.'

MILWAUKEE AND THE PRESS, 1916:

rrHE DEVELOPf"T..L"'NT OF CIVIC SCHIZOPHRENIA

by

John Joseph Starzyk

An Essay Submitted tQ the ~~arluate School, Marquette University, in Partial Fulfillment,

of the Requirements for the De gree of Master of Arts.

Milwaukee, ~.Jisconsin July, 1978

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The year was 1916. The war in Europe was well into its

second devastating year. America, once solely pre-occupied with

its OltlIl internal problems and new progressive r:eforms, slowly

began to pay closer attention to the conflict. It could not be

otherwise. How could anyone ignore those reports that came

across the Atlantic which showed that the average German soldier

wfied away his hours raping Belgian women and bayoneting babies;

or that one hundred innocent Americans were brutally murdered

with the sinking of the Luisitania by that devious new weapon,

the submarine'1 Such inhumane outrages against civilil:.ation had

to be dealt with, and the sooner the better. The once popular

song, "I Didn't Raise My Son To Be a Soldier", was sw.:g less

and less as the enemy took the definite form of the dreaded

Hun. The once friendly land of beer, Wagner and Gemtitluhheit

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had given way to Prussian militarism int~nt on destroying every­

thing once valued by Western civilization. President Woodrow

wilson, up for re-election, had been doing his utmost to ne­

gotiate peacefully and honorably with the Germans, but there

was only so much one man could do. The die was caste.

Yet there was at least one place in America where the issue

was not as cut and dried as it seemed to be elsewhere. A place

where 6~fo of the foreign-born population had a Teutonic back­

ground. l It was a city known for its beer ·drinking inhabitants

and plentiful saloons, many of which not only proudly displayed

pictures of Kaiser Wilhelm II but also encouraged treasonous

anti-English tirades by the patrons.

The place was Milwaukee, Wisconsin, considered by many to be

'. a hotbed of sedition, a province of Germany, a city where all

the inhabitants were Germans, not Americans. What else can be

said of a city that allowed the president of· the National Ger-

man-American Alliance, Dr. C.J. Hexamer, to come and speakto an

overflow crowd at the West Side Turn Hall and treasonously

profess:

Time of small squabbles in our society must cease. Everything that lessens our unity must be set aside. A man who pulls off his German-ism as he does an old glove and throws it aside is not worthy to spit at. Such a one is a cowardly rascal ••• It is in the German family that love and respect are united. There the children do not heartlessly call their parents old man and old woman ••• America needs the high-est discipl ine, the moral spirit of German life. When Germany finally drives the enemy to 1ts knees,

lCensus Enumeration of the State of Wisconsin(Madison: Democratic Printing Co., 1906), p. 170.

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there will spring up in every German a spark which will arouse in him a~tion even though he remains in America.

Such a speech was bound to cause heated discussions not

only at Kalts, Forst-Kellers and Stubers but also across a

suspicious nation.

As the year 1916 progressed, and more American lives were

lost to German submarines, Milwaukee would be torn apart in­

ternally~ A civic schizophrenia would develop as the city would

be split between pro-Germanism amd American patriotism.

In this paper we shall trace Milwaukee's history during

this fateful year through the use of two of the more popular

newspapers of the day. These t~o papers, diametrically opposite

on every conceivable position ans sprewing forth blatantly

prejudical stories, fed the flames of internal conflicttthat

characterized Milwaukee throughout the entire year of 1916. , -

',.Ie will trace the methods they used in an attempt to fashion

public opinion, thereby adding to the war tensions ~:.lready

burdening the city. 7hes~ )d)"r. ;Vere:

/ The Milwaukee Journal: Circulation 10;,918 daily; 88,677

~ Sunday; editor, Lucius W. Nieman;3 pro-Jalied, staunch supporter

of President Woodrow '.Jilson and the national doctrine of pre-

paredness.

The Milwaukee Free Press:Circulation 40,434 daily;

21,447 Sund a;y ; editor, Ernst H. Kronshage;l;- pro-German, bitter

2 Mib~tp.lkee ,Tournal,., November 24, 1915, p. 1.

3 William C. Conrad, Kathleen Wilson and Dale Wilson,The Milwaukee Journal: The First 80 Years(Madison: University ~ Wisconsin Press,1964), p.215.

_ ,4N.W.Ayer, ed., A;yer Djctjonary:"" )9J6(Philadelphia:N.lJ. Ayer an1 Sons, lY16), p. 79.

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critic of President Wilson; supporter of a national embargo

J on all munition sales.

The Milwaukee Journal began as the Daily Jour~ on

November 16, 1882 under the auspices of one Peter V. Deuster,

Democratic Congressman from Milwaukee. Deuster, also an editor

of a leading German daily, The Seebote, sold his new four pa~e

paper at two c8~ts a copy to approximately one thousand cus­

tomers fun the Milwaukee area. Unfortunately, the paper con­

tinually lost money and advertisers until one Lucius Nieman

became editor on December 11, 1882. fhe high-spirited Nieman

immediately asserted himself with the following philosophy,

"The Journal will be independent and aggressive but always with

a due regard for the sanctities of priVate life. It will oppose

every political machine and cabal, venal politician of every

~ l s t ripe, every form of oppression. It will be the people's paper

~1d will recognize that its field is Milwaukee _ ~~d the state

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at l arge .... Above all it will abhor dullness."5

Nieman did not have to wait long to :put I his'·'·,philosoph,..'V

into action. In January of 1883, a massive fire destroyed the

Ne whall House in downtown Milwaukee, killing eighty people. In

its i nvestigat i on, the Journal discovered numerous fire code

violations that had been covered up by the hotel's owners in

con junction with various local politicians. As the Journal ex-

posed t he wrong doings, its popularity skyrocketed and it be-

came a permanent Milwaukee fixture.

'- -/Conrad, The Milwaukee Journal:The First 80 Years, p. 9.

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On -May 11, 1885, the nama of the paper was officially

changed to the Milwaukee Journal.

The Milwaukke Free Press was founded in 1901 as a political

organ t~aid Robert M. La Follette. At the turn of the century

many of the county weekly amd foreign language papers joined the

popular agitation and became unofficial organs of the agarian

movement as it developed through successive stages: Greenback,

Gr anger, Populist and Progressive.

The progressive programs of La Follette "plucked responsive

chords in the idealistic traditon of Wisconsin and the press

echoed the melody. The progressive Republicans established their

il own daily, the Milwaukee -Free Press, with the anomalous aid of

millionaire Issac Stephenson."6

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After La Follette was elected senator, Stephenson retired

from politics and in 1915, sold the paper to a group of promin-

ent Hilwaukeeans who were mostly of German desc.ent.

