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Minerals

Inorganic elemental atoms that are essential nutrients.Not changed by digestion or metabolism.

Functions of MineralsSome participate with enzymes in metabolic processes (cofactors)Some have structural functions (Ca, P inSome have structural functions (Ca, P in bone; S in keratin)Acid-base and water balance (Na, K, Cl)Nerve & muscle function (Ca, Na, K)Unique functions (e.g., heme, B12, thyroid hormones)

The Major Minerals: an Overview

MacromineralsHumans need >100 mg/d

CalciumCalciumPhosphorusMagnesiumSodiumChloridePotassium

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Bioavailability, & Regulation of Major Minerals

BioavailabilityInfluenced by genetics, aging, nutritional status & other food compounds

AbsorptionSmall intestine & large intestine

RegulationKidneys & small intestine

ClassificationMacro or Major minerals

Sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur,

Micro or Trace minerals(body needs relatively less)

Chromium, manganese, i b lchloride

Present in body tissues at concentrations >50 mg/kg (50 ppm)

iron, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zinc, fluoride, iodine, selenium, silicon, tin, arsenic, nickel…

Present in body tissues at concentrations <50 mg/kg (50 ppm)

Nutritionally Important MineralsMacro Trace

Element g/kg Element mg/kg

Ca 15 Fe 20 50CaPKNaClSMg

15102

1.61.11.50.4

FeZnCuMoSeIMnCo

20-5010-501-51-41-2

0.3-0.60.2-0.50.02-0.1

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Oxalate

Minerals in FoodsFound in all food groups.More reliably found in animal products.Often other substances inOften other substances in foods decrease absorption (bioavailability) of minerals

Oxalate, found in spinach, prevents absorption of most calcium in spinach.Phytate, form of phosphorous in most plants makes it poorly available

Phytate

Factors Affecting Requirements

Physiological state/level of productionInteractions with other minerals

Mineral Interactions

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Factors Affecting Requirements

Physiological state/level of productionInteractions with other mineralsTissue storageTissue storage

Bone, LiverSpecific proteins to hold and transport

Form fedinorganic vs organic forms

Na selenite vs Na selenate vs selenomethionine

Deficiencies and Excesses

Most minerals have an optimal rangeBelow leads to deficiency symptomsAbove leads to toxicity symptomsAbove leads to toxicity symptoms

Mineral content of soils dictates mineral status of plants (i.e., feeds)May take many months to develop

Time impacted by body stores

Requirements and ToxicitiesElement Species Requirement,

mg/kgToxic level,

mg/kgCu Cattle 5-8 115

Swine 6 250Co Cattle 0.06 60

I Livestock 0.1 ?

Se CattleHorses

0.10.1

3-45-40

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CalciumMost abundant mineral in animal tissues

99% Ca in skeletonPresent in:

Blood & other tissues

Lots of functionsBone structureNerve functionBlood clottingMuscle contractionCellular metabolism

Food SourcesMilk and dairy products

High amountsHigh bioavailability (fortified with vitamin D)( )

Green leafy vegetablesPoor absorption

Fish with bones?Fortified juice/cereal

Calcium

Both Ca and P are required for bone formation and other non-skeletal functions

Dietary ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 is good for mostDietary ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 is good for most animals (exception is laying hen, 13:1; Ca:nonphytate phosphorous)

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Calcium AbsorptionDependent on Vitamin D

Ca binding protein in intestinal epithelial cellAbsorption depends on need

Particularly high during growth pregnancy andParticularly high during growth, pregnancy and lactation

Bioavailability decreased byPhytates (grains)OxalatesWheat branLow estrogen levels (postmenopausal women)

Calcium Regulation

Plasma Ca is regulated variableNormal plasma concentration is 8-12 mg/dl

Calcium RegulationThree hormones involved in regulation

Vitamin D3from kidney

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)from parathyroid gland

Calcitoninfrom thyroid gland

PTH and Vitamin D3 act to increase plasma Ca, while calcitonin acts to decrease plasma Ca

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Responses to Low Blood Calcium

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) releasedStimulates conversion of inactive form of vitamin D to calcitrol Increases in blood calcium

Small intestineResorption at kidneys & blood

Regulation of Calcium Homeostasis

Calcium Deficiencies

Ricketsin growing animals

O t l i ( t i )Osteomalacia (osteoporosis)in adult animals

Milk fever (parturient paresis)in lactating animals

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Calcium and Bone HealthBone growth is greatest during “linear growth”

Peaks out at aroundPeaks out at around age 30

Calcium in bones used as reservoir for other needs.

