cure.

*Its effects can be minimized by planting only tissue –cultured plants.

4) Banana Bacterial Wilt

*This is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris.

*It affects all cultivars of banana.

Control Measures

MANAGEMENT:

- Nematicides

- Cultural practices

- Nematode – free planting material

- Composting and mulching

- Crop rotation

Economic Importance

*Bananas are one of the most consumed fruits in America.

*They are often eaten raw, but can also come in the form of chips, on an ice –cream sundae , or

on a breakfast oatmeal .pancake , or cereal.

*Banana are a component of the Banana Rice Applesauce Toast (BRAT) Diet recommended to

people who have diarrhoea or are experiencing an upset stomach.

*The potassium helps to regulate the fluid balance in the body and the fibre aids in digestion.

Review Questions

1) a) List three diseases that affect banana.

b) Explain any two of the disease listed in ‘a’.

2) Identify and explain the two most popular methods of control practice in Guyana.

Home Work

Discuss the economic importance of banana cultivation to Guyana‘s economy.

References







Week 9

Lesson # 3

SubTopic: Cultivation of Banana

Subtopic: Pests of Banana

Objectives

- To be knowledgeable of pest management of banana

Pests of Banana

Nematodes

Nematodes are a common banana plant pest. They cause rotting of the corms and act as a vector

to the fungus Fusarium oxysporum. There are a number of different species of nematode that like

bananas as much as we do. Commercial farmers apply nematicides, which when properly

applied, will protect the crop. Otherwise, the soil has to be cleared, plowed and then exposed to

the sun and left fallow for up to 3 years.

Weevils

The black weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) or banana stalk borer, banana weevil borer or corm

weevil, is the second most destructive pest. Black weevils attack the base of the pseudostem and

tunnel upward whereupon a jelly-like sap oozes out from the entry point. Different pesticides are

used commercially depending upon the country to control black weevils. Biological control

utilizes a predator, Piaesiusjavanus, but has not been shown to have any truly beneficial results.

Thrips

Banana rust thrips (C. signipennis), as its name suggests, stains the peel, causing it to split and

exposes the flesh which then begins to rot. Insecticidal dust (Diazinon) or a spraying of Dieldrin

can control thrips, which pupate in the soil. Additional insecticides combined with polyethylene

bagging are also used to control thrips on commercial farms.

Scarring beetle

The banana fruit scarring beetle, or coquito, invade the bunches when the fruit it young. The

banana scab moth infests the inflorescence and is controlled with the use of an injection or

dusting of pesticide.

Sap-sucking insects

Mealy bugs, red spider mites and aphids may also pay a visit to banana plants.

Review Questions

1) State the pests that affect banana.

2) Explain any three pests listed in question one

3) Identify and explain the two most popular methods of pest control practices in Guyana.

Home Work

Discuss two reasons why a farmer needs to be knowledgeable of pest management

References







Week 10

Lesson # 1

Topic: Cultivation of Heliconia

Subtopic: Growing Heliconia

Objectives

- To identify heliconia plants.

- To understand the process of preparation and planting of heliconia.

Heliconia

*Heliconia, derived from a Greek word helilwnios , is a genus of about 100-200 species of

flowering plants.

*Many species of heliconia are found in rain forest or tropical wet forest of these regions.

*Collectively, these plants are also simply referred to as heliconias.

*The heliconia are a monophyletic genus in the family Heliconiaceae, but formerly include in

the family Musaceae, which include banana.

*The herbaceous plants range from 0.5 to nearly 4.5 meters tall depending on the species.

*The simple leaves of these plants are 15 -30 cm.

*They are characteristically long, oblong, alternate, or growing opposite one another on non –

woody petioles often longer than the leaf funning large clumps with age.

*Their flowers are produced on long, erect, or dropping panicles and consist of brightly colour

waxy bracts, with small true flowers peeping out from the bracts.

*The flowers can be hues of red, oranges, yellows and greens and are subtended by brightly

coloured bracts.

*The plants typically flower during the wet season.

Sowing Heliconia

*Preparing your potting mixture: select a suitable potting mixture and add 1/3 peat moss and 1/3

sand.

*You can then fill the container with prepared mixture.

*If you are planting your heliconia outdoors, dig a hole slightly larger than the rootball.

Add sand and peat moss.

Water thoroughly and keep the soil moist but not sogging.

*Heliconia needs an abundance of water.

*Fertilize at least once a month with an all - purpose fertilizer.

*Heliconia should be planted in a well-draining soil with the top sticking out of the ground.

*Heliconia flourishes well in loamy soil rich in humus.

*Heliconia bloom once or several times a year.

Growing Heliconias

*Typically, heliconia grow naturally in lowland to mid – elevation humid tropical areas.

*They are fast growing plants, which easily take advantage of soil fertility.

*In cultivation, a plant is often started from a rhizome division, which includes at least one erect

pseudostem.

*The pot is put in a warm, lightly shaded spot and watered regularly to keep it moist but not

perpetually soggy.

*If the season is cool or dry, the plant will be held until hot / wet weather condition is expected.

Review Questions

State whether the following statements are TRUE OR FALSE

1) Heliconia has 200 – 300 species of flowering plants.

2) Helilwnios is the origin word for heliconia.

3) Banana is in the same family as heliconia.

4) Heliconia plants should be fertilized with an all – purpose fertilizer.

5) Heliconia flourishes well in loamy soil rich in humus.

6) The plants grow best in moist and slightly shaded areas.

Home Work

Prepare a scrap book on ten species of heliconia.

References







Week 10

Lesson # 2


Subtopic: Fertilizing and Mulching

Objectives

-To understand the steps involved in fertilizing heliconia.

-To be aware the benefits of mulching.

-To appreciate the economic importance of heliconia.

Fertilizing

*Plant Heliconias 4-6 inches deeper than they are in their sprouting container.

*Place a slow releasing fertilizer directly to the planting hole.

*Planting tablets 13-5-13 give a practical boost to the newly planted heliconia.

*In addition to the fertilizer placed in the planting holes, the plants should be heavily fertilized

four times per year.

Mulching

*Maintaining a layer of organic mulch around the heliconia plants serves several purposes:

-Mulch helps to retain moisture around root zone.

-To mulch also helps to hold fertilizers for slower release to the plants.

-Nematodes are often a serious problem for plants growing in rocks or sandy soils.

-Mulches help to control weeds and maintain a tidier appearance around the plants.

Economic Importance

*They are wildly used as ornamentals.

*Heliconias are grown for their beautiful, brilliant colourful flowering bracts.

*Heliconia flowers are usually highly modified leaves and bracts.

*The flowering stems are mostly pendulous.

*A bract is a leaf structure at the base of a flower.

*Heliconia flowers are produced on long, erect or dropping panicles and consist of brightly

coloured waxy bracts with small true flower inside the bracts.

*Bracts which can be orange, purple, red, yellow, pink, green or their combinations.

Review Questions

FILL IN THE BLANKS.

1) The plants should be heavily fertilized _______ times per year.

2) Mulching helps to retain _______ around the root zone.

3) Heliconia is widely used as ____________.

4) Flowers are produced on long _____ or _____ panicles.

5) A bract is a _____ ______ at the base of a flower.

6) Heliconia plants are _______ feeders.

Homework

Write a short essay on the ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE of Heliconia in Guyana.

References







Week 10

Lesson # 3


Sub topic: Heliconia Disease

Objectives

-To identify the diseases based on their symptoms

-To be aware of the effects of disease infestation

- To understand the preventative and control measures of diseases

-To be aware of the factors affecting flower quality

Heliconia Diseases

Disorders Diseases Treatment

Aerial disorder

Leaf spots

Bipolaris and Alternaria

Shoot rots

Emerging shoots

Pythiummyriotylum

Preicur and fongarid. Avoid

water-logging

Basal rots

Pseudostem at ground level

Cyclindrocladiumfloridnum

No chemical control

available. Usually attacks

weakened plants, so avoid

water-logging which can

cause other root

Soil borne plants disorder

Wilt syndrome

A form species of fusarium

oxysporum

No chemical control

available. Clean knives when

harvesting flowers, clean

planting materials. Never re-

plant on diseased ground.

Rhizome rot

Root knot nematode

Cyclindrocladium floridanum

Meloidogyne

No chemical control

currently available. avoid

water –logging

Nematicides not

recommended due to cost and

toxicity. Organic mulches,

e.g, green manures, forage

hay incorporated into beds at

planting.

Root rots caused by poor soil

drainage

Fine- feeder roots

Phytophthora and Pythium

Recommended fungicidal

grench, e.g, cropper

oxychlorride, fongarid .avoid

planting in wet season.

Incorporate gypsum in clay

soils to aid in water dispersal.

Do not plant rhizomes too

deep in beds.

Factors affecting flower

quality

Physical

Biological

Abrasion due to wind causes

brown superficial lesions on

peduncles and bracts.

Spray-damage due to

herbicide drift can cause

discolouration of bracts. Poor

spraying practices can cause

scorch marks and reduce

bloom quality.

Flower attacked by ants and

rodents are not salable.

Incorporate wind breaks, e.g.,

native timber, palms and/or

bahama grass.

Do not spray on windy days;

choose calm weather

conditions. Spray in early

morning or late evening,

cooler parts of the day. Use

correct formulation,

concentrations recommended

on the label.

