MINISTRY OF EDUCATION I UNDPI UNESCO

EDUCATION SECTOR STUDY PROJECT

(MYA / 90 J 0041

• •No. 5.3

The Provision of Infrastructure

bV

U Nyi HI. Ng•. U Nyunt Hieing.

U Tet Tun and U Sein Mylnt

Myanmar EduAtion Researeh ....uv.......

February . , 992

The Provision of Infrastructure

by

U Nyi Hla Nge (Yangon Institute of Technology),

U Nyunt Hlaing (Ministry of No.1 Industry),

U Tet Tun (Ministry of Construction)

and U Sein Myint (OBE)

Acknowledgement: This paper is the outcome of the collaborative effort of ESS Working Group No. 5(Education Infrastructure). The working group, chaired by U Nyi Hla Nge (Yangon Institute of Technology)included the following members: U Sein Myint (OBE), U Nyunt Hlaing (Ministry of No. 1 Industry!.U Tet Tun (Ministry of Construction), U Saw Wynn (OBE). Oaw Naw Joy Loo (Institute of Medicine 1) andOaw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine 1).

ABSTRACT

The cost implications in providing new schools, the budget allocations for education infrastructureand the provision of maintenance and the contributions made by communities are examined in thispaper. The findings show great variations in the prices of construction materials depending on thetiming and the location of construction. The total expenditure for education has been increasingalthough capital expenditure has been going down, indicating low investment in buildings, furnitureand equipment. Community contribution is the most important factor in establishing primaryschools, but the study shows that a significantly larger proportion of community contributions havebeen made to middle and high schools than to primary schools.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION .

11. COST OF SCHOOL CONSTRUCTION 2

Ill. BUDGET FOR EDUCATION , 3

IV. MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4

V. COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTIONS , 5

VI. CONCLUSION , 7

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LIST OF TABLES

Base Costs of Buildings According to Materials and Number of StoreysAverage Regional FactorsEstimated Costs According to Type of SchoolCost of School Construction per PupilBasic Education: Growth RatesTotal Expenditure for Education and for the OBEOBE: Current and Capital ExpendituresOBE: Expenditure per PupilTotal Expenditure for Education and for the OHEOHE: Current and Capital ExpenditureOHE: Expenditure per StudentOBE: Proportion of Current Expenditure Spent on MaintenanceOBE: Average Expenditure per Pupil on MaintenanceOHE: Proportion of Current Expenditure Spent on MaintenanceOTAYE: Proportion of Current Expenditure Spent on MaintenanceOBE: Average Community Contributions per SchoolCost of Primary School Construction and Community Participation inNyaunglaybinCost of Primary School Construction in Nyaunglaybin According to BuildingMaterials (Average)

Page

8899

101010111112121213131314

15

15

CHAPI'ER I

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to first examine the cost implications in providing newschools, based on current requirements (using a predetermined range of school sizes, constructionmethods and materials). An examination is also made in this paper of the budget allocations foreducation infr.astructure, the provision of maintenance and the contribution made by communities.

The population of Myanmar is currently estimated at 40 million, with an annualgrowth of 1.9 per cent (1989/1990). Figures from 1984/85-1988/89 showing the rate of pupilpopulation growth at the basic education level are expressed in Table 5. The rate of growth in theyear 1988/89 for the primary level is 3.5 per cent, for the middle, 4.3 per cent, and for the high,7.0 per cent. There is therefore a strong tendency that enrolment at all leyels of primary educationwill continue to increase. The total expenditure for basic education in 1989/90, is Kyat 2,597million, or nearly Kyat 400 per pupil. Due to financial constraints, the government is unable to meetthe expenditure required to accommodate the increasing number of pupils. Substantialcontributions are also made by communities, and some international agencies provide funds forspecific education projects (eg. UNDP, UNICEF, UNESCO and the OPEC Fund).

The first part of this paper gives consideration to the cost implications in buildingnew schools. The second part examines the budget allocations for the Ministry of Education (MOEj,in terms of current and capital expenditure for various levels of education. The third part analysesthe provision of cost made for maintenance. The last part describes the contributions made bycommunities, particularly in the provision of primary schools.