Maintains blood calcium homeostasis

Calcium and OsteoporosisAround age 40, bone breakdown exceeds formation.Ideally, want very high bone mass when this begins.By age 65, some women have lost 50% of bone mass.

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Prevention is the KeyMaintain adequate calcium and vitamin D intake—many recommend

l ?supplements?Most are absorbed similarlyCosts vary widelyWhat’s wrong with dairy products?

Perform weight-bearing exerciseTake estrogen supplements?

Structural Functions of Calcium: Bones & Teeth

BonesOsteoblasts

Bone formationBone formation

OsteoclastsBreakdown of older bone

HydroxyapatiteLarge crystal-like molecule

Regulatory Functions of Calcium

Stimulates blood clottingMuscle contractionsTransmission of nerve impulsesTransmission of nerve impulsesVisionRegulation of blood glucoseCell differentiationCofactor for energy metabolism

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Focus on Foods: Milk, Calcium, & Chronic Disease

Associations of reduced risk of chronic disease:Degenerative diseasesDegenerative diseasesHeart disease

Lowers blood pressure

CancerBreast, prostate, colon

Obesity

Calcium Toxicity

Deposition in soft tissue

Impaired kidney functionImpaired kidney function

Interference of other nutrient absorption

Iron & zinc

PhosphorousFunctions

Similar to calciumVitally important in energy metabolism

ATPATPsugar phosphates

PhosphoproteinsDeficiencies include

Rickets or osteomalaciaPica (depraved appetite) – chewing of wood, bonesLow fertility and poor milk production or growth?

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Phosphorous

Impact on environment has scientists revisiting nutritional requirements

Requirements are being lowered withoutRequirements are being lowered without any negative effects on reproduction or milk production

Bioavailability could be improved if phytate P can be reduced

Main source of P in grain

Phosphorus (P)

Component of cell membranes & wallsFound in all foodsStructural & functional roles in bodyStructural & functional roles in bodyEnergy metabolism

Metabolism & Regulation of Phosphorus in the Body

Small intestineVitamin D-dependent active transportSimple diffusionSimple diffusion

Concentrations controlled by:Calcitriol, PTH, calcitonin

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Functions of Phosphorus

PhospholipidsComponent of:

DNA & RNADNA & RNAATP

Protein synthesisEnergy metabolismMaintenance of blood pHForms hydroxyapatite

Phosphorus Toxicity

Mineralization of soft tissues

SodiumAbsolutely an essential nutrient, but has been “demonized” like cholesterol.Typical intakes way higher than what is needed in humans; added to livestock dietsneeded in humans; added to livestock diets.Body usually gets rid of excess quite easily.Functions

Acid-base and osmotic balance of body fluidsMajor cation of extracellular fluid

Nerve transmissionTransport and absorption of sugars and amino acids

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Sodium and HealthHigh blood sodium is associated with high blood pressure and risk of heart diseaserisk of heart diseaseHowever, high blood sodium rarely due to dietary excess.Again, genetics and other factors are involved.

Sodium & Chloride

Commonly found together in foods

Join via ionic bonds to form saltJoin via ionic bonds to form salt

Added freely to foods during:ProcessingCookingA meal

Did you know…

Salt free means:Less than 5 mg sodium/serving

Very low salt means:Less than 35 mg sodium/serving

Low saltLess than 140 mg sodium/serving

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Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

Table saltMonosodium glutamateHighly processed foodsHighly processed foodsCondimentsSome meats, dairy products, poultry & seafoodBioavailability

Affected by malabsorption

Regulation of Sodium & Chloride in the Body

Small intestineSodium absorbed firstChloride secondChloride second

Sodium Absorbed with glucoseAlso actively absorbed in colon

Water absorption

Regulation of Sodium in Blood

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Functions of Sodium & ChlorideElectrolytesFluid balanceSodium

Nerve functionMuscle contraction

ChlorideHCl productionRemoval of carbon dioxideImmune function

Sodium & Chloride Deficiencies

Infants & childrenDiarrhea and vomiting

AthletesAthletesEndurance sports

SymptomsNausea, dizziness, muscle cramps, coma

Overconsumption of Sodium Chloride

Increased blood pressureSusceptible individuals

ElderlyElderlyAfrican AmericansThose with:

HypertensionDiabetesChronic kidney disease

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Focus on Food – Salt: Is It Really So Bad?