Aim to reduce pest

populations through

Curvularia and Alternaria can

cause severe spotting on

bracts.

Bipolarisincurvata can cause

flower bract spots.

appropriate trash

management.

Regular spray program of

bravo. Improve aeration

during wet season to avoid

water build-up on leaves.

Regular spray of Mancozeb,

Rovral and tilt. improve

aeration during wet season to

avoid water build-up.

Review Questions

1) Explain why cut Heliconia should be kept cool.

Discuss the statements below

2)”Clean knives when harvesting flowers”

3) “Spray Heliconia early in the morning or late evening or cooler parts of the day.”

References







Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXVMCaMfAyg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXVMCaMfAyg



January 2021

Week 11

Lesson # 1

Grade: 9


Topic: Fish Culture

Sub topic: Fish Products

Objectives

- To be cognizant of what is fish farming

-To be aware of the products of fish

-To classify fish into classes

-To identify the physical characteristics of a fish

Fish Culture

Fish farming or fish culture is a branch of agriculture involving the breeding, rearing and marketing

of fish. In Guyana and the Caribbean, fish farming is basically for food since fish is nutritious and

is a relatively cheap source of protein.

Fishing is a lucrative business and there are large firms that are engaged in fishing for fish and

prawns in the waters around us in the Caribbean.

Fish Products

Fish provides us with a valuable source of protein that is more easily digested than most other

forms of meat.

Some fishes are rich in oil e.g. Salmon. They also have a high content of vitamins A and D. Fish

is also a good source of minerals such as iodine, phosphorous and calcium.

Other products which are obtained from fish are fertilizers, glue, soap, linoleum, shortening, paint,

lubricant, ink, gelatin, artificial pearls, sharkskin, leather, Insulin and other medicine.

Fish catching is a popular sport as well as a leisure-time activity. Many people keep fish in

aquariums and for exhibition.

External features of a fish (Tilapia)

Classification of fish

Review Question

Complete the fish crossword puzzle below:

References







Week 11

Lesson # 2

Topic: Fish Culture

Sub topic: Types of fishing

Objectives

- To know the types of fishing

- To identify the methods used for fishing

- To be familiar with the fishes caught under each type of fishing

-To be knowledgeable of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of fishing

Fishing

Fishing is done by any one of these ways:

*Inland fishing

*Coastal or off-shore fishing

*Deep-sea fishing or Off-shore fishing

Inland fishing

Inland fishing is also called fresh-water fishing and is usually done in ponds, swamps, lakes, creeks

and rivers. Inland fishing has been the chief source of fish for domestic use in villages and interior

locations. The methods used for fishing are:

- Poisoning fish

- Shooting with bow and arrow

- Trapping by allowing the water to channel out leaving the fish behind

- Casting nets

- Hook and line

- Feeling by hand in shallow water

- Trapping seine.

Casting nets

Shooting with bow and arrow

Hook and line

Inshore fishing or coastal fishing

This is done by fishing in coastal water or along the shores in small open boats. Some fishermen

cast nets along the shore and catch such fishes as four –eye and mullet. Others throw out baited

hooks from small boats. These hooks are floated by corks or calabash. The lines are dragged slowly

through the water. Selected varieties of fish are caught by this method e.g. curass, catfish, snapper.

In Guyana this method is called “the cadell”.

Other fishermen use the pin scine method. In this method the net is cast and pinned in a shallow

area to trap the fishes when the water recedes.

Many fishes are caught in this way .They include queriman, mullet, snook, gail-barker, butter-

fish, shark, morocut, catfish, highwater, curass.The catch is loaded into boats and brought to

shore.

Deep- sea fishing or Off-shore fishing

This kind of fishing is done by fishermen who spend weeks or months at sea in trawlers.

Deep sea fishing is done by trawling fish pots, nets, heavy line or trawl-nets. These are pulled

mouth open through the water behind the ship.

Trawlers are equipped with sophisticated equipment to detect large shoals of fish under the sea.

Review Questions

Fill in the blanks

1) In land fishing is called________ _________ fishing.

2) Which method of fishing is the chief source of fish? ________________

3) Two examples of fishes caught using coastal fishing are _____ and______.

4) Large vessel called _______ are used for deep sea fishing

5) Trout, tuna and prawns are caught when______ _______ trawling is done

6) Casting nets, bow and arrow and dragging seines are methods of ________ fishing.

Home work

(a) State the most common method of fishing in your community

(b) List two advantages and two disadvantages of the method

References







Week 11

Lesson # 3

Topic: Fish Farming

Sub topic: Rearing fish-(Tilapia)

Objectives

-To know the techniques for setting up the pond

- To identify the diseases and predators that affect tilapia

- To be familiar with the method of harvesting tilapia

Pond Management

Pond management plays critical role before and after stocking the fish. Various measures should

be carried out as part of pond management. The following are the fish pond management activities.

Pre stocking:

In case of new ponds, pre-stocking starts with liming and filling the water. In case of existing

ponds, any unwanted weeds and fish should be cleared by manual, mechanical or chemical means.

Unwanted and predatory fishes and other animals should be removed by repeated netting or by

sun drying the pond bed for couple of days.

Liming:

The fish ponds which are acidic in nature are less productive than alkaline ponds. However, lime

is used to bring the pH to the desired level for better production. Apart from this, lime has other

benefits as mentioned below.

* Lime increases the pH level.

* Lime acts as buffer and avoids fluctuations of ph.

* Lime increases the resistance of soil to parasites.

* Lime toxic effect kills the parasites and lime speeds up organic decomposition.

* If you are planning to go for commercial fish farming, soil test should be tested. On an average,

225 to 250 kg/ha lime is required to cover the 1 hectare pond. However, actual dose depends on

pH of the soil and water.

* In case of new pond, the pond should be filled with water after liming application.

Fertilization:

Fertilization should be carried out depending on the soil quality in the pond. A combination of

both organic and inorganic fertilizers may be used for best results. The fertilization schedule has

to be prepared and can be modified depending on the growth of the fish.

Organic Application:

Organic manure to be applied after a gap of 3 days from the date of liming; Cow-dung at 5000

kg/ha may be applied; Requirement of nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers would vary as per

the nature of the soil fertility indicated below.

Inorganic Application:

Stocking:

The fish pond will be ready for stocking after 2 weeks of application of fertilizers. Tilapia fry

(small fish) can be procured from the approved hatcheries.

Nursery Rearing:

The Tilapia fry should be reared in nursery ponds at least a month before they come to actual pond.

The nursery rearing can be done in nylon meshed hapas suspended in grow out ponds. 50 – 80 fry

may be reared in one square meter.

Feeding can be done using small floating pellets and the feeding can be reduced from 30% -20%

of the body weight as the fish grows and moved into the grow out pond.

Special feeds can be bought from the market. The Tilapia fry’s should be fed at least 3 – 4 times a

day based on the demand for feed to get good survival and growth.

The ‘hapa’ should be cleaned regularly to facilitate water flow.

After rearing one month in nursery ponds, Tilapia fingerlings can be released into actual growing

pond with a stocking density of 3-6 No’s /sq. meter for better development and survival.

Post Stocking:

- Supplementary Feeding: Generally, any fish needs much more feed than what is available in

the pond or tank. However, Tilapia fish can be fed with artificial feed and floating pelleted feed.

A commercial feed with Feed Conversion Rate of 1.25 to 1.5 is ideally preferred.

- Manuring: Organic Manuring may be applied in monthly installments @ 900-1000 kg/ha and

inorganic fertilization may be applied at monthly intervals alternating with organic Manuring.

However, the monthly rate of fertilization will depend on pond productivity and the growth of the

Tilapia fish. Make sure that excess fertilization does not take place which may result in

eutrophication.

- Monitoring: Periodical monitoring of the fish to be carried out for disease incidence and growth.

Records for day to day management of the pond to be kept for inspection.

- Harvest: Harvesting of the Tilapia fish is generally done at the end of 5 to 6 months, when the

fish attains an average weight of 500 to 600 grams in 5-6 months. A production of 8 – 10 tons/ha

can be obtained in one crop of 6 months.

Harvesting should be done by partial dewatering and repeated netting. Based on the market

demand fish farmers can sell the live fish to market or can be frozen and export to international

markets.

Review Question

Write an essay entitled ‘benefits of fish farming’ within 150 to 200 words

Home Work

Name the ways in which fish is sold in our local market and give examples. An example is done

for you.

Ways Fishes

Fresh Patwa, houri, catfish

References







https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/guidance-tilapia-fish-farming-amisy-fish

https://www.aquanet.com/small-scale-tilapia-farming

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDWleeLgg3o

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/guidance-tilapia-fish-farming-amisy-fish

https://www.aquanet.com/small-scale-tilapia-farming

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FDWleeLgg3o

Week 12

Lesson # 1

Topic: Fish Management

Sub topic: Production Systems of rearing fish

Objectives

-To know the production systems of rearing fish

-To be familiar with the Hapa method of fingerling production

Production Systems

*Extensive System

Extensive systems involve fish being taken from a local river and placed in ponds. Animal manure

is used as a fertilizer to promote the growth of pondweed, which oxygenates the water and provides

food for the fish. This system is cheap as it does not require much labour or additional food for the

fish.