The Journal started out the year of 1916 "'lith a t"TO month

eampaign directed against the Free Press. It beg;m innocently

enough with a full page, eye catching advertisement, which

Sh01ried hm~ the Journal, over the past year,gained 1,134 columns

of 3.dvertisement \.,hile the Free Press lost 1,257 columns. Any

befuddled Milwaukeean V/llo might have \'iondered what these sta-

tistics reflected, was soon provided with a possible answer,

thanks to a Journal editorial a few days later. It seemed that

since the ~var began, a certain ne'",spaper, (no names I-Iere men-

t ioned) had fiercely and bitterly attacked the American gov-

6 Donald E. Oehlerts, ed., Guide to Wisconsin Newspagers, J83J-1957(Madison:Btate Historical Society of Wisconsin,l 58}, p. ix-x.

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ernment's every word and act in every confrontation between

America and Germany.

The 8ree Press, not being a paper to take criticism

lightly, fired back via its own editorial page, attacking the

Journal as a desperate critic that goes the limit to discredit

German-Americans, specifically mentioning the attempt by the

JO\lrnal to prove that the editor of another pro-German paper,

the Germania-Herold. Emil Von Schlentiz, was not a citizen of the

United States.

Just as the daily salvos : '~were becoming more and more con­

fusing to the average reader, who did not know from edition to

edition what new and das~dly deeds one would accuse the other

of committing, the President of the United States decided :to pay

a visit to Milwaukee on January 31, 1916. A temporary truce was

established as both papers devoted their attention to Wilson's

speech given at the Milwaukee Auditorium. The President had in-

sisted that Milwaukee be included in his nationwide tour so

that he could deliver a speech specifically directed at the

large German population of the city. In the speech he declared:

I for my part have no jealousy of family sentiment. I have no jealousy of the deep affection which runs back through long lineage. It would be a pity if we forget the fine things that our ancestors have done. But I also know the mag~c of America. I also lcnow the great principles which thrill with emotion in the great body politic to which we belong in the United States. I know that whenever the test comes, everyman's heart will be first for America. And wherever they came from it was priciple and affection and ­ambition and hope that drew men to these shores and they are not going to forget the errand upon which they came. '/

7Milwaukee Free Press, Feb. 1, 1916, p.4.

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Both papers commented on the speech in the predictable

manner. The Journal noted that "we have read few addresses

whether by men now living or statesmen f r om other days which

express so clearly and so sensitively the spirit and ideals of

America as President Wilson's speech at the Auditorium yes­

terday.tl8 ,Conversely, the Free Press noted that "disappointment

prevailed among Milwaukeeans after they had throughly digested

the speech of President Wilson. 'l9

As the President headed eoward Chicago,' the heated atmos­

phere returned as the temporary truce was shattered with a bomb­

shell from the Mih{aukee Journal. "Does Milwaukee Favor Dis-

loyalty?", read the headlines of February lO~. In a city 81-

r eady acutely sensitive about statements concerning patriotism

"and loyalty, the headline was definitely a grabber. The story

whiC!h followed was no less shocH:ing, as the Journal declared

on page one that "in the last analysis the Free Pre's 's owners

are responsible for what a newspaper says and does. For more than

a year, in fact since the war began, the Milwaukee Free Press

has been preaching un-American doctrines and doing un-American

things. Its attacks on the governmnet 01 tne United States have

been bitter and incessant."lO Accompanying the story was a com-

plete list of all the stockholders of the Free Press plus

cert a in excerpts of Free Press editorials.

Did the editors of the Journal have visions of spontaneous

8 Milwaukee Journal, Feb. 1, 1916, p. 12.

9 Milwaukee Free Press, Feb. 3, 1916, p. 7.

10 Milwaukee Journal, February 10, 1916, p. 1.

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formations of patriotic lynch mobs being organized through­

the city, making midnight calls on those stockholders? One can

only guess, although no formal attacks on any of the se~enty

five men were ever recorded.

The Journal did see fit to record, though, for the next

few weeks, letters to the editor which whole heartedly supported

the paper's frontal attack on the Free Press. Space was provided

daily on page two, containing letters from citizens of German

descent unde.re the banneB "citizens of German blood denounce the

Free Pres~, repudiating its disloyal utterances while giving

warm support to the exposure of its stand at all points against

America."ll The Journal took pride in the fact that citizens of

German descent reaffirmed its confidence in their loyalty and

"patriotism.

Suprisingly, the Free Press took this quite calmly, not

responding at all, as letter upon letter sprewed forth the same

messas e daily. It was not until the Journal went on to other

pursuits that the Free Press fired back and with mne editorial

took apart what its competiton took two weeks tobuild. "In all,

the :Milwaukee Journal has published twenty-five alleged communi­

cations either praising the Journal or criticising the Free Press.

Of these twenty-five, fourteen were anonymous. Of those signed,

one could not be found in the city directory, and three were

from out of the city. 6f the remaining list, only five are

11 Milwaukee Journal, Feb. 15, 1916, p. 2.

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bearers of German names. We found that the B~ total of the

German-American 'vindication', with which the Journal glowingly

claims for its anti-Germ~ stand against the Free Press, consists

of these five names."12 The Journal did not respond.

The war between the two papers a second time ceased abruptly

as another major event took place in the city that diverted their

~ttention, an event the Free Press called "too wonderful for words,

too grand for comprehension ••• like trying to think of space, you

can't get a start ••• not within the power of the human mind ••• Solo­

mon in all his wisdom was wrong when he said there is nothing new

under the sun. "13

No, the Messiah did not pick the Milwaukee Auditorium as the

location of His second coming, although from the description above

one would think that was the case. \""'hat the Free Press was referring.

to and what Solomon was not able to foresee was the great Milwaukee

Relief Bazaar~ held from March 2nd to March 7tb. Although the Free

Press slightly exaggerated its scope, this bene"fi t to riHieve :; the

1jiar sufferings of the people in Germany, Austria and Hungry was

one of the biggest, if not the biggest, event to take place in the

city in 1916.

This six day festival, which was an immense success, did not

diminish Milwaukee's growing reputation as being blatantly pro­

German in the European war. As the Free Press appropriately stated,

"all of the love of Milwaukeeans of Austrian, German and Hungarian

descent for their agonizing brethern, all of their pity, all of

12Milwaukee Free Press,Feb. 23, 1916, p. 10.