CHAPTER 11

COST OF SCHOOL CONSTRUCTION

Table 1 shows estimated costs of buildings constructed with a variety of materialsin Yangon. With the exception of costs for buildings using local materials (which are inexpensivebut non-durable L these figures are based on 1989/90 prices obtained from the Public Works (PW).Using current open-market prices, the costs may be as much as 150-200 per cent of those givenin Table 1. It should be noted that there are large fluctuations in the open-market prices for all suchmaterials with respect to the timing and location of construction. These fluctuations do not applyto local non-durable materials such as bamboo-mat walls, Dani roofing, tree-trunk posts and others.Generally, brick-nogged buildings are some 20 per cent more expensive to construct than timber­buildings. Reinforced concrete (RC) buildings are more than twice as expensive to construct asbrick-nogged ones. The cost of a single-storey building compared to that of a double-storey mayvarv between 60 per cent (timber construction) and 50 per cent (RC construction).

Table 2 provides regional variation factors obtained from the PW which need to beapplied to the base costs provided in Table 1 for corresponding materials and methods ofconstruction. The most significant factors are the cost of transportation and the availability ofskilled labour (see also Working Paper 5.1 on the Construction Sector). Thus, in Kachin, costs canbe a further 80 per cent of base costs, while in Chin, Rakhine, Shan and Tanintharyi, some 60 percent may be added to base costs. In contrast, construction costs in Yangon, using non-durablematerials may be significantly higher than in other States or Divisions, where such materials maybe easily available and labour costs remain low.

Based on school blocks with standard 30 ft x 24 ft classrooms and 6 ft corridor,the construction costs for a variety of theoretical school sizes of the DBE are shown in Table 3.It should be noted, however, that in actual terms, room and building dimensions o'f school buildingsvary according to local circumstances. The school caJjacities may also be very different from thetheoretical ones shown. Table 4 provides cost figures per pupil based on standard enrolments forprimary, middle and high schools. The average costs per pupil of primary schools in the Yangonregion are Kyat 1,317 in non-durable materials, Kyat 2,910 in timber, Kyat 3,546 in brick noggingand Kyat 7,.700 in reinforced concrete. Corresponding costs for middle schools are Kyat 1,400 innon-durable materials, Kyat 3,024 in timber, Kyat 3,706 in brick nogging and Kyat 7,683 inreinforced concrete. Corresponding costs for high schools are Kyat 1,507 in non-durable materials,Kyat 3,375 in timber, Kyat 4,123 in brick nogging and Kyat 9,121 in reinforced concrete. Averagecosts per pupil for all school types are Kyat 1,418 in non-durable materials, Kyat 3,130 in timber,Kyat 3,825 in brick nogging and Kyat 8,264 in reinforced concrete construction.

CHAPTER III

BUDGET FOR EDUCATION

Each ministry is required to draw up annual estimates for the total current andcapital expenditure (usually based on previous year's figures). Estimates are submitted to theMinistry of Planning and Finance (MOPF) for approval. In the case of education, the process beginswith individual schools (primary, middle and high) drawing up their individual expenditurerequirements and submitting them to the Department of Basic Education (DBE), through theTownship Education Officers (TEOs) and the State/Division Education Officers (DEOs). Once theseestimates are approved by the DBE, they are submitted in collective form to the MOPF via MOE.A similar process applies to the Department of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Education(DTAVE). Annual expenditures for colleges, universities and professional institutes are similarlysubmitted through the Department of Higher Education (DHE).

Basic Education

Table 6 shows the proportion of annual expenditure for MOE that is spent on basiceducation for the years 1985/86-1989/90. There is a sudden increase of the value in 1988/89,from a constant 78 per cent in the previous three years to 82 per cent. In 1989/90, there is againa jump, from 82 per cent to 88 per cent. Table 7 indicates that the proportion of currentexpenditure increases while that of capital expenditure goes down steadily in the five-year periodshown. This indicates a low capital investment in building new schools and allocating new furnitureand equipment. In 1989/19.90, in which there is a substantial increase in expenditure over previousyears, the cost per pupil has risen dramatically, from Kyat 159 per pupil in 1988/89 to Kyat 396per pupil in 1989/90 (Table 8).

Higher Education

Table 9 shows amounts of annual expenditure allocated for higher education overthe period from 1984/85-1988/89. The proportion of annual expenditure for the DHE is muchlower than that of basic education (on average about 14 per cent of total over the five-yearperiod). About 25 per cent of the total budget allocated to higher education is spent on capitalexpenditure. The rest, some 75 per cent is allocated to current expenditure (Table 10). Expenditureper student has not changed significantly over the five-year period since 1984/85 (Table 11).