Salt sensitivity affected by:

GeneticsGeneticsExerciseResponsiveness of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Chlorine

FunctionsAcid-base and osmotic regulationHCl and chloride salts in gastric secretionsHCl and chloride salts in gastric secretions

DeficienciesMetabolic alkalosis

Increased bicarbonate compensates for decreased Cl

Growth retardation

Sulfur

Component of amino acidscystine, cysteine, and methionine for bioactive and structural proteinsp

wool contains about 4% sulfur

Chondroitin sulfate is a constituent of cartilageDeficiency is related to protein deficiency

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MagnesiumFunctions

Associated with Ca and P70% of Mg in skeletonEnzyme activation (e.g., pyruvate dehydrogenase)

DeficiencyHypomagnesemic tetany (grass tetany)

early lactating cows on grasspoor nervous and muscular control

Magnesium (Mg): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

Green leafy vegetables, seafood, legumes, nuts, dairy products, chocolate, brown rice, whole grainschocolate, brown rice, whole grains

Bioavailability influenced by:CalciumPhosphorus

Metabolism & Regulation of Magnesium in the Body

Stabilizes enzymesNeutralizes negatively charged ionsEnergy metabolismEnergy metabolismCofactor for over 300 enzymes

DNA & RNA metabolism

Nerve & muscle function

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Magnesium Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficienciesAlcoholicsAbnormal nerve & muscle function? increase risk for CVD & type 2 diabetes

ToxicityLarge dose supplementsIntestinal distress, alterations in heart beat

PotassiumFunctions

Regulation of osmotic and acid-base balanceMajor cation of intracellular fluid

nerve and muscle excitability

Cofactor for several reactions in carbohydrate metabolism

Major salt in ruminant sweatIncreases requirement in heat stress

Typically high in forages

Potassium (K): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

Legumes, potatoes, seafood, dairy products, meat, f /fruits/veg

BioavailabilityHigh

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Regulation & Functions of Potassium in the Body

Absorption in small intestine & colonBlood potassium regulated by:

KidneysyAldosterone increases excretion

ElectrolyteMaintains fluid balanceMuscle functionNerve functionEnergy metabolism

Potassium Deficiency & Toxicity

Deficiency Diarrhea & vomitingDiureticsHypokalemiaHypokalemia

SymptomsMuscle weakness, constipation, irritability, confusion, ? insulin resistance, irregular heart function, decreased blood pressure, difficulty breathing

ToxicitySupplementation

The Trace Minerals: An Overview

Inorganic atoms or molecules

Microminerals or trace elementsMicrominerals or trace elements

< 100 mg/day needed

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Bioavailability & Regulation of Trace Minerals

Bioavailability influenced by:GeneticsNutritional statusNutrient interactionsNutrient interactionsAging

Absorbed in small intestineCirculated in bloodDeficiencies & toxicities rare

Except genetic disorders & environmental exposure

Functions of Trace Minerals in the Body

CofactorsMetalloenzyme

Components of nonenzymatic moleculesComponents of nonenzymatic moleculesProvide structure to mineralized tissues

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Trace Elements (minerals)Need small amounts of these.Found in plants and animals.Content in plant foods depends on soilContent in plant foods depends on soil content (where plant was grown).They are difficult to quantify biochemically.Bioavailability often influenced by other dietary factors (especially other minerals)

IronMost common nutrient deficiency in the world.Functions

Oxygen transport via hemoglobinOxygen transport via hemoglobinThus, necessary for ATP production!

Essential component of many enzymesImmune functionBrain function

Iron deficiency/toxicity thought to slow mental development in kids.

Iron in the Body

70% of iron in body is functional; found in enzymes and other molecules

>80% of this found in red blood cells>80% of this found in red blood cells

30% of iron is in storage depots or transport proteinsIron absorption, transport, storage and loss is highly regulated.

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Iron AbsorptionPrimary regulator of iron homeostasis

1-50% of iron is absorbed.