*Intensive Systems

Intensive systems involve tanks or ponds in which conditions are strictly controlled. The

temperature is kept within the optimum range for the type of fish, and the oxygen levels and pH

are carefully monitored to ensure maximum growth rate. Care is taken to ensure that organic matter

from farm sewage or silage does not get into the water. Organic matter promotes the growth of

blue-green algae, which can be toxic to fish. Algal blooms can also block pipes and waterways

Hapa Method of Fingerling Production

A hapa is a rectangular or square net cage placed in a pond for holding fish. They are made of fine

mesh netting material so the fry cannot escape. Hapa sizes vary but the ideal size measures 3 m

long, 3 m wide, and 1.5 m deep.

When using hapas to generate fingerlings:

stock brooders used should be at a ratio of about 1 : 5 to 1 : 7 males to females with 4

brooders / m² (for tilapia)

hapas should be inspected for fry every day

the fry should be removed using a scoop net after two weeks and stocked in tanks, other

hapas or a rearing pond

fry reared in a hapa should be fed four times per day until the fry reach the desired size (5

g for tilapia)

a diet in powder form should be used at the rate of 5–10% of the total body weight of all

the fish per day

Red hybrid in a hapa net.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hapa

Advantages of the hapa method Disadvantages of the hapa method

Fry and brooders are easily handled Management is more demanding compared

with open ponds

Production per unit of area is high Fish may die because of aggressiveness

during spawning.

Uniform fry of relatively similar age is

assured

Feeding is necessary

The loss of fry is minimized. Hapas can be destroyed during stormy

weather.

Hapas can be set up in ponds stocked with

fish

Hapa material will degrade in sunlight and

need replacing.

Fish may easily escape if the hapa is

damaged.

Localized poor water quality may result from

uneaten feed and fish waste.

Hapa mesh will get clogged, limiting water

circulation and needing periodic scrubbing.

Review Questions

1) List and explain the conditions which are controlled in intensive fish farming systems

2) State why extensive system is cheaper than intensive system

3) Define the term Hapa

4) List three advantages and three disadvantages of the Hapa method

Home work

Research and record findings of the extent to which fish farming is carried out locally and

regionally.

Reference







Week 12

Lesson # 2


Sub topic: Fish Diseases and Parasites

Objectives

-To be cognizant of the types of diseases and parasites that affect fish

-To be familiar with the symptoms associated with disease and parasite infestation

Fish diseases

There are two broad categories of disease that affect fish, infectious and non-infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms present in the environment or carried by

other fish. They are contagious diseases. In contrast, non-infectious diseases are caused by

environmental problems, nutritional deficiencies, or genetic anomalies; they are not contagious

and usually cannot be cured by medications.

Many disease outbreaks of captive fish stocks are associated with stressful conditions such as poor

water quality, excessive crowding or inadequate nutrition.

Types of diseases

1) Infectious diseases are contagious diseases caused by parasites, bacteria, viruses, or fungi.

These often require some type of medication to help the fish recover.

2) Non-infectious diseases are broadly categorized as environmental, nutritional, or genetic.

These problems are often corrected by changing management practices.

Fish disease outbreaks are often complex, involving both infectious and non-infectious

processes.

Diseases

Cotton mouth

This bacterial infection can affect cold-water and tropical fish. It’s sometimes confused with a

fungal infection because of the appearance of white or greyish white spots on the fish’s head,

though usually this infection starts as a pale area around the head and mouth. This may turn yellow/

brownish in colour with red-tinged edges.

Dropsy

Usually fatal to fish, Dropsy is characterized by a swelling of your fish’s abdomen, sometimes

causing their scales to stick out. Fish will appear listless and lose their appetite

Fin/tail rot

If you see that your fish’s fins or tail are frayed and the edges appear white, then they may be

rotting. Your fish may also settle at the bottom of the tank and stop eating. This can be caused by

poor water quality, but it can start with bullying from other fish.

Fungal infections

Fungal infections are one of the most common disorders for fish. Fungal spores naturally populate

fish tanks, but sick, stressed or injured fish can cause a dangerous increase. These infections

manifest as a white cotton-wool-like growth on the skin, mouth, fins or gills. This condition is

normally a secondary problem.

Hole in the head

Cichlids, and in particular Discus and Oscars are the fish breeds most commonly affected by this

disorder. Vitamin deficiencies, poor-quality food and unhealthy water conditions can contribute to

this ailment. You’ll notice lesions that appear as small pits in your fish’s head and on the lateral

line.

Slime disease

This parasitic disease is characterized by an overproduction of mucus coating, which appears as a

grey/white to blue mucus coating. You’ll also see rapid breathing if your fish has this ailment,

which is caused by fish feeling stressed.

The mucus covers the fish’s gills, they can suffocate. Stress can be increased by poor water

conditions, overcrowding or sudden changes in temperature.

Fish Parasites

Parasites are small animals that require one or more host animals in order to complete their life-

cycle. Generally they cannot survive outside of their host. Their presence may or may not cause

health effects in the host animal.

Types of parasites

There are three types of fish parasites of public health importance; roundworms (nematodes),

flatworms or flukes (trematodes) and tapeworms (cestodes).

The most common roundworms are from the family of Anisakidae and include Anisakis spp.,

Pseudoterranova spp., Phocascaris spp., and Contracaecum spp. The most common flatworms or

flukes involved in human infection are liver fluke worms belonging to the family Opisthorchiidae

and some species of intestinal fluke worms belonging to the Heterophyidae and Echinostomatidae

families.

Parasites

Anchor worms

Physical/Behavioral Signs/Symptoms:

- Scratching against objects by the affected fish

- A protuberance of whitish-green threads from the fish's skin

- Points of attachment are marked by inflammation

Cause:

Young anchor worms are small crustaceans that burrow into the fish’s skin and enter the

muscles. Here they begin to develop and release eggs before they die leaving behind damage,

which can become infected.

Body flukes


- Scratching against objects by the affected fish

- Layer of mucus covering gills or body

- Gills moving rapidly

- Chewed on or eaten-away gills or fins.

- Reddened skin

Cause:

Undesirable environmental conditions including poor water quality, overcrowding and/or stress

by incompatible species creates conditions that can lead to destructive outbreaks. Flukes are often

present in aquariums but remain harmless under ideal conditions. Avoiding stressful conditions is

a key to prevention, but once an outbreak occurs, prompt treatment is critical.

Note: Pale fish with drooping fins, rapid respiration and/or hollow bellies indicate more extensive

infestation.

Clamped fin


-Fins are folded against the body and not fanned out as they should be

-Listless behavior

Cause:

Not indicative of one specific disease. Can be a reflection of various problems, including bad water

quality and/or parasites. Important to first determine the specific problem in order to treat fish

properly.

Fungus


-Initially, you’ll notice a gray or whitish growth in and on the skin and/or fins

-Untreated fungus resembles a cottony growth

-Eventually, as fungus continues to eat away at the fish’s body, the fish will die

Cause:

Fish that develop fungus are already in a vulnerable state, the result of other serious health

problems or attacks, such as parasites, a physical injury or a bacterial infection.

Gill flukes

(Flatworms approximately 1 mm long)


-Infected gills and skin

-Similar to ick, but telltale sign is movement and possibly eyespots, something that is not found in

ick. Use magnification lens to observe

-Once gills are destroyed, fish will die

Cause:

Undesirable environmental conditions including poor water quality, overcrowding and/or stress

by incompatible species creates conditions that can lead to destructive outbreaks. Flukes are often

present in aquariums but remain harmless under ideal conditions. Avoiding stressful conditions is

a key to prevention, but once an outbreak occurs, prompt treatment is critical.

Gill mites


-Gasping at the water’s surface

-Gill covers that are partially open

Cause:

Fish that are already infested by gill mites are brought into aquariums. The tiny mites stay on the

fish’s gills, and attack the fish by feeding on blood and living flesh.

Review Question

Discuss three diseases and three parasites that affect fishes. Under the following headings:

- Name

- Cause

- Symptoms

- Control/ preventative measures

Home work

In 100-150 words explain how diseases and parasites affect the fishing industry

Reference







Week 12

Lesson # 3


Sub topic: The Economic Importance of fish farming

Objectives

-To be aware of the advantages of fish farming

Economic importance of fish farming

1. Sources of Food

The importance of aquaculture as a source of food is indescribable. Fish and other seafood are

great sources of protein for humans. They also have to a greater extent nutritional merit. We get

natural oils such as omega 3 fatty acids which is essential for our health form fish. It offers us

white meat which is good for the blood in reducing or controlling the cholesterol levels as opposed

to beef or other animal meat.

2. Sources of Fuel

Fish or aqua-cultural product is important for use as fuel for a long time. From the early time, it

was not commercially used but it is used today for commercial purpose as it is sustainable and eco-

friendly. Like, algae are tardily being formulated into substitute fuel sources by having them

produce fuels that can exchange present-day fossil fuels. Algae produce lipoids that if gleaned can

be cauterized as a substitute fuel source whose entirely spin-offs would be water when burnt.

3. Job Opportunities

Aquaculture is creating an increasing number of job opportunities. Potential jobs in the market is

created as well laborers are needed to keep up the pools and harvest the organisms grown.

4. Time is economized

Fishermen’s time is utilized efficiently as they do not need to spend their whole days at sea fishing.

It allows them spare time to engage in other economic activities such as employment in the

substitute business sector.