CHAPTER IV

MAINTENANCE

The maintenance costs for primary, middle and high schools under the DBE are Includedin the current expenditure. The renovation of schools under the DBE is recommended by the TEas. Dueto a large number of schools involved, the government's ability to finance the improvement of educationbuilding is limited. Therefore, schools do not obtain regular contributions from the DBE. Essentialrenovation works are usually financed by the Parent Teacher Associations (pTAs), or by donations madedirectly by parents and individuals.

In the past, the costs of maintenance works for primary, middle and high schools wereestimated by the Township Construction Engineers (TCE) from the Public Works (PW) under the Ministryof Construction (MaC) and then submitted to the DBE through the corresponding TEas. The procedurehad been to place an order with the township engineer and obtain an approval from the DBE.

Formerly, the process of maintenance works was undertaken only through the PW.Under the present market economy, such work can be undertaken by construction cooperatives andprivate contractors as well as the PW. In view of limited resources and a lack of experience with newly­formed private contractors, various methods are used to assist in undertaking school maintenance. Insome instances materials are supplied to the contractor in order to carry out the work on time. Anothermethod has been to estimate the costs for the works and negotiate with the private contractor toundertake the work. Those responsible for maintenance work see an advantage in appointing a privatecontractor as a means of producing the work on time.

Basic Education Schools

Table 12 shows the proportion of funds spent on maintenance out of the total DBEcurrent expenditure between 1985/86 and 1989/90. The average proportion spent on maintenance overthe five-year period has been almost 5 per cent. In the year 1989/90, this proportion has increased tonearly 8 per cent or Kyat 187.7 million (for a total of 33,847 schools). The average expenditure onmaintenance for the same year is Kyat 5,546 per school compared with Kyat 1,198 in the previous year(Table 13).

DTAVE and DHE Institutions

For universities, colleges and institutes under the DHE and institutes and commercialschools under DTAVE, the allocation of funds for maintenance is undertaken within the current accountfor each school or institution. Table 14 shows the component ratios of maintenance expenditure in totalcurrent expenditure for higher education, from 1984/1985-1988/1989. Of the total current expenditurefor higher education, on average over the five-year period, some 20 per cent has been allocated formaintenance.

Similarly, Table 15 shows the component ratios of maintenance in total currentexpenditure for DTAVE institutions between 1984/85 and 1988/89. Of the total allocation of currentexpenditure for DTAVE, on average over the five-year period, about 12 per cent has been spent onmaintenance. During the year 1988/89, only Kyat 2.35 million (or 8.6 per cent) has been spent on themaintenance of DTAVE institutions. A 3ignificant drop can be observed In the percentage of money usedfor maintenance out of the total current expenditure, compared with the previous years.

CHAYfER V

COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTIONS

The Role of Parent Teacher Associations

In 1973, MOE issued a directive concerning the formation of PTAs especially forprimary schools. A PTA consists of a total of nine members (with the principal of the school beingthe chairperson\, four of which are community representatives. In reality, a PTA is not required toplay a vote in matters such as school administration, admission, appointment or promotion ofteachers, enforcement of school regulations and curriculum development. However, a PTA isexpected to assist the school in general terms and in addition, to give stipends to poor pupils andaward deserving pupils, and to assist in the work of the School Council. It is also required toprovide facilities and make improvements to buildings and furniture in primary schools.

Community Involvement

Each family (regardless of the number of children attending school) contributes amaximum of Kyat 20 per annum. A wide range of regulations exist which are concerned with theuse of PTA funds. Of the total PTA funds, some 40 per cent is utilized on school building andfurniture. The remainder is spent on practical educational development (30 per cent), sports (20per cent) and school library (10 per cent). An analysis of the process of establishing primaryschools reveals substantial community involvement. Land for the school site is donated by thecommunity. School buildings are provided"through self-help construction (including materials) bythe PTAs and by individual donors. In addition, communities have to rely on their own resourcesto provide latrines, potable water and furniture. Play-grounds are provided through self-help, butare rarely established. The community is also responsible for cleaning the schools and doing minorrepairs.

Funds for major repairs are the government's responsibility. In reality, such fundsare scarce and are provided only intermittently. Much of the burden for maintenance falls on thecommunities.