If body needs more iron, it increases amount of “transferrin” an iron carrying protein.Iron can also be stored in another protein called “ferritin”

Iron Absorption

Transport acrossBrush borderBasolateral membraneBasolateral membrane

Heme ironChemical modification not needed

Nonheme ironReduced to ferrous form

Ferritin

Effect of Iron Status on Iron Absorption

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Effect of Iron Status on Iron Absorption

Iron deficiencyIncreases production of transport proteinsDecreases ferritin productionDecreases ferritin production

Adequate or excess ironDecreases production of transport proteins

Iron Circulation, Uptake Into Cells, & Storage

TransferrinDelivers iron to body cellsce sTransferrin receptors

Iron Circulation, Uptake Into Cells, & Storage

Iron storage compounds

FerritinFerritinMain storage form

HemosiderinLong-term storage

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Absorption, cont.Iron from animal sources much better absorbed than that from plant sourcesAbsorption of iron from pplant sources increased by

Vitamin CMeat in diet

Absorption is decreased byPhytates (grain products)Polyphenols (tea, coffee)Other minerals (calcium, zinc)

Iron Deficiency AnemiaPublic health concern in U.S. and around the world.Infants, children, pregnant and lactating g gwomen most at risk.Symptoms

↓ hemoglobin concentration of blood↓ red blood cell sizeCognitive problems, poor growth, decreased exercise tolerance.

Iron (Fe): Dietary SourcesHeme iron

Bound to a heme groupShellfish, beef, poultry, organ meatsMakes up

Hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes

Nonheme ironGreen leafy vegetables, mushrooms, legumes, enriched grains~85% of dietary iron

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Bioavailability of Iron

Influenced by:Form

HemeHeme Ferric Ferrous

Iron statusPresence/absence of other dietary components

Enhancers of Nonheme Iron Bioavailability

Vitamin C & stomach acidConvert ferric to ferrous iron

Meat factorCompound in meat, poultry, seafoodMeat + nonheme iron

Inhibitors of Nonheme Iron Bioavailability

Chelators

PhytatesPhytatesIn vegetables, grains, seeds

PolyphenolsSome vegetables, tea, coffee, red wine

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Functions of Iron

Oxygen transport: hemoglobin

Iron reservoir: myoglobinIron reservoir: myoglobin

Cellular energy metabolism

Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin

Most abundant protein in red blood cells4 protein subunits + 4 iron-containing heme groupsDelivers oxygen to cellsPicks up carbon dioxide

Iron Reservoir: Myoglobin

Found in muscle cellsHeme group + protein subunitReleases oxygen to cells when neededReleases oxygen to cells when needed for:

ATP productionMuscle contraction

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Cellular Energy Metabolism

CytochromesHeme-containing complexesFunction in electron transport chainpAllow conversion of ADP to ATP

Iron as cofactorElectron transport chainCitric acid cycleGluconeogensis

Other Roles of Iron

Cytochrome P450 enzymes

Cofactor for antioxidant enzymesCofactor for antioxidant enzymesProtects DNA, cell membranes, proteins

Cofactor for enzyme to make DNA

Iron Deficiency

Most common nutritional deficiency

At risk groupsAt-risk groupsInfants, growing children, pregnant women

Pica

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Mild Iron Deficiency

SignsFatigueImpaired physical work performanceImpaired physical work performanceBehavioral abnormalitiesImpaired intellectual abilities in childrenBody temperature regulationInfluences immune system

Severe Iron Deficiency: Iron-Deficiency Anemia

Microcytic hypochromic anemiaSmall, pale red blood cellsInability to produce enough hemeInability to produce enough hemeDecreased ability to carry oxygenDecreased ATP synthesis

Focus on Clinical Applications: Measuring Iron Status

Serum ferritin concentration< 12 micrograms/L

Total iron-binding capacity> 400 micrograms/dL

Serum transferrin saturation< 16%

Hemoglobin concentrationMen < 130 g/L Women < 120 g/L

HematocritMen < 39% Women <36%

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Basics of Iron Supplementation

Ferrous IronBest absorbedOther terms:Other terms:

Ferrous fumarteFerrous sulfateFerrous gluconate

Ferric Iron

Iron ToxicityMedicinal or supplemental ironMost common cause of childhood poisoningp gSymptoms

Vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, black stoolsDeath

Excess deposited in liver, heart, muscles

Special Recommendations for Vegetarians & Endurance Athletes

VegansNeeds are 80% higherIron supplementsppHeme + nonheme iron foods

Endurance athletesIncreased blood loss in feces/urineChronic rupture of red blood cells in feetNeeds are 70% higher