5. Reduce Trade Deficit

The most indescribable economic importance of aquaculture is reducing the trade deficit of

aquaculture developed countries.

6. Pollution Control

As we know the soil is the natural filter of the earth, mollusks or seaweed act in like manner.

Seaweed acts a lot like the grass of the sea in filtering water. Both these beings strain the water

that flows through them and clean the water as well.

7. Using Sea Resources Sustainably

Aquaculture provides alternatives resources for fishing from the sea. Enhanced demand for

nutrient or food sources and an increase in globalization has contributed to enhanced fishing. At

the same time, this has guided fishermen to become selfish and overfish the wanted or high-

demand species. Through the cultivation of fish or aquaculture, it allows for both an alternative

and a chance for wild stocks to refill over time.

8. Biodiversity Conservation

Artificial aquacultures help us to defend biodiversity by reducing the fishing activities on the wild

stock in their ecosystems. By creating alternatives to fishing, there is less attack on the wild fish

stock of the various species in the sea or any other natural reserves. Reduced activity of fishing

saves the variety of the aquatic ecosystem from extinction on account of overfishing.

9. Increased production

Another importance of aquaculture is increasing efficiency. Fish is more efficient in converting

feed into body protein more than any other protein-containing meat like cattle or chicken meat. It

is much more effective meaning that the fish companies make more food for less feed

comparatively. Such efficiency means that less food and energy is used to produce food, thus the

production process is more inexpensive as well. It economizes resources and even permits for more

food to be produced.

Review Questions

State whether the following statements are true/false

1. Fish provides natural oils such as omega 4 fatty acids

2. Algae when burnt provides liquids that can be used as substitute fuel

3. The soil is the natural filter of the earth

4. Over fishing does not cause extinction of the aquatic ecosystem

5. Fishes is less efficient to convert feed into body protein

6. The use of fishes as a source of protein is more inexpensive when compared to cattle or

chicken meat

Home work

Discuss the economic importance of fish farming in Guyana

Reference







Week 13

Lesson # 1

Topic: Soil Conservation

Sub topic: Soil Fertility

Objectives

- To know the factors which affect soil fertility

- To be aware of the types of rocks and their formation processes

Soil fertility

Soil fertility refers to the productive capacity of a soil in which the soil conditions, nutrient supply

and availability are favourable for the growth of crop plants.

A fertile soil has the following characteristics:

-It is moderately porous with good aeration and drainage.

-It retains adequate moisture.

-It contains a lot of organic matter and is rich in nutrient elements.

-It has adequate permeability for roots.

-It is slightly acidic (optimum pH 5.5 to 6.5).

-It is relatively free from toxins, pests and diseases.

Soil fertility is affected by climate, topography, soil factors such as the physical and chemical

conditions of the soil and the nature of the parent material, as well as fertilizers and soil

management.

Topography

Most Caribbean countries are hilly, which affects soil fertility. Soils on mountain slopes are

shallow and the most fertile soils are in the valleys. As accessibility is difficult in hilly areas,

farmers find it difficult to till the soil and improve soil fertility. Farmers are restricted in their

ability to use heavy farm machinery in the hills, preventing effective land preparation from being

done. Therefore, farming in the hilly areas is usually limited to small enterprises.

Nature of the parent material

The parent materials of soils are the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust. These rocks vary in size,

from large masses to small fragments such as boulders, gravel and stones. All rocks are made up

of inorganic minerals that have become consolidated and hardened geologically. They are

weathered by physical, chemical and biological forces to form soils.

Types of rocks

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Examples: Examples: Examples:

• quartz • sandstone • quartzite

• micas • shale • slate

• feldspars • limestone • schist

Igneous

Igneous rocks are cooled and solidified molten rock. The major minerals in these rocks are

quartz, micas and feldspars.

Sedimentary

Sedimentary rocks are formed from other rocks that have been weathered, and the particles

transported and deposited. Over time, the overlying sediments add pressure, which gradually

hardens lower sediments into sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale and limestone.

Metamorphic

Metamorphic rocks result from changes that occur to igneous and sedimentary rocks when they

are subjected to intense heat, pressure and chemical processes within the Earth’s crust. In the case

of sedimentary rocks, sandstone is changed to quartzite, shale to slate and limestone to marble.

Igneous rocks are changed to gneisses and schists.

The fertility of soils depends on the nature and sizes of the particles derived from the rocks. Soils

derived from limestone tend to be alkaline and those derived from sandstone are usually acidic.

Review Questions

1) Define the term soil fertility

2) Soil fertility is affected by climate and topography

(i) List two other factors

(ii) Explain how topography affect soil fertility in the Caribbean

3) Complete the table below

Types of rocks Examples

1. (i)

(ii)

2. (i)

(ii)

3. (i)

(ii)

Home work

As an Extension officer, you are asked to inform a group of farmers via a zoom meeting

on the topic “characteristics of soil fertility”

Prepare your program, including the following

-Introduction

-Discussion on the main topic

-Questions and answer segment

-Conclusion of meeting

References







Week 13

Lesson # 2


Sub topic: Land management

Objectives

-To be knowledgeable of proper land management practices.

Land management

The way in which land is managed by farmers has an impact on soil fertility. Good management

benefits the soil and can bring about higher yields of crops.

Good management practices include:

- Agro-forestry, which conserves topsoil and water and also preserves the soil organisms

- Applying fertilizers, organic matter and lime to improve the nutrient status of the soil, maintain

fertility and promote crop growth

- Proper disposal of chemicals and containers and avoid burning of vegetation

- Pruning, tilling, draining, mulching, staking, cover cropping and planting shade trees on pastures

all these improve the condition of the soil.

Agro-forestry

Agro-forestry is a system of land use in which harvestable trees or shrubs are grown among or

around crops or on pastureland. Silviculture is the growing of forest trees.

Taking care with chemicals

The use of hazardous chemicals and the inefficient disposal of waste materials will pollute the

water and soil. There is also a risk that these chemicals will destroy the soil micro-organisms.

Inorganic and organic fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers include sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of potash (saltpetre) and NPK (consisting

of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). These fertilizers are manufactured through chemical

processes. They are also known as artificial fertilizers.

Organic fertilizers

Organic fertilizers are derived from plant and animal remains. Organic fertilizers are referred to

as manures or compost. They improve the structure, aeration and drainage of soils in addition to

supplying nutrients.

Both manures and inorganic fertilizers supply nutrients. The manures maintain and improve the

soil’s structural properties and supply essential nutrients. The artificial fertilizers contribute a

concentrated supply of essential soil nutrients but do not affect the structural properties of the

soil.

Soil amendments

Soil amendments include substances such as lime, gypsum, sulphur, bagasse, coffee hulls, manure

and organic fertilizers, which may be used to improve soil properties. These substances make the

soil more productive, correct soil nutrient deficiencies and replace nutrient elements lost through

crop removal.

Fertiliser ratio

Simple fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers can be simple fertilizers, supplying one of the major nutrient elements:

nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium. For example, urea provides nitrogen, single superphosphate

provides phosphorus and potassium chloride provides potassium.

Compound fertilizers

Mixed or compound fertilizers provide two or more nutrient elements in a fertilizer ratio. Low-

grade fertilizers contain less than 25% of the nutrient elements, medium-grade fertilizers contain

between 25% and 40% and high-grade fertilizers contain more than 40%.

Manufacturers of fertilizers normally use labels that indicate the percentage of nitrogen (N),

phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), together with the ratio of these three elements, on their fertiliser

bags. Labelling indicates the type and grade of fertiliser that is offered for sale, as well as the

nutrient content and the nutrient ratio.

Review Questions

1. Define the following terms: - Argo-Forestry

- Silviculture

2. There is a risk that chemicals will destroy the soil micro-organisms Discuss

3. State the importance of the manufacturer’s labels bags of fertiliser

Home work

Describe how good land management practices can improve soil fertility.

References







Week 13

Lesson # 3


Sub topic: Maintaining soil fertility

Objectives

- To be knowledgeable of soil amendments

- To differentiate between the types of fertilizers

Soil amendments

Soil amendments include any materials that supply ingredients and nutrient elements, which

collectively improve soil structure and maintain soil fertility. They vary in type, but their main

functions are to improve soil structure, to increase water-holding capacity and permeability, to

supply nutrient elements, to ensure adequate drainage and aeration, and to neutralize soil acidity.

Soil amendments include:

-Inorganic fertilizers

-Organic matter

-Liming materials.

Manures

Manures are also known as organic fertilizers. There are five groups:

1. Pen manures are the partially decomposed solid materials derived from livestock pens. They

consist of dung / droppings, bedding or litter, and slurry from washing the pens of dairy cattle and

other farm animals.

2. Compost manure is derived from leaf litter and crop residues.

3. Green manure refers to a green crop, preferably a legume, which is ploughed into the soil at

its flowering stage. This manure adds nitrogen to the soil.

4. Guano is made from bird droppings and contains large amounts of nitrogen and potash.

5. Bone meal is made by grinding bones from meat-processing companies. It contains some

nitrogen but has large amounts of phosphate.

Manures, such as pen, guano and compost, are spread evenly over ploughed land and rotovated

into the soil. If the manure is liquid, as in the case of slurry, it is spread mechanically over ploughed

land and pasture using a slurry spreader.

