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Miniaturization process technology

Prof. Yosi Shacham-Diamand

Fall 2004

11stst lecture: introductionlecture: introduction

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The First ComputerThe Babbage Difference Engine (1832)

2,500 parts

6 years to build

Cost: £17,470

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ENIAC – First electronic computer (1946)

Built by John W. Built by John W. MauchlyMauchly (computer architecture) and J. (computer architecture) and J. PresperPresper Eckert (circuit Eckert (circuit engineering) , Moore School of Electrical Engineering, Universitengineering) , Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania. Formed y of Pennsylvania. Formed Eckert & Eckert & MarchlyMarchly Computer Co. and built the 2Computer Co. and built the 2ndnd computer, computer, ““UnivacUnivac””. Went bankrupt in . Went bankrupt in 1950 and sold to Remington Rand (now defunct). IBM built 1950 and sold to Remington Rand (now defunct). IBM built ““401401”” in 1952 (1in 1952 (1stst commercial commercial computer) and John von Neumann invented controversial concept ofcomputer) and John von Neumann invented controversial concept of interchangeable data and interchangeable data and programs.programs.

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Vacuum Tubes in First Computer

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Solid State Electronics (Details in following slides)

• 1906 – Semiconductors used to detect radio signals (Pickard, ATT)

• 1912 – Semiconductors found to rectify AC(Pickard, ATT)

• 1925 – FET concept patent by J. Lilienfeld (next slide)(AMRAD Co., US#1,745,175, #1,900,018, #1,877,140), also 1935 by O. Heil (British #439,457 )

• 1943 – Germanium crystals used for Radar demodulation.• 1947 – Transistor “Invented” (ATT ignores Lilienfeld)

Bardeen, Brattain and Schockley, ATT, Nobel Prize, 1956

• 1952 – Crude FETs made (Field Effect Transistor)• 1958 – Integrated Circuit : Kilby (TI) & Noyce(F.S.)

Legally EQUAL inventors, 1969. Noyce dies 1990, Kilby - Noble Prize in 2000.

• 1960 - MOS-FET manufactured and patented Khang and Atatta (ATT).

• 1963 - CMOS logic invented (replaced resistors with transistors)Wanlass and Sah (General Micro Electronics -company lasted only 4 years)

• 1969 - Self-Aligned MOSFET TransistorRobert Bower (Hughes Research Labs).

Lilienfeld FET Transistor (1930)

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The First Transistor

John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Laboratories constructed the first solid-state transistor. This PNP point-contact germanium transistor operated with a power gain of 18 on Dec. 23, 1947. With their manager, William Shockley, they won the Nobel Prize in 1956.

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Historical Perspective

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The First Transistor Product

The first transistor radio was a joint The first transistor radio was a joint project of the Regency Co. and Texas project of the Regency Co. and Texas Instruments. TI built the transistors; Instruments. TI built the transistors; Regency built the radio. On October Regency built the radio. On October 18, 1954, the Regency TR1 was put 18, 1954, the Regency TR1 was put on the market. It was a scant five on the market. It was a scant five inches high and used four germanium inches high and used four germanium transistors.transistors. It was discontinued in 1955.

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The First Transistor Product

When Regency quit producing their radio, the Japanese company immediately started shipping their radio to the U.S. One immediate problem was that Americans couldn’t pronounce their name. The founders, Ibuka and Morita, thought of using a Latin word sonus meaning "sound." Akio Morita knew some English, and made a simple variation that became their name from then on: SONY

Sony

In Japan, a tiny company had other ideas. Tsushin Kogyo was close to manufacturing its first radios when it heard that an American company had beaten them to market. But they persevered and made a radio, the TR-52.

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1956 1956 --William Shockley had gone William Shockley had gone as far as he was going to go at Bell as far as he was going to go at Bell Labs. His patent for an FET had been Labs. His patent for an FET had been disallowed when disallowed when LilienfeldLilienfeld’’ss early early patents were discovered.patents were discovered.

Shockley moved to Palo Alto and Shockley moved to Palo Alto and founded founded Shockley Semiconductor Shockley Semiconductor LaboratoryLaboratory had officially opened for had officially opened for business. business.

A genius he may have been, but a A genius he may have been, but a good manager he was notgood manager he was not…………………………....