13,Milwaukee Free Press, ~' March 2, 1916, p. 1.

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their determination to relieve by a magnificent effort the

desolation of millions has been put into a stupendous and beau­

tiful charity bazaar for the war sufferers of Germany, Austria

and Hungry. 1114

Twelve thousand Milwaukeeans attended opening night. One of

the first sights they saw as they"entered the Auditorium was the

Ol d Heidelburg section, the most popular booth of the whole fes-

tival. Here, Mrs. Gustav Pabst waited on customers, dispensing

frankfurters and beer while Mrs. Meta Berger, ,member of the school

board ~~d wife of Congressman Victor Berger, sold medals. A little

further on, Mrs. Louis Auer, one of Milwaukee's finest citizens,

shouted out of a megaphone selling chances f.or the .. Theel of for-

tune.

~, As one progressed throu~~ the Auditorium, the next stop was .,

th(,; BiedeI'meier Garden, 1,<lhere Mrs. Paula Uihlein personally greeted

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t ~ .all visitors. In the \./einer Cafe, huge apple t r ees -provided the

I DCI.ekr-:,L'ound for German peasant waitresses, dressed in short Vienesse ~ .. l

skirts of black and white, who carted immense steins of beer to

the huge, raucous crowd. Long rows of booths in \llhich one could

fin.d l';Ypsy fortune tellers and wheel of fortune games 'contributed

to the f1ardi. Gras, street carnival atmosphere of the bazaar.

Continuo? vaudeville was provided under the direction of

Fre~z Kirchner, director of the Pabst Theater Stock Company,

\<lhile brat'Nursts and Bavarian beer 'were the keynotes of the Bayern

and Schuaber booth. Dolls wece for sale at the Martha Washington

14 r1ilwaukee Free Press, March 2, 1916, p .. 2.

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booth and at the Corner Grocery booth, home rolled oats and cans

of corn and fresh fruit were available.

If the excitement was too much, one could always retire to

the quiet of Engelmann Hall where cigarettes could be purchased

from Turkish girls and a relaxing game of billiards could be

played \lllder portraits of Washington, Lincoln, McKinely and Kaiser

Wilhelm II.

These were just a few of the many attractions at the bazaar.

All the articles for sale were donated. For e~ample, the histori­

cal watchfob depicting the history of the German Empire was

donated by Mr. William Uihlein. And Fritz Kreister, great Austrian

violinist and soldier, came to Milwaukee personally to present

his autograph for auction. The Boston Store made the first bid

on it for ten dollars. Q

Att~mdance at the second night of the fair more than doubled

the first night, as five thousand people were unable to enter, due

to lack of rOOli, :13y the third night, the area around the Auditorium

was jammed, as an estimated twenty-five thousand people were

turned away. Even the Milwaukee Journal had to admit at this

point that "it is ~"ithout a doubt the biggest event ever attempted

in Mihraukee ••• if German, Austrian and Hungarian war sufferers

could see a movie of the bazaar, they certainly would have a

doubly ',"'arm feeling for t he many thousands that are making it all

PO:3sib1e." 15

The evening contained one of the most memorable events at the

15 f1i1waukee Journal, March 5, 1916, p. 1.

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fair as song}ess Peggy Unertl, perfo:rmi.ng in the Old Heidelberg

section, sang a tune entitled ItBack to Germany" which created

such a tremendous sensation among the thousands who heard it that

Miss Unertl was summoned back for six encores as all in attendance

joined in.

Ey the fourth evening, receipts to,taled ninety-five thousand

dollars while attendance was recorded at ninety-two thousand eight ·

hundred. At this point, it became more than just a Milwaukee affair

as organized crowds from Watertown, Waukesha, Sheboygan, Racine,

Oshkosh, Madison, Mayville, Neenah, Manitowac, and Baraboo began

arriving at the Auditorium. Wisconsin Governor Emanuel Phillip

attended with Eugene Nelsky, Austrian vice consul in Chicago, who

was seen consul ting ~'li th bazaar officials to get ideas for con-

<tucti.ng the same sort of event in Chicago.

r1idlli~-;ht, March 7lJJ, the fina.le of the bazaar was a "mad l"'..lsh

at the end for people to spend their money ••• wi tb. sih·er thrown

over the hea.d.J of the people and bills passed from hand to hand

to the front of the cro',lds ••• thousands were cheering, singing,

\Ihi s tling, bands playing, hands throwing paper and confetti in the

air, looking like a monstrous and gorgeo'..lS moving rainbow. n16

Unofficial fiE,ures reported on March 8ill showed total atten-

danee t o be 173,286 while receipts totaled $1'73,744. This figure

did go considerably higher, for everything that was left unsold

il ,vas s ent to the Boston Store which continued to sell the articles

16 Milwaukee Journal, March 8, 1916, p. 14.

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over the ne~-rew- weeks. The funds were eventually sent to

Berlin via the First National Bank of Milwaukee.

The bazaar turned out to be such a tremendous success that

plrulS were made to hold a secon~ such event at the Auditorium,

this time the proceeds going towards the relief of the suffering

of German prisoners of war. Unfortunately, the date set for this

event was April, 1917.

It was interesting how the Journal covered this obviousl'

pro-German event. The first day of the baza~, the Journal's

headlines read, "Thousands Working Hard to Make a Great Success

of Milwaukee's Big Bazaar",l7 Day two's front page sported the

pictures 0.1' twenty-eight babies and the following caption, "These

are the kinds of chaps that make strong the cry for help in war

times".18 A meticulously detailed story followed giving a complete

run dOl,ffi of the whole Auditorium scene.

However, as. the overwhelming success of the f 'air ' became more

amd more evident, reports of the event became harder and harder

t'o find in the Journal. By the fourth day, the charity bazaar was

relegated to the third page. By the fifth day, coverage was on page

five and the final day found it buried on page fourteen, the last

page of the paper.

At this time, the Journal began to publish a series of

articles spanning the next three months which stressed one major

theme : that the aver~ge German-American, especially the average

l7Milwaukee Journal, March 2, 1916, p. 1 0 •

18Milwaukee Journal, March 3, 1916, p.l.

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!'lilwaukee German-American, was unquestionably loyld to the

United States of America. No doubt the immense success of the

charity bazaar prompted this tactic by the Journal and one can

only guess whether the overall objective was to convince the

people of Milwaukee of this fact, or the people of the United

States, or perhaps even the editors of the paper themselves,

especially in light of what transpired at the Auditorium.

The first such article, printed on the second day of the

bazaar, ~,<,as written by Samuel Blyth of the Saturday Evening Post.