Inorganic fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers may be simple inorganic fertilizers, supplying one of the major nutrients, or

compound inorganic fertilizers, supplying two or more nutrients. Some examples of simple

fertilizers and the nutrients they supply are urea (nitrogen), potassium chloride (potassium), triple

superphosphate (phosphorus) and ammonium sulphate (nitrogen; also lowers the soil pH).

Compound fertilizers usually contain the three major nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and

potassium, and are referred to as NPK fertilizers. The ratios and percentages of these three nutrients

vary in different grades of NPK fertilizers.

There are several ways to apply fertilizers. The method used will depend on the type of fertiliser,

the area to be covered and the crop to which it is being applied. For large-scale applications, the

fertiliser is usually spread by machinery, but on small farms it is done by hand.

Farmers need to determine the fertiliser requirements of their crops. To do this, they need to

consider several factors.

Factor Consideration Fertiliser requirement

Type of soil • Determine whether soil is

sandy, clay or loam;

nutrients leach easily from sandy

soils.

• Need to check pH of soil as

well.

•May need to consider a mixture of organic

manures and inorganic fertilizers, depending on

soil type.

Crop group • Consider whether crop is a leafy

vegetable, cereal,

legume, root crop, cucurbit or

fruit.

•Leafy vegetables and cereals need nitrogen and

phosphorus.

• Root crops need phosphate and potassium.

• Cucurbit and fruit crops need nitrogen and

potassium.

•Legumes are nitrogen-fixing so they reduce the

need

for nitrogen.

Crop stage

• Crop has different nutrient

requirements at different

stages of growth.

•In their vegetative state, crops need large amounts

of nitrogen.

•During the flowering and fruiting stages, they

need large amounts of phosphorus and potassium.

Weather

conditions

• Consider whether it is wet or

dry at the time of

application.

•If the soil is too wet, nutrients may leach out

quickly.

•If it is too dry, nutrients may not be taken up by

the crop.

Methods of application depend on the:

-type, age and stage of development of the crop

-system of planting – distance apart of rows; distance apart of plants

-machinery and equipment available

-availability of labour

-weather conditions.

Organic matter

Organic matter, other than manures and compost, may be used on soils to improve the water-

holding capacity. Waste materials, such as bagasse from sugar cane processing, coffee hulls and

sawdust, may be used for this purpose. Sometimes they are used as ‘fillers’ in fertilizers, where

they add bulk and serve as inert substances.

Liming materials

Liming materials are usually applied to acidic soils to reduce soil acidity, increase calcium and

magnesium ions in the soil, reduce the concentrations of iron, aluminium and manganese, and

promote the activities of the soil micro-organisms.

Lime may be added to the soil as:

calcium oxide [CaO], referred to as quicklime or burnt lime

calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], known as slaked lime

calcium carbonate [(CaCO3)], also known as chalk or ground limestone

calcium magnesium carbonate [CaMg(CO3)], also known as dolomitic limestone.

Lime is usually applied to acidic soil during the preparation of the land and before any crops have

been planted. Before it is done, the soil is tested in a laboratory to determine the recommended

rate of application. In the Caribbean, soil testing is carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture at no

cost to farmers.

The land to be limed is ploughed using a disc plough or a mould board plough. Lime is then spread

evenly over the ploughed area, at the recommended rate, either manually or mechanically. Using

a rotovator, the lime is mixed thoroughly within the top half of the furrow slice (7 – 10 cm).

Review Questions

1. Differentiate between organic and inorganic fertilizers

2. Advise a vegetable farmer on the factors he/she needs to consider before applying fertilizers.

Home work

List and discuss the best methods of fertilizer application for the cultivation of sugarcane in

Guyana

References







Week 14

Lesson # 1

Topic: Maintaining soil fertility

Sub topic: Major cropping systems

Objectives

- To be aware of the different types of cropping systems

- To differentiate amongst the cropping system

Cropping systems

A cropping system is a way of growing a crop or a range of crops. The major cropping systems

used by crop farmers include:

-monoculture

-multiple cropping or mixed cropping

-intercropping

-crop rotation

-phased cropping

-strip cropping

-contour ploughing

-mixed farming

-cover cropping.

Sometimes a combination of cropping systems may be used. These depend on the land, the size of

the farm and the type of crop production. For example, a mixed farm on hilly terrain might use

contour cropping, mixed cropping and cover cropping.

Monoculture

Monoculture is the continuous cultivation and production of only one crop on a plot of land for

many years. A good example is the cultivation of sugar cane. This type of system can lead to the

build-up and rapid spread of pests and diseases that attack the crop, for example, froghopper

infestations and smut disease in sugar cane.

Monoculture is a risky business for the farmer because the farmer invests everything in one crop.

Crop failure can result in severe economic loss. However, some farmers have become specialized

in the cultivation of a specific crop, such as rice, pineapple or pawpaw. The farmer needs to invest

in the specific machinery required for the cultivation, harvesting and preparation for market of a

chosen crop, so it can be more economical for the farm to focus on a single crop. Sugar cane is a

popular monoculture crop, which demands high investment in specific machinery, for example, a

sugar cane combine harvester.

Multiple cropping

Multiple cropping (also called mixed cropping) refers to the cultivation of two or more crops

simultaneously on the same plot of land. It is generally practiced by smaller farmers. This type of

cropping system provides income on a regular and continuous basis for the farmer.

The crops are chosen carefully to:

-have a shorter growing period, while others have a longer growing period

-grow to different heights

-have a variety of root systems (deep-rooted and shallow-rooted)

-have a range of water and nutrient requirements.

The benefits of this type of cropping include:

-An improvement in, or maintenance of, soil fertility, irrigation and drainage

-Easier management of pest control and a reduction in pest infestations

-Easier management of fertiliser application and weed control

-Control of soil erosion, as different crops provide different forms of vegetative cover for the soil

-A smaller risk of total crop failure

-A variety of crops produced

-A reduction in pest infestations.

Crops suitable for this type of cropping are soybean and pigeon pea, root crops and cereals.

Intercropping

Intercropping is the cultivation of a short-term crop, for example, lettuce, between the plants of a

medium-term crop, such as sweet pepper. It helps the farmer earn quickly from the sale of the

lettuce crop while the main crop of sweet pepper develops. This is also known as a cash crop. The

crops chosen for intercropping need to be compatible so that one crop does not smother the other

with rapid growth or use all the soil nutrients.

This type of cropping system helps the farmer to use the space between plants of the main crop

more efficiently. Soil fertility is maintained and soil nitrogen may even increase, particularly if

one crop is a legume such as beans. The vegetative cover provided by two crops helps to control

soil erosion on sloping ground.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is where crops are grown in succession (one after the other) on the same plot of land.

For example, a sequence of tomato, bean (a legume), lettuce and beetroot helps to maintain soil

fertility because the legume crop adds nitrogen to the soil.

In addition, the inclusion of deep-rooted and shallow-rooted crops helps to use soil nutrients from

different levels. The other benefit is that a build-up of pests and diseases in the soil is prevented

(pests and diseases are usually specific to one type of crop).

Phased cropping

Phased cropping is a system of continuous cropping and harvesting. A plot of land is divided into

four sections. The planting dates are sequenced so that there is continuous cropping and harvesting

of the produce, section by section. In this way, a farmer can maintain a regular supply of produce

to consumers and earn a steady income over time. This type of cropping prevents an oversupply,

or glut, of one crop, which would have the effect of lowering the price on the market.

Strip cropping and contour cropping

Both these cropping systems can be used for the cultivation of crops on sloping strip cropping

land.

Strip cropping

Strip cropping refers to planting different crops in strips of varying width on flat, undulating or

sloping land. It is normally used as a soil conservation measure on slopes. It has similar advantages

to multiple cropping.

Contour cropping

Contour cropping is another method of conserving soil on sloping land. The land is ploughed along

the contours and then crops are planted. In this way, soil erosion through heavy rainfall is

prevented.

Mixed farming

Mixed farms may be small, medium or large and produce both crops and livestock. A variety of

cropping systems may be used depending on the nature of the land and size of the farm. Many

organic farms are mixed farms.

Cover cropping

Cover cropping is used to improve soil fertility and to prevent soil erosion. It involves planting a

crop that grows rapidly and provides cover on bare soil. The cover crop is usually planted after the

main crop has been harvested and can be ploughed into the soil before the land is replanted. The

cover crop, often referred to as ‘green manure’, provides a cover of vegetation for the soil and adds

organic matter when it is ploughed in. If a legume, such as cowpea or vetch, is planted, then the

nitrogen content of the soil is increased. Cover crops may be sown between the rows of other crops,

and are often planted between rows of fruit trees in an orchard.

Review Question

Complete the table below

Types of cropping systems Advantages Disadvantages

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Home work

Discuss two reasons why contour cropping is practiced on sloping land.

References







M. Perrent and R.Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd

edition, Macmillan Education,4 Crinan Street London NI 9XW

Week 14

Lesson # 2


Sub topic: Cultural Practices

Objectives

- To be knowledgeable of soil erosion

- To differentiate amongst the types of erosion

Soil erosion

Soil erosion is the process by which particles of soil are carried away from one area, by water

or wind, and deposited at another area. Soil erosion can also be caused by the actions of people

and animals. All soils undergo erosion, but if there has been no clearing or cultivation of the

land, the rate of erosion is slow and allows the processes of soil formation to continue. If

vegetative cover is removed, for example, when the land is cleared for agriculture, forestry or

grazing, then the soil is exposed to wind and water. Soil erosion is speeded up and can become

a problem.