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1957 1957 -- the "traitorous the "traitorous eighteight““ resigned. The next day they resigned. The next day they signed a contract for $1.3 million signed a contract for $1.3 million with a New York firm called with a New York firm called Fairchild Camera and Fairchild Camera and InstrumentsInstruments which was involved which was involved with missiles and satellite systems. with missiles and satellite systems. The eight men were Julius Blank, The eight men were Julius Blank, Victor Victor GrinichGrinich, Jean , Jean HoerniHoerni, Gene , Gene KleinerKleiner, Jay Last, , Jay Last, Gordon Moore, Gordon Moore, Robert NoyceRobert Noyce, and Sheldon Roberts. , and Sheldon Roberts.

Three years later Three years later Moore Moore and and NoyceNoyce left to found left to found IntelIntel..

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Invention of the Integrated Circuit

19581958In July, In July, 19581958, , Jack KilbyJack Kilby built built

a working model, and on a working model, and on February 6, Texas February 6, Texas Instruments filed a patent. Instruments filed a patent. Their first "Solid Circuit" the Their first "Solid Circuit" the size of a pencil point, was size of a pencil point, was shown off for the first time in shown off for the first time in March. March.

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Invention of the Integrated Circuit

1959. 1959. Robert NoyceRobert Noyce was working at was working at

the small Fairchild the small Fairchild Semiconductor startup company. Semiconductor startup company. Knowing that TI had already filed Knowing that TI had already filed a patent on something similar, a patent on something similar, Fairchild wrote out a highly Fairchild wrote out a highly detailed application, hoping that detailed application, hoping that it wouldn't infringe on TI 's it wouldn't infringe on TI 's similar device. similar device.

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Invention of the Integrated Circuit

19611961All that detail paid off. In April, All that detail paid off. In April,

1961, the patent office awarded 1961, the patent office awarded the first patent for an integrated the first patent for an integrated circuit to Robert Noyce while circuit to Robert Noyce while Kilby'sKilby's application was still being application was still being analyzed. Today, both men are analyzed. Today, both men are acknowledged as having acknowledged as having independently conceived of the independently conceived of the idea.idea.

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Jack Kilby’s First Integrated Circuit(An oscillator circuit on germanium substrate)

Photo courtesy of Texas Instruments, Inc.

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Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2000 for his Integrated Circuit work. Ed Noyce died in 1990, and hence was ineligible for the Prize (given only to living persons).

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Early Integrated Circuits

Bipolar logic1960’s

ECL 3-input Gate/SRAMMotorola 1966

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Preparation of Silicon Wafers

1. Crystal Growth

2. Single Crystal Ingot

3. Crystal Trimming and Diameter Grind

4. Flat Grinding

5. Wafer Slicing

6. Edge Rounding

7. Lapping

8. Wafer Etching

9. Polishing

10. Wafer Inspection

Slurry

Polishing table

Polishing head

Polysilicon Seed crystal

Heater

Crucible

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Stages of IC Fabrication

Wafer Preparationincludes crystalgrowing, rounding,slicing and polishing.

Wafer Fabricationincludes cleaning,layering, patterning,etching and doping.

Assembly and Packaging:The wafer is cutalong scribe linesto separate each die.

Metal connectionsare made and thechip is encapsulated.

Test/Sort includesprobing, testing andsorting of each die onthe wafer.

Final Test ensures ICpasses electrical andenvironmentaltesting.

Defective die

1.

2.

3.

Scribe line

A single die

Assembly Packaging

4.

5.

Wafers sliced from ingot

Single crystal silicon

Figure 1.6

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IC Production in Wafer Fab

Photo courtesy of Advanced Micro Devices

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IC Minimum Feature Size

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IC Minimum Feature Size

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Ultimate Small Scale Structure

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1950 Junction Transistor

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1950 - Alloy Junction Transistor

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1958 – First Planar Transistor

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Basic Bipolar Paired Transistors

Bias “Resistor” Bias “Resistor”NPN Bipolar Device

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Modern Integrated Circuit Section

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SEM Cross-Section of Integrated Circuit

Wiring Layers

Wiring Layers

Wiring Layers

Vias through Passivating Layers

CMOS Devices

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• Transistor –Bardeen et al. (Bell Labs) in 1947• Bipolar transistor – Schockley et al. in 1949• First bipolar digital logic gate – Harris in 1956• First monolithic IC – Jack Kilby in 1959• First commercial IC logic gates – Fairchild

1960• TTL Circuits – 1962 into the 1990’s• ECL Circuits – 1974 into the 1980’s

Historical Dates of IC Technology

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• MOSFET transistor - Lilienfeld (Canada) in 1925 and Heil (England) in 1935

• CMOS – Invented in 1960’s, but plagued with manufacturing problems for 20 years.

• PMOS – Limited use in calculators in 1960s• NMOS – Limited use in special applications in

1970s• CMOS in 1980’s – Contamination problems

solved and CMOS became IC standard technology except for high speed.