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Copper (Cu): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

FormsCupricCuprousCuprous

Organ meats, shellfish, whole-grain products, mushrooms, nuts, legumesBioavailability decreases with

AntacidsIron

Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Copper

Absorbed in small intestine & stomachInfluenced by Cu statusCeruloplasminCeruloplasminExcess incorporated into bile & eliminated in feces

Functions of CopperCofactor for metalloenzymes in redox reactions:

ATP productionCytochrome c oxidase

Iron metabolismNeural functionAntioxidant function

Superoxide dismutaseConnective tissue synthesis

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Copper Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficiencyHospitalized patients & preterm infantsAntacids

Signs & SymptomsDefective connective tissue, anemia, neural problems

ToxicityRare

Copper

FunctionsEssential for normal absorption, transport and mobilization of iron and hemoglobin gsynthesisIntegral component of many enzymes (e.g., cytochrome oxidase)

Stored in most tissues, especially liver

Copper DeficiencyAnemiaDepigmentation of hair or wool

Black sheep are sometimes kept asBlack sheep are sometimes kept as indicators of marginal Cu deficiency

Loss of wool crimp (“steely” wool)Bone disordersCentral nervous lesions with muscular incoordination

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Induced Copper Deficiency

Caused by relatively high levels of Mo and/or SSite of interaction is in the rumenSite of interaction is in the rumen

Formation of insoluble Cu salts including sulfides and thiomolybdates

Net effect is decreased Cu absorption

Induced Copper Toxicity

Occurs with “normal” dietary levels of Cu and “low” levels of Mo and SAccumulates in liverAccumulates in liverSheep are more susceptible than cattle or pigs

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IodineFunction

Essential component of thyroid hormones

Important for regulation p gof body temperature, basal metabolic rate, reproduction and growth.

Regulation in bodyAlmost all is absorbed.Excess removed in urine.

Dietary SourcesSeafoodsMilk/dairy productsIodized saltIodized salt

Iodine Deficiency

Goiter (less severe)Enlarged thyroid gland due to body’s attempt to increase thyroid hormone p yproduction

Cretinism (more severe)Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy serious problems in baby

Stunted growth, deaf, mute, mentally retarded.

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Iodine Deficiency DisordersCretinism Goiter

Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Iodine

Absorbed in small intestine & stomachTaken up by thyroid glandThyroid stimulating hormone regulatesThyroid-stimulating hormone regulates uptake

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Functions of IodineComponent of:

Thyroxine (T4)Triiodothyronine (T3)y ( 3)

Regulates energy metabolism, growth, developmentSigns of deficiency

Severe fatigueLethargy

Focus on Food: Iodine Deficiency & Iodine Fortification of Salt

1920s – “Goiter Belt”Statewide campaignsStarted providing iodized salt to childrenStarted providing iodized salt to childrenGoiter almost eliminatedCurrent – Public Health working to eradicate goiter internationally

Iodine Toxicity

HypothyroidismHyperthyroidismFormation of goitersFormation of goiters

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Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Selenium

Most Se enters bloodIncorporated into selenomethionineMakes selenoproteinsMakes selenoproteinsStored in musclesMaintenance of Se through excretion in urine

Functions of SeleniumComponent of glutathione peroxidase

catalyzes removal of hydrogen peroxide

GSH + H O GSSG + H O

Component of iodothyronine-5’- deiodinase Converts T4 to T3

Improves killing ability of neutrophilsReduces the prevalence and severity of mastitis

GSH = reduced glutathioneGSSG = oxidized glutathione

GSH + H2O2 GSSG + H2O

SeleniumProtects cells from autooxidative damageShares this role with vitamin E

Important antioxidantDeficiencies

White muscle disease in lambs and calvesSkeletal and cardiac myopathies

Exudative diathesis (hemorrhagic disease) in chicks

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Selenium Content of Soils

SeleniumToxicity

Blind staggers or alkali diseaseRange between minimum requirement and

i t l bl l l imaximum tolerable level is narrowSupplementation must be done with care!