Factors that control the amount of soil erosion are:

- The amount of rainfall

- The wind speed and intensity

- The type of rock

- The slope of the land

- The amount and type of vegetative cover

- The presence of grazing animals.

Different types of soil erosion

Soil erosion can be entirely due to natural causes or it can result from human activities.

Natural soil erosion

Natural soil erosion occurs in an undisturbed natural environment as a result of:

-Running water on steep slopes

-Running water on sloping areas with loose, friable soil

-Landslides of loose, saturated soil, overlaying an impervious layer, in hilly or mountainous areas

-Strong winds blowing over loose soil in dry, semi-arid or arid (desert) areas

-Sea waves pounding the land in coastal areas.

Accelerated soil erosion

Accelerated soil erosion occurs as a result of the activities of people who disturb the natural

environment, creating soil conditions that speed up soil erosion by water and wind.

These activities include:

-Burning the vegetation on the land, including ‘slash and burn’ agriculture

-Overgrazing of pastures by livestock

-Deforestation (the cutting down and removal of trees)

-Mining and quarrying operations

-Creating bare soil patches on the land by over weeding or brush cutting too closely

-Not using a ground cover, such as a cover crop or a mulch

-Unsuitable cultural or soil conservation practices on hilly terrain.

Causes of soil erosion

Water

In the Caribbean, soil erosion by water is a problem during the rainy season.

Type of erosion Cause Effects

Splash

Impact of heavy

raindrops.

Dislodges soil particles, which splash on to young

plants. Soil particles are carried away by running

water.

Sheet

Running water

dislodges soil

particles.

Soil particles move downhill as a sheet of soil. Soil

gathers at the base of the hill.

Rill Water running down

a bare area of sloping

land.

Creates many tiny channels, known as rills, where

soil has eroded away.

Gully High-intensity

rainfall and fast-

flowing water on a

sloping area of land.

Rills become more eroded. This leads to fewer,

wider and deeper channels, which are called

gullies.

Landslide Intensive rainfall on

loose soil above a

sloping impervious

layer.

Loose soil slides away in this situation when it is

saturated with water.

Loss of topsoil Running water in

hilly or mountainous

areas.

If soil is not protected by a cover crop, organic

matter or mulch, topsoil can be lost.

Silting up of

water courses

Soil particles carried

away by running

water.

Causes silting up of streams and rivers, eventually

leading to flooding of a river basin.

Alluvial soil

deposits

Soil particles brought

down mountainous

Alluvial soil deposits form at the mouths of rivers,

on riverbanks and on flood plains.

slopes by streams and

rivers.

Wind

Wind can also cause soil erosion. Strong winds can cause soil creep, which is the gradual

movement of loose soil particles, such as sand, on the soil surface towards the opposite direction

from which the wind is blowing.

Saltation

Saltation of soil particles occurs when strong winds cause loose soil particles to leap suddenly,

become airborne for a while and then eventually fall to the ground, forming heaped areas of soil.

Where mining, quarrying and land preparation operations are carried out under dry soil conditions,

soil particles in suspension are transported by winds and may be deposited many kilometres away.

Soil particles in the atmosphere can cause respiratory problems in people and in farm animals.

Burning vegetation

Burning vegetation as part of land clearing has positive and negative effects. Among the positive

effects are:

-Unwanted material, such as cane trash, is burned out, so cane-cutters work more efficiently

-Land clearing can be carried out more speedily

-Harmful plants, such as nettles, are destroyed

-Harmful animals, such as snakes, scorpions, centipedes and nests of wasps, are destroyed

-The ashes on the land add potash to the soil

-The soil is sterilized as a result of the intense heat.

However, burning vegetation is not recommended as it creates smoke pollution in the atmosphere.

It is recommended instead that harmful plants and crop residues are cut and stacked in an area

where they can decompose slowly.

Other negative effects of burning vegetation are:

-The destruction of organic matter that took many years to accumulate

- Humus in the soil is also destroyed

- Soil organisms are killed

- The soil surface becomes bare, with no plant cover so it is more exposed to soil erosion

- Soil water is lost more rapidly through evaporation

- Leaching of nutrients can occur more easily.

Animals

Any bare land exposed to heavy rainfall can lose nutrients through leaching and mineral particles

from runoff. The effects of animals, through grazing or trampling, can leave soil bare and open to

erosion, particularly in the rainy season

Review Question

1. (a) Define the term Erosion

(b) List the types of erosion

(c)Discuss any two types listed in ‘b’

2. State how wind and animals cause erosion

Home work

Explain two advantages and two disadvantages of burning vegetation when cleaning land for

crop production

References







M. Perrent and R. Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd


Week 14

Lesson # 3


Sub topic: Soil and water conservation methods

Objectives

-To be cognizant of the methods implemented for soil and water conservation

Soil and water conservation methods

Soil conservation

Soil conservation refers to protecting the soil from erosion and maintaining its fertility. It is of

great importance to agriculture in the Caribbean region. Cultural practices, such as minimum

tillage, ridging and applying mulch, play a vital role in preventing soil erosion and maintaining

soil fertility.

Minimum tillage

Minimum tillage is where soil is only cultivated to provide the planting holes and rows for the

crops. It does not expose soil to rainwater and can therefore reduce erosion in hilly and

mountainous areas.

Ridging

Ridging is where ridges are built across a slope to prevent the rapid flow of water downhill. This

can reduce soil erosion and help to retain water in the soil.

Mulches

Organic matter, such as mulches or weeds that have been uprooted and left lying on the soil, will

reduce the direct impact of raindrops and allow water to filter slowly down into the soil. A mulch

is a protective covering over the soil surface, usually of organic matter.

Rotational grazing helps to conserve pasture, because the animals are moved around and the

formation of bare patches is avoided.

Importance of vegetative cover

Vegetative cover refers to a layer of vegetation covering the surface of the soil. Vegetation is used

to prevent soil erosion and includes the following practices.

-Cover crops, which grow and spread rapidly, are planted to provide a protective covering on the

ground. Legumes are often used as a cover crop.

-Contour cropping is carried out. In this system, crops are cultivated along the contours of sloping

land.

-Strip cropping is used. This is very similar to contour cropping. In this system, deep-rooted and

shallow-rooted crops are cultivated in strips, 1 – 1.5 m wide, across a hill slope.

-Grass barriers (normally included in a strip cropping system) are used. The grass is planted in line

with the contours of the land. The fibrous roots of the grass grow in thick clusters and bind the soil

particles together.

-Grassed drains, using matted grass such as Savanna or Bermuda, which is grown, cut and kept

low in box drains, are dug across or down gentle slopes.

Forests and soil conservation

Forests are vital in soil management and water management. The roots of trees and forest plants

grow in thick clusters, binding soil particles and controlling soil leaf litter erosion. The leaf litter

that builds up provides a thick layer of organic matter on the soil surface, covering and protecting

the soil and reducing evaporation.

This organic matter is then decomposed by soil micro-organisms and nutrients are released into

the soil. The activities of other soil organisms mix the upper and lower layers of the soil so the

nutrients are cycled. The forest canopy provides shade and helps to control the drying out of

streams.

The planting of forest trees in mountainous regions can control soil erosion. Forests may be

established as windbreaks in areas where the soil is loose and liable to wind erosion. Sometimes

forest trees are cultivated amongst food crops such as banana, cassava, citrus and avocado. This is

an example of agro-forestry. The trees stabilize the soil and provide vegetative cover and shade.

Wind breaks

In arid and semi-arid areas, wind erosion is a major problem and the most windbreaks common

method used to conserve the soil is the construction of windbreaks.

Rows of trees are planted along the edges of cultivated areas. The trees slow down the speed of

the wind and prevent large amounts of sand or soil being blown away to other areas.

Terracing and contour ploughing

Terracing

Terracing involves the construction of relatively flat strips of land along the contours of a hillside.

This process creates a number of steps, which are sometimes referred to as bench terraces. The

broad banks of earth prevent water running down the slope, thus controlling soil loss and soil

moisture.

Contour ploughing

On gentle slopes, contour ploughing is practiced. Land is cultivated along the contours, preventing

water flowing downhill. Before contour ploughing or terracing, the farmer needs to establish the

contour lines. This can be done using a simple A-frame and marking the lines with stones or sticks.

Water conservation

The Caribbean climate has a rainy season and a dry season, so water conservation is essential on

most Caribbean farms. Farmers depend on water-storage systems, drains and dry farming

techniques.

Water-storage systems

Water-storage systems used by farmers may include tanks, ponds, pools and wells. Storage tanks

can be made of galvanized iron, concrete reinforced with steel or rotoplastic (PVC). Water-holding

capacity varies and a farmer may have three or more large tanks each holding 4 500 litres,

depending on the nature and size of the farm.

Ponds and pools are normally constructed in the dry season, so that they are ready for the onset of

the rainy season. Often, fish are reared in ponds providing another source of income for the farmer.

Wells can be dug out from 3 to 10 m in depth. The water comes from underground springs and the

height to which it rises depends on the water table.