His piece, entitled "Average Germans are Good Americans, Milwau­

keean Says," quoted an unnamed Milwaukee man who stated "we

American citizens of German birth or descent are not responsible

for what Germany has done or may ao. The average Germans are

Americans first.,,19

Of course the main target in these articles was the hyphen­

ated America11. They were urged to forget the pa$t 'three hundred

years of 'melting po'!;' history because if you were a citizen you

were an American, nothing more nothing less. To drive the point

home, the Journal ran headlines of which the following was

typical: "Think of Our Country First--Declares Hyphenated Society

a f1enace to Good Citizenship". This particular article concerned

former Secretary of Commerce Charles Nagel who had come to Mil­

waukee to address the German Literary Society. While he did note

that he sympathized with Germany in the European war, since his

19 Milwaukee Journal,March 3, 1916, p. 1.

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ancestors came from there, he believed that "every thought, word

and action of a citizen of the United S'tates in connection to the

war in Europe should be with a full consideration of its effect on

the United States ••• I .believe that there should be no such thing

as a hyphenated citizen, no German-American, ho French-American,

no Irish-American. He should be purely an American citizen, nothing

else."20

A similar viewpoint WaS expressed in another article by a Dr.

J~mes A.B. Scherer, a leading Lutheran theologian. He was noted for,

among other things, a letter entitled "Confessions of a Hyphenated­

Ameri.can". This particular story did not get as much play as the

Nagel story, possibly because it was reprinted from the New York

Times and was not a Journal exclusive. However, its message did

come a.cross loud and clear to its Milwaukee readers.

In it, Dr. Scherer related his latest visit to the father­

lande Although brought up to admire everythingGerma.il.~ he became

disillusioned and blamed Germany for the war. Convinced that ninety

percent of Americans with German names would remain loyal to the

u.S. in event of war with Germany, Scherer hit hard at those

Germen- Americans who desired to keep old ties with their homeland.

"Being partly of German ancestry and familiar with Germany and its

people, I can from personal knowledge suscribe to your views con­

cerning vast changes that have taken place in the moral and spiri­

tual life of the people. The old days of plain living and the

20 Milwaukee Journal, April 12, 1916, p. 1.

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teachings of Goethe and Schiller have passed. The whole people

have become obsessed with but one aim and aspiration--to rule,

conquer and enjoy the fruits of war.,,2l

During this period, a Reverand Johannes Glaessner, of 701

31st Street, reported to the Journal that he had received a cir­

cular in the mail which outlined plans for the formation of a

society to erect a German-American memorial of the European war

in Hoboken, New Jersey. ' Funds for the four story structure, topped

with a German iron cross, were to be raised by' the society from

contributions from German-Americans across the country. Each con­

tributors name would be written on one of the walls of the four

floors. According to the circular, the inscr-iption would read:

"To serve a.s a lastin~ symbol to German-Americans of the·future of

the love and devotion which, inspite of much hostility, their fore­

fat hers in 1914-1916 showed their fatherland, of the faith they

not interested in suscribing.

Neither the Journal nor the Free Press reported how many

other citizens in Milwaukee received these circulars. Therefore

i t was not known whether others may have felt obligated to con­

tribute to the memory of their hemeland.

Regardless, the Journal continued to hammer away with the

21 Milwaukee Journal, May 19, 1916, p. 4.

22 Mil'Naukee Journal, April 24, 1916, p. 7.

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-'7 .... -same message of German-American loyalty, filling its pages with

stories from a.round the na.tion which stressed tha.t theme. Even a

story from, of all places, Comfort, Texas, found its way onto the

pages of t he Journal, a story that ordinarily would be considered

no more than a filler in most cities that did not contain a large

German population. Appropriately entitled "Lauds Loyalty of U.S.

Germans," Texas Governor William Fergusen in a speech to the Sons

of nermaJl1l said, "I do not blame German-Americans whose hearts and

sympathies go back across the waters to their dear old fatherland.

(Applause) You would :he untrue to the traditions of you.t' child-

hood and untrue to the sentiments of good citizens if you did not

have that sJ~pathy. (Applause) At the same tiBe , notwithstanding,

all of the natu.ral symPathy to the fatherland, you still have the

@anhood, courage and conviction to rem.ain loyal to the flag. (Points'

to tl'l'3 f lag amist deafening applause)ii' 23

Hopefully by this time, the average German in_ Milvlaukee got

the message : loyalty, patriotism, duty to your country and especi··

al ly support of your president, regardless of European ties or

interests. Good German-Americans were urged to ignore the mesa

meeting that was held the other night at Kittelman's Hall at 21st

and Center, in which ° twenty-nine radicals, some speaking in Ger­

lI1an, cri tici zed 'Wilson' s orie-sided attitude to'llard submarine

Narfare. 'rhey were also warned that organizations like the North

Side Citizens Club, which passed a resolution condemning the

Pr esident, would only harm the cityis repu.tation.

23 Milwaukee Journal, May 20, 1916, p. 4.

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Forget the fact that fifteen-hundred members of the Bethany

Eva.ngelical Church at 24U1 and Coldspring and twenty-six hundred

members of the Immanuel Evangelical Church at l2U1 and Garfield

scnt telegrams and letters protesting Wilson's policies, "that

might embroil our country in a war with Germany ••• convinced that

a war with Germany, if waged on no better grounds than that ad­

vanced so far would be nothing less than a crime.,,24 So what if

ten other churches joined in the protest movement. The average

citizen of Milwauxee was loyal, according to the Journal, and at

no time was it more important to show this loyalty to the Pres­

ident then now, the summer of 1916, the summer of political con­

ventions and campaigns.

Actually, both newspapers began very early in the year, long

b~fore the June nominati~ng conventions, to attempt to persuade

their readers which tva:y to vote. Obviously, the Free Press, not

knowing the Hepublican candidate that would eventuSJ:lly .run against

',Jil s on , ~'lBS c()nfined t o stories such as the following: "Priest

Fighting For Germany Says He Regrets Having Voted For Wilson," 25

In the ar ticle , a Father Peter Weiter of Mellon, Wisconsin, who

left the city to join the German army as a field chaplain, prayed

to God t hat Wilson wouls not be re-elected. He felt that if Wilson

would only visit the trenches, an embargo on munitions would

immediately be ordered. Very subtle stories of this nature, com­

bined with vehement anti-Wilson editorials, characterized the

Free Pres s political coverage for the first half of the year.

?4 Milwaukee Free Press, April 24, 1916, p.l.