Once the school is officially accepted by the OBE, permanent teachers areappointed, although housing for teachers is the responsibility of the community. Teaching aids,charts and other equipment are supplied by the OBE. Books and school uniforms are bought byparents through established cooperatives.

The provision of primary schools is the responsibility of individual communities andprivate donors. There is little assistance, if any, from the Government. Consequently, schoolbuildings provided by communities lacking experience and resource are mostly inadequatelyconstructed with local non-durable and inferior materials such as tree-trunk posts, bamboo, Oaniand palm leaf for walls and roofs. The survey findings indicate that almost half of all primaryschools are built of such materials. Similarly, furniture is inappropriate in terms of design andconstruction. In particular, the survey carried out as part of this study indicates that some 57 percent of all primary schools offer a poor learning environment.

Table 16 provides average contributions for primary, middle and high schools madeby communities between 1984/85 and 1988/89. Over the five-year period, the figures indicate thatin primary schools, an average of 42 per cent of community contributions to a primary school hasbeen spent on the provision of new buildings, while only 7 per cent has been allocated on new

6

furniture. However, more than 50 per cent appears to have been spent on maintenance. In middleschools, the average contributions made to new buildings and new furniture are 66 and 7 per centrespectively, with only,27 per cent on maintenance. Corresponding figures for high schools overthe last five years are on average 62 per cent for new buildings, 14 per cent for new furniture and24 per cent for maintenance. The figures also indicate that, on average, significantly largercontributions have been made by communities to middle and high schools than to primary schools.

Table 17 indicates the actual cost of construction of five schools in Nyaunglaybin,the type of construction undertaken and the amount of community and government contributionsbased on a field survey carried out by the infrastructure group during August 1991. Table 18shows the average cost according to type of construction, material and level of communitypc r 1" ir:ipation to the primary schools visited in Nyaunglaybin.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

Schools in Myanmar are usually built of reinforced concrete (CRCl. timber withbrick-nogged walls (commonly called brick-nogging), timber and locally available cheap, non-durablematerials. Brick-nagged structures are some 20 per cent more expensive than timber ones, and RCstructures are more than twice as expensive as brick-nagged ones, for the same floor area. Thecosts in remote areas can be up to 80 per cent more than those in Yangon, especially due totransportation costs. This is, however, not true for locally available, non-durable materials, forwhich the reverse may be true. There is a great variation in the prices of construction materialsdepending on the timing and the location of construction.

Percentage of the expenditure for the OBE out of the total expenditure for educationhas been increasing since 1988/89. In 1989/90 it becomes 88 per cent. Expenditure per pupil hasmore than doubled in 1989/90 compared with the previous years. However, current expenditurehas been steadily increasing while capital expenditure has been going down, indicatingdisproportionately low investment in buildings, furniture and equipment. The capital expenditureis only 6 per cent of the total OBE expenditure in 1989/90. Percentage of the expenditure for theOHE out of the total expenditure for education remains nearly constant at about 14 per cent, ofwhich capital expenditure amounts to some 25 per cent. Expenditure per student has not changedsignificantly over the five-year period since 1984/85.

Schools do not obtain regular contributions from the OBE for maintenance, soessential renovation costs are financed by the PTAs, the communities or the individuals. The actualmaintenance work was formerly carried out by the Public Works (PW). It is now done mostlythrough negotiations with private contractors, but under the management of school maintenancecommittees. In 1989/90, the proportion of maintenance expenditure for schools out of the totalcurrent expenditure for the OBE has risen to 8 per cent from 4 per cent in the previous years. Theaverage expenditure on maintenance for the same period is Kyat 5,546 per school, compared withKyat 1,198 in the previous year. For universities, colleges and professional institutes under theOHE, some 20 per cent of the current expenditure is spent on maintenance. However, on theaverage only about 12 per cent of the current expenditure is spent on maintenance of institutesand trade schools under OTAVE. The value has even gone down to 9 per cent in 1988/89.

Community contribution is the most important factor in establishing primaryschools. Communities have to provide buildings and furniture, and the Government appointsteachers and supplies teaching aids, charts and other equipment. Poor communities can provideonly make-shift buildings made of non-durable construction materials. Survey findings indicate thatalmost half of all primary schools are built of such materials. They also reveal that some 57 percent of all primary schools offer a poor learning environment. A very large proportion of thecommunity contribution has been spent on new buildings, a considerable proportion onmaintenance, and only a small proportion on furniture. On the average, significantly largercommunity contributions have been made to middle and high schools than to primary schools. Inshort, primary schools have been largely neglected from the infrastructure point of view, and thusdeserve special attention for improvement.