Gabions

Gabions are cages of wire mesh, filled with soil, rocks or sand. They are used in the construction

of dams and retaining walls or to direct the flow of floodwater. They have advantages over other

methods of construction as they can be arranged in various ways, are resistant to being washed

away and drain freely. In a gabion weir, the mesh baskets are arranged to form a channel down a

slope to direct the flow of water.

Drainage

Drainage channels are dug around fields and plots. These channels drain away excess water in the

rainy season and the water can be used for irrigation in the dry season. Contour drains are

constructed across the hill slope, along the contour, to prevent the rapid flow of water downhill.

Dry farming techniques

Dry farming techniques include any technique that conserves water or prevents the evaporation of

too much water from the soil surface in the dry season. These techniques include minimum tillage,

mulching, using manure and compost and growing cover crops. Controlled irrigation (using

manual systems, hoses or sprinklers) may be used to water crop plants in the dry season.

Review Questions

1. Define the following terms:

- Soil conservation

- Ridging

- Mulches

2. Discuss how vegetation cover is used to prevent erosion

3. Describe two ways that water can be conserved on a farm

Home work

Make a poster about local soil and water conservation techniques. Use photographs and diagrams

to enhance the poster.

References







M .Perrent and R. Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd


Week 15

Lesson # 1

Topic: Challenges in Agriculture

Sub topic: Major challenges –Climate, topography, rural infrastructure and

Access to finance

Objectives

-To be knowledgeable of major challenges in Agriculture

-To be aware of the impacts of these challenges.

Topography

Topography is the physical shape of an area. Farmers prefer to cultivate land that is flat because it

is easier to move machinery and equipment across it for land preparation, crop harvesting and

transportation of produce. However, most of the Caribbean is hilly or mountainous, so farmers

have no alternative but to use manual methods for most field operations.

Mountainous areas have shallow topsoil and are prone to soil erosion and landslides. Farmers can

carry out strip cropping, cover cropping, contouring and terracing (see Unit 5). Erecting barriers

of stone, wood or grass can help to control soil erosion, but this process is expensive.

Mechanization in hilly areas

Mechanization allows farmers to complete agricultural tasks more speedily and efficiently. This

increases the production and profitability of farms. However, in the Caribbean there is limited use

of machinery because of the steep slopes. The use of machinery has improved in areas where the

terrain permits it. This is particularly true in the sugar cane industry in Jamaica and Trinidad.

Some machinery is used for preparing land, milking cows, plucking chickens, applying pesticides,

controlling weeds and irrigating crops throughout the Caribbean. More mechanization needs to be

developed for use in the Caribbean, specifically in hilly terrain, and be reasonably priced for

farmers. The governments of Jamaica and Grenada provide tractors and implements to small

farmers at a minimal cost for lease or hire.

Rural infrastructure

In the Caribbean, some rural communities develop from a collection of farms. In some areas,

infrastructure such as transport, communication systems, water supplies, power lines, schools and

medical facilities are developed to help farming communities. However, many rural areas still lack

essential infrastructure. There is often no incentive for farmers to continue living in these areas

because of the community need to provide a difficulties they face without amenities. Many rural

areas also lack shops and public transport systems.

Farmers want their families to have a good quality of life, and their children often enter different

careers. As the children of farmers migrate to urban areas,

Rural-to-urban drift - this rural-to-urban drift (where the rural population migrates to more urban

areas for employment) causes abandonment of agricultural land, absentee farmers, a shortage of

agricultural labour and a reduction in agricultural production. Investment in rural infrastructure is

the only way to increase agricultural production and food security. This investment needs to come

from the governments of Caribbean countries, and should include more incentives for young

people to take up farming, and better access to extension services to help reduce rural-to-urban

drift.

Extension services

The Caribbean has a pool of technical knowledge about agriculture, gained from developments in

science from around the world, but applied to Caribbean territories. A number of regional

territories have websites where farmers can access technical agricultural information. Throughout

the Caribbean, extension officers make farmers aware of the latest developments in agriculture and

encourage them to adopt appropriate technology.

Access to finance

If a farmer needs to finance an agricultural enterprise and has no family money, he or she may

look for a low-interest loan. The farmer may have to offer capital assets as collateral to the bank

or lender. Collateral is property that you agree to give to a bank if you fail to pay back money that

you have borrowed. Having capital helps to make the farmer self-reliant. Farmers with larger farms

will find it easier to borrow money because larger farms have many assets, which means that larger

farms will have greater profits and the farmers will repay their loans more quickly. Loans can be

obtained from commercial banks, agricultural banks, cooperatives, credit unions and micro-

financing organizations.

Commercial banks

Some commercial banks have agricultural advisors who understand farming problems and can

give advice. However, these banks make loans only to large farms. Commercial banks do not judge

small farmers as a good risk because small farmers may not be able to repay a loan promptly if

their profits are affected by a bad harvest, hurricane or other disaster. The Caribbean Development

Bank is committed to financing projects in the region and has departments that lend money with

long-term repayment plans to farmers.

Cooperatives

A cooperative is a group of several farmers who work together to apply for a loan. Banks tend to

look more favourably at these applications.

Credit union

A credit union is a cooperative financial institution that is owned and controlled by its members,

which makes it different from a conventional bank. Credit unions offer savings accounts and

usually lend money at lower rates of interest than commercial banks.

Review Question

1. State two strategies for coping with climate

2. Explain the term rural-to-Urban drift

3. Why are the Extension officers important to farmers?

Home work

Discuss how farmers in Guyana can easily access finance

References









Week 15

Lesson # 2


Sub topic: Major challenges –Praedial larceny, Land tenure systems and loss

of agricultural land

Objectives

-To be aware of the impacts of praedial larceny in agriculture

- To be knowledgeable of the systems of land tenure

Praedial larceny

Praedial larceny is the stealing of agricultural produce, such as crops and livestock, which causes

severe economic loss to farmers. This crime deprives farmers of the opportunity to harvest what

they have planted and nurtured. It is mainly a problem for farmers who cultivate crops that are

easy to harvest, for example, bananas, watermelons, pumpkins, cabbages, corn and cucumbers.

Security measures range from placing shells on the soil at the foot of trees to alert the farmer to a

burglar to using dogs, lighting and fencing. Many farmers use family members to guard the land

at night, especially close to harvest. Countries throughout the Caribbean have different police

initiatives to help prevent praedial larceny. In Grenada, for example, there is a Police Farm Watch

programme. In Jamaica, some of the strategies that the government and agricultural society have

put in place are fines, a praedial larceny unit in the Jamaica Police Force and a receipt system. In

the receipt system, if a person is caught transporting agricultural produce without a receipt, the

person will be arrested, charged and prosecuted. However, the culprits are not always caught. It

may be difficult to identify offenders and bring them to justice. The few people who have been

caught in the act have had low fines imposed by the courts. As a result, some farmers, especially

those targeted regularly, have given up commercial farming.

Regional governments need to address the problem with strategies such as:

-Vendors showing proof of purchase

-Hiring security for estates or encouraging farmers’ cooperatives to hire security officers

-Ensuring a higher police presence in rural districts

-Imposing more severe fines on offenders

-Raising public awareness of praedial larceny and the impact it has on farmers and local food

production.

Land tenure systems

Land tenure refers to the rights and conditions under which people hold, own, use and control

property (land). For the farmer, land is necessary for agricultural production and is a vital resource.

Traditionally, parents have handed down land as a legacy to their children. With each generation,

subdivision of the land has resulted in fragmentation. These smaller units are often too small to be

run as economically viable farms.

Some landowners are not interested in farming the land themselves. They allow farmers to rent the

land or enter into a share-cropping arrangement. The farmers who rent the land are known as tenant

farmers. As the land is not their own, the farmers can be evicted so tenant farmers do not always

work on improving the soil or manage the land sustainably.

Loss of agricultural land

In the Caribbean, land is a symbol of economic power. Land often rises in value over time and

may be used for housing or business, provided that approval is granted by the government.

However, land is scarce on islands and needs to be used carefully. Governments need to reform

policies for state lands and areas that have been abandoned by their owners. Each Caribbean state

needs to ensure that agricultural lands are identified and allocated by a land tenure system to

farmers for agricultural production and national food security. In some countries, tougher measures

are needed to ensure that good agricultural land is not used for the development of residential

areas.

Review Questions

1. Differentiate between land owners and tenant farmers

2. “Land is a symbol of economic power”. Discuss

3. What is sustainable land use?

Home work

Suggest three ways in which praedial larceny can be reduced in Guyana.

References







M.Perrent and R.Ramharack Singh, Agricultural Science for CSEC Examinations,2nd


Week 15

Lesson # 3


Sub topic: Major Challenges –Environmental issues, availability of labour,

Food safety and natural diseases

Objectives

-To be aware of other challenges in Agriculture

Environmental issues

Farmers interact with the natural environment by removing vegetation, tilling the soil, introducing

new plant species, spraying crops with pesticides and modifying micro-climatic conditions.

Although these farming practices are necessary for food production, environmentalists worry

about the harmful effects of these practices.

The major concerns about the effect agriculture can have on the environment are:

-The destruction of ecosystems

-The loss of biodiversity

-The threat of air, land and water pollution

-The pests becoming resistant to pesticides.

Environmental degradation

Environmental degradation refers to the environment being damaged in some way. Environmental

degradation is brought about by the following factors.