25 Milwaukee Free Press, Janu~ 2, 1916, p. 1

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The Journal, on the other hand, was in a much better posi tio!l , 10

knowing ful:J.. well that Wilson was going to seek re-election. There­

fore, it was able to run at full speed in its support of the Presi­

dent and his policy of preparedness.

In January, the Jouxnal began to run a serialized story en­

titled "Prepare for the Invasion of America," which was a narra­

tive portraying a fictionalized invasion by a very strong, un­

named power. Covering everything from the arrival of the enemy, to

the bombardment of Boston and New York, it showed in minute detail

'''hat would happen if America was not adequately prepared to defend

itself. This was just the type of story a city like Milwaukee, al­

r eady internally troubled, needed. While so~e citizens might have

been tempted to clean out their guns, others began to organize

politically.

At a meeting of the Milwaukee branch of the German-American

National Al liance, every German WaS urged to take ,_out'ci tizenship

papers at once and become voters, eligible to take part in the

f uture political battles that were beginning to shape up. This most

influential organization contained thirty-seven thousand members

in the city of Milwaukee and the state of Wisconsin. It had for

its president a very out spoken assistant school superintendent,

Leo Stern.

The Alliance was a constant target of the Journal, which

belittled it as a hollow organization, not really representing

the average German-American and far from being able to d~liver

the German-American vote.

-20-

To emphasize its point, the Journal, in a headline story

entitled "German-Americans Think and Likewise Vote Independently,"26

interviewed Wolf von Scherbrand, a Vienese newspaper correspondent,

who related the story of an elaborate scheme of molding German­

Americans into a solid body for use in political advances. Fortun­

ately for America, or so the story went, this plan for Pan-German­

ism, devised in the old country, was a complete failure as the

German population assimilated itse11 into the vast body politic

of the country 0

In June of 1916, the Journal exposed a second insidious

attempt to corrupt the values of the republic. "Germans who expect

to take part in a political movement along racial lines against

President itli1son met Friday at West Side Turn Hall and formed an

0rEanization which will direct the campaign ••• men of an older gen­

eration, gray haired men, were numerous in attendance."27 One of

the first things the -three to four hundred people ' ~id 'who attended

this meeting was to pass a~ resa1ution condemning the Milwaukee

Journal for its anti-German stand and record a vote of confid~nce

of Alli.ance president Stern. Then the meeting proceeded to elect

members into the new political committee. Max Hotte1et was elected

president , D.C. Luening, a public school principle and represen­

tative of the German signing societies, was elected vice-president,

,md Emil Court, representing the German Press, was e1ect-ed secre­

tary. The remaining list of c_ommittee members and their aff1i­

ations consisted of: Otito Schi1farth, representing seventy German

social organizations; Charles To1tzmann, representing German ve-

26 Milwaukee Journal, March 9, 1916, p. 1.

27 Milwaukee Journa1,June 3, 1916, p. 5.

-21-:~., .~ ...... ~

·'I .. ~

teran org~izations; Otto Seifritz, secretary of the Catholic

Federation of Wisconsin, representing numerous Catholic groups;

Rev. H. Niefer, representing the Evangical Church; and G.A.G.

Kiechle, representing the Lutheran Church.

The !ournal,in an editorial response, contended that only

harm would come out of "this deliberate organized attempt to separate

German-Americans as a class, with interests different from those

of other Americans,,,28 predicting that the majority of German­

Americans would suffer.

One week later, the Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes

to run against Wilson in the November election. His selection

caused immediate response among German-Americans everywhere, es­

pecially those who attended the west side political meeting. Emil

Court, the elected secretary, summed ~p those feelings by stating

!II consider Mr. Hughes a very worthy man to be president of the

Unit l~d States." l.Jhen asked if he thought Hughes wo~ld satisfy the

poli tical movement that 1rJaS organi.zed last Friday, he responded

"that ltlasn' t a German movement, it was an American mmrement and

I presume Mr. Hughes will satisfy them."29

On a much wider scale, the National German-American Alliance

headquartered in Philadelphia, hailed the nomination. Louis E.

Brandt, the national secretary, prepared to send three million

letters to German-Americans across the country calling on them to

vote for the Republican candidate.

Wi th the nomination of l,.Jilson on June 16tb, the campaigh

28 Milwaukee Journal, June 3, 1916, p. 6.

29 Milwaukee Journal, June 11, 1916, p. 1.

--~- -.. -------------.-.-------

-22-

shifted into high gear, The Journal,throughout the summer, con­

tinued to attack the Alliance, printing sto!.'ies that it thought

proved convincingly that the average German citizen of Milwaukee

acted independently of the organization and would vote in massive

numbers for '.Jilson. A typical story along these lines concerned a

General ]'. C. \hnkler, a prominent citizen and a member 0'£ the

Deutscher Club, who sent a telegram to Wilson supporting his

policies. Not only did this story capture the headlines of the

day but i t also became the subj~t of: the day's editorial. En­

titled tlGeneral Winkler a Patriot," the editorial pointed out that

"evidence piles up from day to day that the Journal has been right

in its contention that the German-Americans are Americans, pure

aD.Q simple, who do their thinking in ter:ns of Americans even when

t hei r sympathies are strained and their hearts are wrung by the '. , fearful s t r-uggle in whi ch their blood brethcrn are engaged. 1'30

The .Frel~ Press responded with edi torial upon eai ~orial whj.ch ' .,

hi !?;}llighted Hughes 1 s positive qualities ~ painting him as a :nan

who ,would maintain America's rights on la..l'ld 3nd sea equally through-

Ollt the world.

Two events occurred in the summer ~hich interrupted this

editorial war and distracted the good citizens of Milwaukee for

a short period of time.

'r~e :first concerned the honorable teaching profession, as the

fo · rtv·-third annual convention of the Association of National _ u

German-American Tp.achers was held in Milwaukee from Jun~ 28~ to

30 Milwaukee Journal, July 6, 1916, p. 15.

-

-23-

the 1st ',,! July. As the convention opened, Leo Stern, the

assistant superintendent of schools, delivered the keynote ad­

dress to two hundred delegates assembled in the German-English

Academy. Noting that last year's meeting was postponed due to the

la~ge number of teachers who left to join the German and Austrian

armies and defend their respective homelands, Stern maintained

that ttour duties do not end with the close of the school day, but

they also lend our active support to all such endeavors as would

serve in creating a better understanding and appreciation of the

cultural ideas and ideals of German literature."31

The second event concerned the great 'preparedness parade'

held on Saturday, July 15~. This was an event long promoted by the

,Tour naI as a great chance for Milwaukee to prove its loyalty and

support for the policies of the Wilson administration.