8

Table 1Base Costs of Buildings According to Materials

and Number of Storeys

Construction Construction Cost RemarksMaterial and (Kyat/sQ ft)Method

Single Storey Double Storey

Timber 120 204 1989/90 Prices

Brick Nogging 144 252 ..

R.C. 294 576 ..

Non-durable 50 - Current Prices

Note: Prices are for the Yangon region.Source: Public Works

Table 2Average Regional Factors

State/Division Factor (Additional Percentage to YangonFigures)

Kachin 80Kayah 36Kayin 36Chin 60Mon 0Rakhine 60Shan 60Tanintharyi 60Bago 0Yangon 0Mandalay 36Ayeyarwady 0Magway 36Sagaing 36

Note:Source:

These figures do not apply to non-durable, locally produced materialsPublic Works

9

Table 3Estimated Costs According to Type of School

School Level School Cost of School (Kyat in thousand)Capacity

Timber Brick- RC Non-durablenogging

Primary 200 648 778 1,590 270400 1,102 1,361 3,110 540600 1,642 2,009 4,433 965

Middle 520 1,642 2,009 4,433 765680 2,041 5,481 5,481 945840 2,493 6,539 6,539 1,125

High 880 2,927 3,596 8,062 1,3951,040 3,326 4,082 9,110 1,575

800 3,132 3,758 7,673 1,3051,080 3,305 4,083 9,331 1,350

Note: Cost figures are based on Table 1. School capacities are the theoretical capacities of the DBE

Table 4Cost of School Construction per Pupil

School Level School Cost of School (Kyat/pupil)Capacity

Timber Brick RC Non-durable

Primary 200 3,240 3,888 7,938 1,325400 2,754 3,402 7,776 1,350600 2,736 3,348 7,389 1,275

Average 400 2,910 3,546 7,701 1,317

Middle 520 3,127 3,863 8,526 1,471680 3,002 3,669 6,737 1,390840 2,944 3,587 7,785 1,339

Average 680 3,024 3,706 7,683 1,400

High 880 3,326 4,087 9,162 1,585,1,040 3,199 3,925 8,759 1,514

800 3,915 4,698 9,592 1,6311,080 3,060 3,780 8,972 1,298

Average 950 3,375 4,123 9,121 1,507

I Overall Average 3,130 3,825 8,264 1,418

NOTE: Based on the theoretical model used in Table 3.

10

Table 5Basic Education: Growth Rates

Year Primary Middle High% % %

1984/85 3.1 3.0 4.0

1985/86 3.1 3.9 4.8

1986/87 3.5 4.3 3.3

1987/88 3.9 4.3 4.3

1988/89 3.5 4.3 7.0

Table 6Total Expenditure for Education and for the OBE

Financial Year Total Expend. on Total DBE % of TotalEducation (K. Mill Expenditure (K. Mill

1985/86 1,057.12 820.28 78

1986/87 1,143.71 891.36 78

1987/88 1,290.50 1,011.21 78

1988/89 1,288.12 1,055.05 82

1989/90 2,947.73 2,596.75 88

Table 7OBE: Current and Capital Expenditures

Financial Total Current Expenditure Capital ExpenditureYear Expenditure

(K. Mill (K. Mill % (K. Mill %

1985/86 820.28 691. 13 84 129.15 16

1986/87 891.36 767.10 86 124.26 14

1987/88 1,011.21 895.99 89 115.22 11

1988/89 1,055.05 969.43 92 85.62 8

1989/90 2,596.75 2,428.19 94 168.56 6

11

Table 8OBE: Expenditure per Pupil

Financial Total Expend. Number of ExpenditureYear K. Mil Pupils (Mil.l Per Pupil

(Kyatl

1985/86 820.28 5.97 137

1986/87 891.36 6.33 141

1987/88 1,011.21 6.38 158

1988/89 1,055.05 6.62 159

1989/90 2,596.75 6.56 396

Table 9Total Expenditure for Education and for the OHE

Financial Total Expend. Total DHE % of TotalYear (K. Mill Expenditure

(K. Mill

1984/85 997.36 147.75 15

1985/86 1,057.12 159.59 15

1986/87 1,143.71 169.12 15

1987/88 1,290.50 192.18 15

1988/89 1,288.12 169.45 13

12

Table 10DHE: Current and Capital Expenditure

Financial Year Total Current Expenditure Capita! ExpenditureExpenditure(K. Mill (K. Mill % (K. Mill %