Atmospheric pollution

Pollution occurs when the environment is contaminated by toxic substances.

Atmospheric pollution

Atmospheric pollution is pollution of the air. It is caused mainly by burning fossil fuels, often to

generate electricity. Smoke, dust particles and gases (carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen)

are released. Sulphur dioxide is poisonous and dissolves in rainwater to form acid rain, which

damages crops. An increase in carbon dioxide contributes to global warming. Atmospheric

pollution is difficult to control, other than by reducing dependence on fossil fuels and reducing

carbon footprints.

Water pollution

Water pollution describes toxic substances getting into streams, rivers and oceans. Some of these

substances come from pollutants in the atmosphere. Others result from sewage, excessive use of

fertilizers and pesticide runoff. Organic matter and nutrients in fresh water can cause algae to grow

rapidly and crowd out other water plants. When the algae die, they are broken down by bacteria,

and the process uses up oxygen in the water. The result in death of other aquatic organisms.

Land pollution

Land pollution can be caused by agricultural activities, urban waste disposal and mineral

extraction. Land that is severely polluted cannot revert to productive agricultural land to grow

crops without great cost. This land will be lost, and will poison flora and fauna, thus reducing the

biodiversity of the Caribbean. Waste from crops and animals should be composted and recycled

for use as fertiliser. Pesticides should be the last resort in managing pests, after cultural methods,

so that excessive runoff from fertilizers and pesticides is minimized.

Global warming

The Earth is surrounded by the atmosphere, which is a blanket of air made up of many gases. Two

of these gases, carbon dioxide and methane, are called greenhouse gases. In a greenhouse, the glass

roof and walls trap the heat energy of the sun and keep it within the greenhouse. This process

maintains a warm temperature in the greenhouse and the enclosed plants thrive.

Greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere act rather like a greenhouse, producing what is

known as the greenhouse effect. When the sun’s rays strike the Earth, some heat energy is absorbed

and some is radiated back into space. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap the energy and

keep it in, warming the air and enabling all forms of life to survive. If this energy was not trapped,

it would be too cold to sustain life on Earth.

Within the last century, there has been an increase in the production of greenhouse gases due to

human activity. Industrialization, motorized transport, aeroplanes, the burning of waste, bush fires

and deforestation all lead to increased levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This means

that more heat energy is trapped within the Earth’s atmosphere, which results in global warming.

Global warming can produce these effects:

-A rise in sea level, causing loss of coastal land areas and affecting agriculture, fishing and

community life

-Increased temperatures, which help some crops to grow, but prevent optimum growth in other

crops

-More frequent droughts, affecting water availability for both domestic and agricultural use

-More powerful storms and hurricanes, which can ruin crops and livestock, and destroy habitats

and biodiversity

-A rise in sea temperature, which kills coral reefs and affects the ecosystem of marine fisheries.

Coral reef destruction

Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems and are easily damaged by pollution. Polluted water runs off the

land, enters the sea and increases the growth of algae that live on reefs. This kills the coral

underneath the algae. Corals can be smothered by sediments washed into the sea from rivers and

coastal dredging activities. Overfishing and tourist activities upset the ecological balance so that

the physical structure of the reefs, as well as the plants and animals that live in them, suffer

significant damage.

When sea temperatures rise, the coral dies and loses its colour. Weakened coral can be attacked by

bacterial and viral diseases. The invasion of coral reefs in the Caribbean by species such as the

Indo-Pacific lionfish could also alter the shoreline ecosystem of mangroves, as well as cause

further damage to the reefs.

Deforestation

Five hundred years ago, most of the Caribbean was covered in dense tropical forest. There are still

many areas covered in natural forest, but an increasing population means that there is pressure to

clear land for crop production, industry and housing (deforestation). Forests are cleared and wood

is used for fuel, but there are few policies for replanting trees. The forested areas that remain are

in mountainous regions with high rainfall. These regions are less accessible to the machinery

needed to clear the land for farming.

Natural hazards such as forest fires and tropical storms also destroy forests. Hurricanes uproot

forests and strip leaves, leaving trees bare. Volcanic activity produces poisonous gases and hot

lava, which has affected forests in Montserrat and St Vincent.

It is important to retain forests as they:

-Provide areas for recreation, for example, nature reserves and national parks, which have facilities

for hiking and other forms of relaxation

-Control soil erosion by providing cover to break up the force of the rain on the soil

-Absorb carbon dioxide and provide oxygen through photosynthesis

-Are an important source of timber for building and furniture.

Within protected areas of forest, replanting and maintenance work can be carried out to avoid over-

exploitation.

Availability of labour

Movement away from rural areas

There is a global shortage of labour for agricultural work. Farming is done in rural areas but people

in these areas are moving to urban areas for better services and infrastructure. Around the world,

as people sell their farms and move to cities for easier lives, the land is being bought up. Sometimes

this is for housing development, but often small farms are being consolidated into larger land

holdings. Globally there has been an increase in mechanization, which has led to more stable food

security, despite the reduction in farmers.

Ageing farming population

As young people are choosing the better services and infrastructure of urban areas, along with

the opportunities for continuing education and entertainment that cities can offer, fewer people

remain in the rural areas to work on farms. This means that the currently active farmers in the

Caribbean are ageing. This is causing difficulties as farming is physical work and tasks that a

young person could easily complete will challenge an older person.

Limited participation of youth

Population movements are complex. It is possible that younger people will return to rural areas to

manage family farms later in life. However, fewer young people are training in agriculture and

becoming farmers, particularly in areas where there is less opportunity to use technology. This is

unfortunate, as more young farming entrepreneurs are required for new ideas and the development

of innovations to solve agricultural challenges.

Food safety

More people now travel within the Caribbean region and around the world for business and

pleasure. Some may visit farms abroad and inadvertently bring seed, plant, soil or animal materials

into Caribbean territories. These materials may contain pests and diseases, which can spread

rapidly and cause damage to domestic agriculture.

Sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) certification procedures govern the import and export of plants,

animals and their products. This happens both nationally and regionally. Normally, licences are

issued for import and export purposes. Incoming plants and animals need to be quarantined and

tested for diseases and then require a certificate declaring them disease-free before they will be

released for propagation into the country.

Governments sometimes impose restrictions on the import of certain agricultural products, for

example, poultry (chickens, eggs) and beef, from countries that have experienced ‘bird flu’ or

‘mad cow’ disease. Agricultural workers associated with these outbreaks are also monitored to

ensure that diseases are not transmitted to other farms and that no agricultural pests or diseases

are brought into the workers’ home countries.

Natural disasters

Each year, Caribbean countries are threatened by loss of life, property damage and social

disruption as a result of natural disasters. Tropical storms, hurricanes, tidal waves, heavy rains and

droughts have all occurred in the last 30 years. Disasters have cost the region billions of dollars

and have damaged economic health and development.

The Caribbean, despite landfalls in Antigua and Barbuda, St Martin, the Bahamas and Cuba, the

number of deaths was low. However, due to the destruction caused by Hurricane Irma, it is the

costliest Caribbean hurricane on record after Hurricane Maria (which occurred later in September

2017).

The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) has developed a strategy for the

management of such disasters, known as the Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDM)

strategy. This places emphasis on the benefits of strengthening the infrastructure so that

installations are as storm-resistant as possible. Investment in roads, drainage systems, electrical

and water services, schools and hospitals saves money in the long term, as the cost of clean-up

procedures is usually greater and involves rehabilitation and total rebuilding. This strategy depends

on persuading individual governments to make investments.

Natural hazards

Natural hazards are hazards that are not caused by people. They occur at, or below, the surface of

the Earth, and can cause loss of life and damage to property and land. They can cause short-term

or long-term changes to an environment.

The most common natural hazards in the Caribbean are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods

and hurricanes.

Natural hazard Effect on the environment

Volcanic eruption

Eruptions deposit ash on the surrounding countryside, and fires caused

by burning gas and hot lava destroy vegetation. Deposits of debris are

left on land. The most recent eruptions on Montserrat have left much of

the island uninhabitable.

Earthquake

Minor earthquakes are not uncommon in the eastern Caribbean, and

Jamaica lies on an active fault zone. Modern Kingston dates from the

destruction of Port Royal in 1907. Submarine earthquakes may trigger

tsunamis that flood coastal areas and destroy buildings and

infrastructure.

Flood Flooding is widespread as storms bring torrential rainfall in a short

time. Mountainous islands are most vulnerable because low-lying land

floods to several meters as water drains from high ground. Water

destroys crops, kills animals and brings about soil erosion. Areas at risk

have been identified and early warnings can be given. Apart from

tropical storms, flooding can be caused by deforestation, mining and

silting up of rivers.

Hurricane Hurricanes, such as Irma in 2017, cause wind damage, wave damage,

storm surges in coastal areas and flooding. Crops damaged by high

winds and storm surges pollute inland areas with seawater. Seawater is

poisonous to plants and livestock, and the soil remains contaminated

until the salt is removed by rainwater.

Review Questions

1. (a) List three environmental issues

(b) Explain any one listed in’a’

2. What are the consequences of sewage leaking into fresh water?

3. State three benefits of retaining a forest.

4. Why incoming plants and animals need to be quarantined before entering the country.

Home work

Explain how farmers are affected by one natural hazards in Guyana

References









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