The Journal predicted that at least two hundred thousand

peopl e i.,rould witne ss this great happening with at ,least seventy

thousand peopl e act ually participating in the march, come r ain

or shine. This great mass of patriotic humanity was to proceed,

at the s ound of a 2:00 p.m. trumpet call, along the line of march

f rom J efferson Street to the river, then from Wisconsin Street and

the bridge along Grand Avenue to 36~ Street.

The rain did come on that day and was blamed by the Journ~l

f or r educing the number of marchers from the predicted seventy

thousand to the recorded twenty-eight thousand and the numbers

of :3pectators to one hundred and fifty thousand. Some of t he

31 Milwaukee Free Press, June 29, 1916, p. 2.

A.

-24-

groups represented were: police (28); firemen (11); soldiers(ll);

newsboys (235); Knights of Columbus (200); Northwestern Mutual

Life (236); Harley-Davidson (620); Marquette University Women's

Club (52); Gimbels (550); Boston Store (487); A.O. Smith(646);

Marshall and Ilsely (36); and the Boy~ Scouts (145).

All in all, the Journal,which had warned that the eyes of the

nation Vlere on Milwaukee, seemed pleased with the turn out while

the Fre~ Press decided to forego any mention of the mass defection

of the'sunshine patriots'. It did note that even in the face of

the inclement weather, this 'march for defense'· was the greatest

such parade ever held in the state.

As the memory of marching bands and flags faded away, atten-

tion was again returned to the political campaigns. When it was

announced in August that Hughes had decided to by pasS Milwaukee '. during his first mid-western tour, the Journal smuggly played up

the stO!'y, Gonjecturir:g that HugheS vlaS deliberately e~ading

l:Jerman -,roter3o Certainly Hughes had the support of many vocal pro­

German sroups , so why should he avoid Milwaukee? According to the

Journal, Hughes was a man quite unsure of himself and his policies,

a m..m who never gave a concrete answer on any issue. "That Charles

Evans Hl.lghes should have ignored Milwaukee, one of the most im-

portant points of his speaking itinery, and one of the first

reached, is arousing considerable conjecture in political circles.

The t hc?3?r:7 frequently advanced to account for Hughes's train

speeding , thro\;. t.;n MihTaukee is that the city is regarded as the

national headquarters of the professional p,;t'0-German prop-agandists • .

'-

j , .

-25-

Mr. Hughes's managers were not ready to have their candidate

appear in a locality where he could be expected to express his

views in the question in which German voters are particularry

interested, according to this hypothesis."32

Charles Evans Hughes did make it to Milwaukee one month

later though. After diniilg ~:at the Pfister, Hughes was driven to the

Auditorium for his speech. He was met by A.P. Kletzsch, state

Republican chairman, Leo Stern of the German-American Alliance,

and Governor Emanuel Phillip, who introduced Hughes to the

assembled crowd. Hughes again promised to protect American rights,

lives and commerce throughout the world and later evoked tremendous

applause as he blamed the war on the Democrats and the one-sided

s ale of munitions.

After Hug.."'les's departure and the exc i tement stirred by the "

visit of the possible next president died away, another period of

cain sett led over the city, the calm before another Milwaukee

Journal initiated storm. It s eemed that throughout the year of

1916, whenever things became dull, the Journal took it upon it-

self to make life more interesting by dropping a few of its poten­

tial bombshells on the unsuspecting public.

The first occurred on October 14~ with bold headlines reading

"Disloyalty Flaunted Daily in the Face of Milwaukee". One could

only imagine whose turn it WaS to face the fury of the Journal

this time around. Would it be the German-American Alliance, the

Frf'! e Press, Lae Stern, or maybe the German-American Teachers'

32 Milwaukee Journal, August 12, 1916, p. 1.

-26-

Association?

The current target was another newspaper, the Milwaukee

based permania-Herold, with an approximate circulation of thirty­

six thousand. The Journal pulled no pun~~es as it attacked the

Herold, accusing it of preaching racial hatred for the United

States government daily and of attempting to control the foreign

policies of the country in the interests of Germany. "Germany has

been the watchword of this paper from the first day of the war,

printing anything to help the fatherland and hurt her foes,

regardless of United States' interests."33

With this expose' safely tucked under its belt, the Journal

waited ten days before shocking the city a second time. No story

the whole year received more front page print than this one; not

President Wilson's visit, not candidate Hughes's visit, not the ",.

Charity Bazaar, not the preparadness parade. \>lb.at event could be

of su.ch magnitude that it would not only take up~he he~dlines but

also seven complete s t ories on the front page, "leaving space for

no other articles? Was America attacked by Germany and forced into

the war? Was the President assassinated by some pro-German

scoundrel'? No, it was something much worse.

The re actually ltiaS an attempt to organize the German churches

in Mihvaukee for the sole purpose of electing Charles Evans Hughes

President of the United States! An organization called the

American Independence Conference invited German Lutheran and other

German Evangelical pastors from around the state to attend a

33 Milwaukee Journal, October 14, 1916, p. 1.

-27-

meeting at the Republican House and hear speeches concerning

Hughes. German Catholic clergymen were entertained in a similar

fashion the following day. Both groups had all their expenses

paid by the Conference. As the Journal witnessed this massive

undermining of the Republic, it could only warn that "unless they

are stopped at once, things that are now going on in Milwaukee

will give a more virulent trend to the presidential campaign.,,34

Interestingly enough, the Free Press coverage of the story

was buried on page three of its paper where i~ noted, quite appro­

priately, that the ministers who attended did so as individuals,

not as representatives of their churches in any official capacity.

The .Journal continued its coverage of the event into the next ,

day, as it printed a fascinating account of an incident that took

~lace at the end of the meeting. As mentioned before, the organi­

zation that sponsored this event offered to pay the expenses for

those "'/ho had attended. The Journal utilized this to portray the

r:liniGters who took advantage of this as so many Judas Iscariots

betraying Christ, or in this case, Woodrow Wilson. They were ac-

cU3ed of taking part in "one of the sorriest, most distressing

scenes that it is possible to imagine ••• as these ministers of the

gospel, the spiritual leaders of the community rushed to the spot

vlnere silver jingled and bank notes were displayed. ,,35

Periodically, the Journal would print stories which supposed­

ly showed the terrible effects this meeting caused. The case of

Father Edward Stheling, pastor of the Catholic Church of the

34 Milwaukee Journal,October 24, 1916, p. 1.

35 f1ilwaukee Journal, October 25, 1916, p. 1.