1984/85 147.75 108.59 73 39.15 27

1985/86 159.59 111.72 70 47.87 30

1986/87 169.12 133.33 79 35.79 21

1987/88 192.18 140.24 73 51.94 27

1988/89 169.45 129.22 76 40.23 24

Table 11DHE: Expenditure per Student

Financial Year Total Expend. Number of Expenditure Per(K. Mill Students Student (Kyatl

1984/85 147.75 179,862 821

1985/86 159.59 206,713 772

1986/87 169.12 252,147 671

1987/88 192.18 217,871 882

1988/89 169.45 217,871 775

Table 12DBE: Proportion of Current

Expenditure Spent on Maintenance

Financial Year Current Expenditure Maintenance % of Total(K. Mill Expenditure (K. Mill

1985/86 691.13 21.76 3

1986/87 767.10 29.98 4

1987/88 895.99 38.70 4

1988/89 969.43 40.51 4

1989/90 2,428.19 1B7.70 8

,.

13

Table 13OBE: Average Expenditure per

Pupil on Maintenance

Financial Year Maintenance Total Number of Average Mainten.Expenditure (K. Schools Expend. Per SchoolMill (Kyatl

1985/86 21.76 29,403 740

1986/87 29.98 33,450 895

1987/88 38.70 33,747 1,148

1988/89 40.51 33,847 1,198

1989/90 187.70 33,847 5,546

Table 14DHE: Proportion of Current

Expenditure Spent on Maintenance

Financial Year Current Expenditure Maintenance % of Total(K. Mill Expenditure (K. Mill

1984/85 108.59 23.39 22

1985/86 111.72 21.22 19

1986/87 133.33 29.42 22

1987/88 140.24 27.78 19

1988/89 129.22 26.72 21

Table 15OTAVE: Proportion of Current Expenditure

Spent on Maintenance

Financial Year Current Expenditure Maintenance % of Total(K. Mill Expenditure (K. Mill

1984/85 21.76 1.75 8

1985/86 25.38 4.02 . 16

1986/87 27.67 4.48 17

1987/88 29.06 3.36 12

1988/89 27.37 2.35 9

14

Table 16OBE: Average Community Contributions per School

New Buildings New Furniture MaintenanceYear Total

Kyat % of Kyat % of Kyat % of KyatTotal Total Total

Primary School

1984/85 3,127 60 320 6 1,716 34 5,163

1985/86 1,123 40 361 13 1,342 47 2,826

1986/87 2,295 39 216 4 3,305 57 5,816

1987/88 1,264 34 176 4 2,324 62 3,764

1988/89 2,295 38 514 9 3,175 53 5,984

Middle School

1984/85 15,718 83 787 4 2,512 13 1,9017

1985/86 1,7012 74 1,279 5 4,747 21 23,038

1986/87 4,838 20 1,661 15 15,901 65 24,400

1987/88 3,2044 93 1,612 5 637 2 34,293

1988/89 4,873 62 543 7 2,403 31 7,819

High School

1984/85 14,204 86 1,060 6 1,239 8 16,503

1985/86 13,989 77 1,502 8 2,722 15 18,213

1986/87 6,662 40 2,434 15 7,571 45 16,667

1987/88 18,362 69 2,875 10 5,512 21 26,749

1988/89 6,440 38 5,124 31 5,149 31 16,713

r

15

Table 17Cost of Primary School Construction and Community Participation in Nyaunglaybin

School No of Kyatl Kyatl Total Commu. Govern. RemPupils SQ ft Pupil Cost Contrib. Contrib. arks

(Kyat) (Kyat)

Thamaseita 472 80 330 155,520 (1 ) (2) (3)

Ngetpyawdaw 60 10 120 57,600 57,600 NIL (4)

Moukhamu 123 158 4,624 568,800 800 568,000 (5)

Tatyin 430 303 1,395 599,940 NIL 599,940 (5)

Mayetkone 60 7 89 5,320 5,320 NIL (6)

Average 229 112 1312 277,440 12,744 131,348

Notes: (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)(5)

(6)

The community contribution was as follows: a) some Kyat 3,000 (PTA) and Kyat2000 from donations (b) materials from old building (c) cost of labour (d) land.The Government contribution was as follows: a) some Kyat 200,000 and (b)additional landThe school was constructed of timber.The school was constructed of non-durable local materials.The school was constructed of brick-nogging.The school was constructed of non-durable local materials.