• 1999 - BiCMOS, Silicon-Germanium, Stressed Silicon

• 2000 – IBM: SOI, Copper Wiring, Low-k Dielectrics…

MOS Technology Dates

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• In 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that the number of transistors that can be integrated on a die would double every 18 to 14 months (i.e., grow exponentially with time).

• Amazingly visionary – million transistor/chip barrier was crossed in the 1980’s.– 2300 transistors, 1 MHz clock (Intel 4004) - 1971– 16 Million transistors (Ultra Sparc III)– 42 Million, 2 GHz clock (Intel P4) - 2001– 140 Million transistor (HP PA-8500)

Moore’s Law

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Intel 4004 Microprocessor

19711 MHz, 5V

5k Components

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Intel Pentium (III) Microprocessor

1994100 MHz, 3.3V

3M Components

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Pentium III Layout

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Intel Pentium (IV) Microprocessor

19991.2 GHz, 1.8V

42M Components

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Moore’s Law in Microprocessors

40048008

80808085 8086

286386

486Pentium® proc

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year

Tran

sist

ors

(MT)

Average2X every 1.96 years

Transistors on lead microprocessors double every 2 yearsTransistors on lead microprocessors double every 2 years

Courtesy, Intel

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64

256

1,000

4,000

16,000

64,000

256,000

1,000,000

4,000,000

16,000,000

64,000,000

10

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

100000000

1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010

Year

Kbi

t cap

acity

/chi

p

Evolution in DRAM Chip Capacity

1.6-2.4 µm

1.0-1.2 µm

0.7-0.8 µm

0.5-0.6 µm

0.35-0.4 µm

0.18-0.25 µm

0.13 µm

0.1 µm

0.07 µm

human memoryhuman DNA

encyclopedia2 hrs CD audio

30 sec HDTV

book

page

4X growth every 3 years!

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Die Size Growth

40048008

80808085

8086286

386486 Pentium ® proc

P6

1

10

100

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year

Die

siz

e (m

m)

~7% growth per year~2X growth in 10 years

Die size grows by 14% to satisfy Moore’s LawDie size grows by 14% to satisfy Moore’s Law

Courtesy, Intel

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Clock FrequencyLead microprocessors frequency doubles every 2 yearsLead microprocessors frequency doubles every 2 years

P6Pentium ® proc

48638628680868085

8080800840040.1

1

10

100

1000

10000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year

Freq

uenc

y (M

hz)

2X every 2 years

Courtesy, Intel

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Power Dissipation

P6Pentium ® proc

486386

2868086

808580808008

4004

0.1

1

10

100

1971 1974 1978 1985 1992 2000Year

Pow

er (W

atts

)

Lead Microprocessors power continues to increaseLead Microprocessors power continues to increase

Courtesy, Intel

Power Removal is Immediate Problem (2003)Power Removal is Immediate Problem (2003)

Mainframe Chips(liquid cooled)

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Power Density

400480088080

8085

8086

286 386486

Pentium® procP6

1

10

100

1000

10000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year

Pow

er D

ensi

ty (W

/cm

2)

Hot Plate

NuclearReactor

RocketNozzle

Power density too high to keep junctions at low tempPower density too high to keep junctions at low temp

Courtesy, Intel

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Design Productivity Trends

2003

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2005

2007

2009

Logic Tr./ChipTr./Staff Month.

xxx

xxx

x

21%/Yr. compoundProductivity growth rate

x

58%/Yr. compoundedComplexity growth rate

10,000

1,000

100

10

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

Logi

c Tr

ansi

stor

per

Chi

p(M

)

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

Prod

uctiv

ity(K

) Tra

ns./S

taff

-Mo.

Com

plex

ity

Courtesy, ITRS Roadmap

Complexity outpaces design productivityComplexity outpaces design productivity

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Technology Directions: SIA Roadmap

2.42.22.02.42.01.4Battery power (W)18317417016013090High-perf power (W)0.60.60.91.21.51.8Power supply (V)109-1098-97-86-7Wiring levels2200180014001100800600Clock rate (MHz)14721408128010241024768Signal pins/chip354308269235170-214170Chip size (mm2)7012841154714-267Mtrans/cm2

355070100130180Feature size (nm)201420112008200520021999Yearbb

For Cost-Performance MPU (L1 on-chip SRAM cache; 32KB/1999 doubling every two years)

http://www.itrs.net/ntrs/publntrs.nsf

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Further Scaling will be possible if…..

• The key is in:– Extending existing CMOS technology

• or – Devising new nanotechnology – New methods of computing– New architectures