-28-

Visitation of the Blessed Virgin in Maytown was one example. This

,priest had the audacity to not only start his Mass later but also

give a longer sermon , in German, so that his congregation would

not be able to attend a Wilson campaign meeting being held at the

same time down the road.

As election day drew nearer, the Jouxnal, always on guard,

continued to expose plot after devious plot. Circulars, distri.buted

by a local Republican campaign committee urging Germans to vote

for Hughes, were interpreted as an attempt to use the ballot box

to destroy the President of the United St~tes.

On November 7~, the fateful day arrived. Voters turned out

in record numbers to elect the next President of the United States.

Although the Milwaukee and Wisconsin returns were recorded the very

nr:~xt d ~{ , the national returns, because of the extreme closeness of ,

the election, were not known until three days later. In fact the

! ree Pre~ pulled a Chicago Tribune as its Novembep 8~ ' headline

read "Hughes Next President." 1'he paper went on to note that

Hughes \'Von by a decisive majority, pulling in at least three

hundred and thirty electoral votes. "At 7 o'clock tonight, Mrs.

Charles Evans Hughes ran to the side of her husband, threw her

arms around him and kissed him. She repeated three times' I'in

s o glad , so glad you are the President of the United States. '"36

Go much for wishful thinking. The next day the paper had to

print 3 retraction and admitted that the race was, indeed, still

in doubt. The outcome was hanging on the returns from Cal~fornia

36 Milwaukee Free Press, ~ovember 8, 1916, p. 1.

-29-

and New Mexico. On November 10~ the results came in. Wilson

captured California and won the Presidential election.

HU~les carried the state of Wisconsin by almost thirty

thousand votes"accumulating 221,355 votes to Wilson's 193, 042.

The Journal,as expected, was not overjoyed with these

statistics. It bitterly contended that in strong German communities

of Wisconsin, outside of Milwaukee, thousands of German-Americans

voted not as Americans but as Germans. It did attempt to find

some solace in the results when it noted that, while the state

election figures showed that German propagandists took Democratic

votes by the thousands from Wilson, enough Republican voters

took their places to make up for the loss and give Wilson twenty

thousand more votes then he had in the 1912 Presidential election.

f1i.lwaukee County was another story entirely. Here the Journal

.found it most pleasant to publish the election results, for they

showed that Wilson carried the county by almost seven thousand

vot es , compili ng 34,812 to Hughes's 27, 831 and Alan Benson, the

Socialist candid ate's 16, 948. 37

Of particular interest to the Journal were the results from

s even specific wards, all predominately German. The results were as

fol lows:

WARD

13

15

19

WILSOlll (DE!;l. )

1117

1696

1396

HUGHES(REP. )

1109

1263

1283

BENSON(SOC.)

569

246

695 -

37 Wisconsin Blue Book,~. Industrial Commission, Madison, Wisconsin, 1917, p. 218.

-30-

WARD WILSON(DEM.) HUGHES(REP. ) BENSON(SOC 9 )

21

22

23

25

1110

1783

1710

833

9045

1084 992

1707 861

1096 834

1263 1213

8-865 ' 5410 38

To the Journal, these numbers proved beyond a shadow of a

doubt that the city of Milwaukee was completely loyal. In its

November Bill editorial, entitled "Milw~ukee is .Vindicated," the

Journal cr owed that "the city of Milwaukee, home of the Germania­

Herold, the Free Press, and Excelsior, all organs of disloyalty,

t he he adquarters of Mr. Leo Stern and the German-American Alliance,

has given t he Pre sident a significant plurality of six thousand

'~otes . FL ve Ge r man wards \oJ'ent to Wilson while only two went to

Hughes . The results prove t hat not only the German-Americans

a re l !)Yf.l l hut that in I1ilwaukee, they are not fooled , by- those who

"-Io:-ke<3 s o hard and s pent s o much money in the effort to lead them

nt ,, 39 R.c, ray. '

The Free Press, understandably dejedted over both the national

and lor.al election r eturns , fired back with its own editorial. It

b lamed t he Sociali s t s for the local defeat. It noted that the

average vote for county candidates of the Socialist Party was

around twenty-four thousand votes, yet the Socialist presidential

eandidate Bens on, r eceived only around fourteen thousand votes

(early , unoffic i a l count). ·\.Jhat had happened to the other _ ten

thousand votes, the Free Pr ess asked? Well, they went to Wilson

38 Wisconsin Blue Book, 1917, p. 219.

39 Milwaukee Journal, November 8~, 1916, p. 14.

~~--.-:...-- . ~-.--. --.

-31-

ba..g and baggage. The average vote for Democratic county candidates

~_ . sixteen thousand, yet Wilson received over thirty thousand. Had

tho 8e ten thousand votes gone where they should have, Hughes would

have defeated Wilson in Milwaukee.

In what eventually turned out to be its "last hurrah" as in­

volvement in the war seemed more and more certain, the Free Press

sarcastically continued its attack on its archrival. "The Milwaukee

Journal, blithely overlooking the overwhelming repudiation of

lJ i lson by the state, tries to extract comfort from the fact that

the President carried the city of Milwaukee. This, it says, has

made clear that Milwaukee is an 'American Community', that it

is not a stronghold of foreigners. If that statement is meant to

becloud its own lost prestige, the Journal offers an insult to the

citizens of the entire state, especially those of German birth and

;raction. For 1,f the Mihlaukee vote for Wi l son establishes the

c i t :7 as an Ameri can community, than the state vote for Hughes must

e ~:; ~; 3.blish \Jisconsin as a forei gn community . Of course t he Journal

i s me r e ly indulging in another exhibit ion of pro-British rant. If

it dared to tell the truth about the returns from Milwaukee, it

woul d have to confess that Wilson carried the city siblely through

the aid of the Socialist vote.,,40

With this the year long battle between the Journal and the

Free Press drew to a close. For the next four months, the Free

Pr~~ kept a relatively low profile, especially during the

February 1917 crisis over the unrestricted submarine warfare

'+0 Milwa.l.lkee Free Press ,November 10, 1916, p. 10.

-32-

issue~ It passively accepted its own fate and the fate of the

,Quntry, for during the next twenty-two months, America would

be involved in the European war &1ld the Free .Press would die.

It printed its last edition on December 1, 1918.