Source: Field Survey

Table 18Cost of Primary School Construction in Nyaunglaybin

According to Building Materials (Average)

Material Kyatl Kyatl Average Community Govern.SQ ft pupil Cost Contrib. Contrib.

(Kyat) (Kyat) (Kyat)

Timber 80 330 155,520 - -

Brick- 230 3,010 584,370 450 583,970nagging -

Local 8 104 31,460 31,460

Source: Field Survey

LIST OF WORKING PAPER SERIES

1. Education Data Review and Analysis

1 .1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Performance Indicators in Basic Educationby U Saw Win (Institute of Economics).

Performance Indicators in Higher Educationby U Thein Htay (DHE).

Performance Indicators in Technical. Agricultural and Vocational Educationby U Myat Naing (MERB) and U Nyunt Maung (DTAVE).

Quantitative Review of Education Staffby U Tun Hla and U Myint Thein (DBE).

Population Projections (1983-2013) by U Nyan Myint (Institute of Economics).

2. The Quality of Education

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

Teacher Quality by Daw 00 Khin Hla (Institute of Education).

Pedagogy by f)aw Nu Nu Win (Institute of Education).

Curriculum by U Myint Han (MERB).

Student Evaluation by Dr. Khin Saw Naing (Institute of Medicine 2).

Student Characteristics by U Maung Maung Myint (DBE).

3. Education and Employment

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Manpower Demand and Employment Patterns in a Changing Economyby Dr. Thet Lwin (Institute of Economics).

A Tracer Study of Recent Graduates: Implications for Education and ManpowerPlanning by U Kyaw Kyaw (Department of Labour).

Linkages between Training Institutions and Employersby U Tun Aye (Ministry of No.1 Industry), Daw Myint Myint Yi (Institute ofEconomics) and U Van Naing (DBE).

Education and Work Performance (A Survey of Employers' Perceptions) by DawHla Myint (Institute of Economics).

Non-Formal Education in Myanmar by Daw Win Win Myint (Institute ofEconomics) and Daw Lai Lai Yu (MERB).

Labour Market Institutions in Myanmar by U Kyaw Kyaw (Department of Labour).

•4. Costs and Financing of Education

4.1

4.2

4.3

Management and Administration of the Education Budget by Dr. Khin Ohn Thant(Ministry of Planning and Finance).

Government Expenditure on Education by Daw Soe Soe Aung (Institute ofEconomics) .

Non-Government Expenditure on Education by U Saw Gibson (Yangon University).

5. Education Infrastructure

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

The Construction Sector by U Tet Tun (Ministry of Construction), U Nyi Hla Nge(Yangon Institute of Technology), Oaw Naw Joy Loo (Institute of Medicine' ) andDaw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine').

A Comprehensive Survey of Education Facilities by U Sein Myint (OBE), U NyiHla Nge (Yangon Institute of Technology), Oaw Win Win Myint (Institute ofEconomics), Oaw Naw Joy Loo (Institute of Medicine'), U Saw Wynn (OBE) andOaw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine ').

The Provision of Infrastructure by U Nyi Hla Nge (Yangon Institute ofTechnology), U Nyunt Hlaing (Ministry of No.' Industry), U Tet Tun (Ministry ofConstruction) and U Sein Myint (OBE).

Norms and Standards for Education Facilities by U Nyi Hla Nge (Yangon Instituteof Technology), Daw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine ,), and U Tet Tun(Ministry of Construction).

6. Organization and Management of the Education System

6.1

6.2

6.3

Organization and Management of Basic Education by Oaw Hla Kyu (OBE) and UMyint Thein (OBE).

The Cluster System for Primary Schools by U Myint Han (MERB).

Organization and Management of Universities and Colleges by U Saw Gibson(Yangon University) and U Thein Htay (OHE).

7. Special Studies

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

Economics and Business Education by Oaw Cho Cho Thein (OBE).

The Teaching of Science and Technology by U Khin Maung Kyi (OBE).

The Teaching of English by Or. Myo Myint (Yangon University).

Higher Education by U Myo Nyunt (Institute of Education)