FDA regulations allow two forms of inorganic Se (Na selenite and Na selenate) to be used

0.3 mg of supplemental Se/kg of DM is maximumOrganic form available

Selenium Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficiencyKeshan disease

ToxicityToxicityGarlic-like odor of breathNauseaVomitingDiarrheaBrittleness of teeth & fingernails

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Chromium (Cr): Dietary Sources, Bioavailability, & Regulation

Food content depends on soilWhole grains, fruits/veg, processed meats, beer, wine, ,Bioavailability affected by:

Vitamin CAcidic medicationsAntacids

Transported in blood to liverExcess excreted in urine & feces

Functions of Chromium

Regulates insulinGrowth & developmentLab animalsLab animals

Increases lean massDecreases fat mass

Ergogenic aidChromium picolinate

Chromium Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficiencyHospitalized patients

Elevated blood glucoseElevated blood glucoseDecreased insulin sensitivityWeight loss

ToxicityRareIndustrially released chromium

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Manganese (Mn): Dietary Sources & Regulation

Whole grains, pineapples, nuts, legumes, dark green leafy vegetables, waterwater<10% absorbedExcess incorporated into bile & excreted in feces

Functions of Manganese

Cofactor for metalloenzymesGluconeogenesisBone formationBone formation

Energy metabolism

Cofactor for superoxide dismutase

Manganese Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficiencyRareScaly skin, poor bone formation, growth y , p , gfaltering

ToxicityRare

MiningLiver diseaseHigh water levels

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Molybdenum (Mo): Dietary Sources

Food content depends on soilLegumes, grains, nutsAbsorbed in intestineAbsorbed in intestineCirculated to liver via blood

Functions of MolybdenumRedox reactions

Cofactor for several enzymesCofactor for several enzymes

Metabolism of:Sulfur-containing amino acidsDNA & RNA

Detoxifying drugs in liver

Molybdenum Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficiencyRare

Toxicityo c tyNo known effects in humansAnimals – disrupts reproduction

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Zinc (Zn): Dietary Sources & Bioavailability

Bioavailability influenced by:PhytatesIronIron CalciumAnimal sourcesAcidic substances

Absorption, Metabolism, & Regulation of Zinc

Requires proteins to:Transport zinc into enterocyte

MetallothionineMetallothionine

Bind zinc within cell

Excess excreted in fecesGenetic influences

Acrodermatitis EnteroathicaZinc deficiency even with adequate amounts of dietary zinczincSupplementationInfants

Growth failureRed/scaly skinDiarrhea

Human Genome Project

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CofactorRNA synthesis

Stabilizes proteins

Functions of Zinc

pthat regulate gene expression

Zinc fingers

AntioxidantStabilizes cell membranes

Zinc Deficiency & ToxicityDeficiency

Decreases appetiteIncreases morbidity

ToxicitySupplementsPoor immune

Decreases growthSkin irritations, diarrhea, delayed sexual maturation

functionDepressed levels of HDLImpaired copper statusNausea, vomiting, loss of appetite

Fluoride99% is found in bones and teethFunction

t tto promote mineralization of calcium and phosphate.Inhibits bacterial growth in mouth decreases cavity formation.

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Fluoride (F-): Dietary Sources, Bioavailability, & Regulation

Not an essential nutrientPotatoes, tea, legumes, fish w/bones, toothpaste, added to drinking watergAmerican Dental Association

Fluoridation 1-2 ppm

Absorbed via small intestineCirculates in blood to liver & then teeth & boneExcess excreted in urine

Functions of Fluoride

Part of bone & teeth matrixStimulates maturation of osteoblastsTopical application decreases bacteria inTopical application decreases bacteria in mouth

Fewer cavities

Fluoride Deficiency & Toxicity

DeficiencyNone known

Toxicityo c tyGI upset, excessive production of saliva, watery eyes, heart problems, comaDental fluorosisSkeletal fluorosis

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CobaltKnown since 1930s that a wasting disease was

d hassociated with Co deficiency in plants and soilsStarved for glucose!Vitamin B12 was found to contain Co

Vitamin B12

Cobalt Deficient Areas of the US

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Cobalt and Vitamin B12

Injection of Co-deficient sheep and cattle with Vitamin B12 was as effective as feeding Co in curing the diseaseas feeding Co in curing the diseaseInjection of Co had no effectMicrobial synthesis of Vitamin B12 was the key!

Functions of Cobalt and Vitamin B12

Essential coenzyme forPropionate metabolism

methylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoAmethylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA

DNA synthesisBacterial synthesis of methionine

Other Trace Minerals

More research needed about:NickelAluminumAluminumSiliconVanadiumArsenicBoron