The Journal, on the other hand, became more and more patriotic

as it prepared the city for the inevitable. 1,Jith the submarine

issue still fresh in its readers minds, it published a story

on its front page entitled "A Germ~ Plan to Invade the United

States". Ln The article dealt with a sixteen year olsmilitary

report written by one Baron Von Edelshein and 'filed in the Berlin

archives for use by German officers in the event of war between

the two countries.

For the next two months, up ~~til the official declaration

of ','rar, the .Journa.l filled its pages 'Ilith stories concerning such

,opica as: the flying of flags throughout the city in support 01'

Wilson; the Gi118icg of patriotic songs in the public schools(by

this time the si-ngLng of Die lJacht Am R..'1ein, the' Germa..'1 national.

\var song , had been banned i~ the schools) ; the serialization of

Ed'nard Evert Hall's 11an Withou.t a Country; and finally the

Harch l8tll mass meeting to voice loyalty to the President and the

COl)Ilt.ry •

Only two relatively negative stories were run duri ng this

time. The first concerned the faculty members of the German De­

partment at the University cf Wisconsin. It seemed that only two

of the total tw~.mty-sGven professors, instruct ors and assistants

LH 11,ilwaukce Journ.al, February 18, 1917, p. 1.

~

'--

-33-

of that department sighed the University faculty message that

~ledge support and lOYalty to the United States government. Eighty

five percent of the entire faculty at the University eventually

signed. The names of the twenty-five in the German Department who

refused were conspicuously printed on the paper's pages.

The second concerned a story reported by A.F. Kletzsch,

chairman of the now defunct German-American Bazaar Association

and one time state Republican chairman. His story bore a striking

resemblance to one that appeared in the Journal more than a year

before, when the Journal first began its fight to prove to the

country that l"lilwaukee was not a city of foreign traitors. His

report, IIHow the Nation Looks Upon US,II seemed to complete the cycle .

\o(hich began in January of 1916. On a busihess trip to the East,

Kletzsch noted that II the businessmen of eastern cities think that '£

/l:i.h/aul{ee is a hotbed of sedition, that Milwaukee is a German city,

that all the :Ln~. a.bi tI3 ... 'ltS are Germans, not Americans. Tl,1e senti-

ment al lover is overwhelming against Milwaukee. Businessmen out

East seem to [.,rant to boycott f1ilwaukee as a place to do business

because of this sentiment that is spreading over the country.1I42

So once again the Journal began its campaign to disprove

those charges and urged the citizens of Milwaukee to voice their

patriotism and r emove the supposed black eye given to the city by

what the Journal called a few fanatics.

This second attempt to rally the people 'round the flag'

ended abruptly on Apri l 6, 1917 as both the Milwaukee Journal and

42 ML~. '>'mukee Journal, February 22, 1917, p. 1.

_I

-34-

the 11ilwaukee F'ree Press broke the news of the declaration of \'far

~ to t he good citizens of the city.

Statistics can not adequately reflect the emotional stress

the average German-American citizen, living in the city of Mil­

waukee in 1916, experienced. No charts or graphs can ever present

a true picture of tne anxiety and uneasiness that became part of their

lives during this time. Only a handftil 10f German-A~ricans stood ~

behind clearl y de fined lines. The Leo Sterns were admittedly pro­

German while the General Winklers of the city .were one hundred

percent loyal t o the American cause. Unfortunately, these highly

outspoken groups which tended to dominate the news hid from view

the feelings of the silent majority of German-Americans, who were

caught between a "rock and a hard place." Just before the Presi-

dental elections , a noted German writer, Henry Urban, summed UP ~ -t his d ilemma i n a speech given to the German Literary Society

at the Hot el \.Ji sconsin. He noted that 11 the future·· of · Germany

concerns al l Germans a round the 'flOrId. Her children are Germans

ev"~rywhere , i neluding ,the United States. It is not mere chance

that t he war has driven the German-Americans into a terrific tor-

rr:ent. ,,-Ie see that German-Americans from Ne\'1 York to San Francis co

are united in the almost sacred conviction that inspite of all

the i ~ duties to their new country, they have a right to consider

themS0J.ves sons and daughters of the old country and to defend

7.:he i r old country fearlessly, where so many of their co-citizens

ar e ho stile to Germany.,,43

1.+3 r1ilwaukee Journal, November 6, 1916, p. 16. '

-35-

Loyalty to the land of your heritage or loyalty to your

~ new adopted country? A very difficult choice indeed, yet a choice

made even more difficult , if not impossible, by a press which

long since abandoned any attempt at objective reporting. The

power wielded by the Milwaukee Journal Was considerable. Rather

than persuade the German-Americans through logic, it chose to

browbeat them with emotion. In short, the Milwaukee Journal,

during 1916, adopted a policy of debasing the German-American

citizentry in the name of patriotism. Perhaps we had more to fear

from this than from any real or imagined German sedition.

'.

'-

~~~ , ai!fL!iC£~.Zili¥D~mB-Il@~~4-awus i ,~

'--

'-

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Austin, H. Russell. The Wisconsin Story. Milwaukee: The Journal Company, 1948.

Austin, H .. Russell. The Milwaukee StOry. Milwaukee: The Journal Company, 1946.

Ayer, N.W., ed. AJer Dictionary, 1916. Philadelphia: N.W. Ayer and Sons, 1916.

Census Enumeration of the State of Wisconsin 1 05. Madison: Demo­crat~c r~nt~ng ompany, 1 •

Conrad, William C., Wilson Dale, and Wilson, Kathleen. The Milwaukee Journal: The First Eighty Years. Madison: University of Wiscon­sin Press, 1964.

Current, Hichard N. Wisconsin, A History. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1977.

Milwaukee Free Press, January, 1916-April, 1917.

Milwaukee Journal, January, 1916-April, 1917.

--_ ..... - A -:-7'---:-ii. ---··-t::,,:-e--:l_x-« - «( •

Still, Bayd. Milwaukee, A History of a City. Madison: State Histori-. cal Society, 1948.

:,.Je lls, Robert ~ This 1.s Milwaukee. New York; Doubleday, 1970.

1.-iohl tatigkeits B;-:l.sas Zin Bester der Kriegsnotleidender- in Deutschland, Oesterriech und Ungarm Abgehalter von 2 bis' 7 Iiay 19l6.(program f rom the charity bazaar). Milwaukee Public Library Archives.

""'I'~A:f.!._i£i±X .... &\2L~ &.tiD.:rt:!Yi'44!!I£l4!i?.MJ%:&1",-'t!!fE;;5t t t PM An 5E1££J!!&!2: ~, iP!' .' Pi 42:. ,n.' Ed ifIW,n.:ew:u:r "