migration of labor from india to other countries

8/13/2019 Migration of Labor From India to Other Countries

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In India, permanent shifts of population and workforce co-exist with the circulatory

movement of populations between lagging areas and developed regions and between rural

and urban areas, mostly being absorbed in the unorganized sector of the economy. In 2001,

Indias population exceeded 1 billion, with 67.2 percent of the population living in rural areas

and the other 32.8 percent in towns and cities. Of the total workforce, 73.3 percent remained

in rural areas, while the rest 26.7 percent are in urban areas (Census 2001).

Internal migration is now recognized as an important factor in influencing social and

economic development, especially in developing countries. Indian censuses record that in

2001, 309 million persons were migrants based on place of last residence, which constitute

about 30% of the total population of the country. This is nearly double the number of

internal migrants as recorded in the census of 1971 (159 million). This suggests that socio-

economic changes in the last three decades have greatly affected the mobility of the

population (Lusome, 2006).

Migration is defined as a move from one migration defining area to another, usually crossing

administrative boundaries made during a given migration interval and involving a change of

residence (UN 1993). The change in residence can take place either permanent or semi-

permanent or temporary basis.

A recent survey shows that census is the largest source of information on internal migration

at the cross-country level. A study shows that 138 countries collected information on internal

migration in their censuses compared to 35 through registers and 22 from surveys

(Bell,2003).


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In India, information on migration has been collected in a number of large scale and localized

sample surveys. While the population census remained the most extensive source of

migration data, sample surveys on migration has become popular for an indepth analysis of

migration.

International labour migration is an age old phenomenon. Due to profound economic,

political and social factors, inter alia, of rapid population growth in many

developingcountries, failing development plans, increasing urbanization and

environmentaldegradation, the management of this phenomenon has become more complex

in theface of new challenges brought about by globalization. Malpractices and

exploitativeconditions remained unabated despite the worthy efforts of national

governments, international organizations, researchers and academicians.

In the crush of factionalism and the disjointed efforts of international organizations, like the

International Labour Organization (ILO) and the International Organization forMigration

(IOM), the interests of migrant workers became just one in a set ofinterests among a variety

of interests in the international labour migration field. Inaddition to the fragmented

approach, there exists leadership vacuum in the Asia-Pacific region, to the extent that

international organizations like the ILO, IOM have had to consign international labour

migration concerns to the back-burner due to the dilemma wrought by its inherent

characteristics and the complex and sensitive nature of national sovereignty.

The reasoned rejection of international conventions represent the reality that countries

conform to certain international rules not because they abide by the principles attached to

these rules but because it is within their interests to conform to them. Thus, many labour

sending and receiving member states of the ILO have failed to ratify various ILO


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Conventions, despite the fact that these instruments are designed to promote universal

norms and standards and to protect the interest of workers when employed in other

countries.

The dialectic between national sovereignty and international obligations of statesunderlies

the fundamental dynamic of the process of global restructuring thatproduces contrasting

tendencies towards greater universalization than of localization.This stems, in most

likelihood, from the inclination of international agencies to focuson issues and problems

from a global or universal perspective at the expense of thenarrower and less glamorous

focus of individual organizations.

IOM Dhaka commissioned this study to compare the institutional capacity of Bangladesh,

India, Sri Lanka and the Philippines only to realize that there werehardly any previous works

done to provide a basis for such a comparison. Thisshould not come as a surprise since

international institutions would much rather notundertake such a study as it can only result

in a no-win situation for them due to thefact that it would invariably touch on the sensitive

issues of national sovereignty andgood governance.

In its stead, a proposition is offered that the ability to create and sustain institutions is as

important to the successful management of an international labour migrationinstitution as

the formulation of appropriate policies and procedures and that theissue of institutional

capacity be included as an important component of a frameworkfor the protection and

promotion of the welfare of migrant workers.

Further, the report strongly suggests that what happens within countries can turnout to be

part of a much broader international process of political and economicchange; that the

unilateral decisions and actions of nations can influence events inthe international arena in

spite of the view of how international the world hasbecome. It is further suggested that


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international labour migration institutions needmore practical assistance than the rhetoric of

intentions that past studies andmanuals can provide. These countries need assistance in

transforming theknowledge derived from studies into practical ways and means and for

throughputprocesses to shepherd them through.


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Globalization as Catalyst

Conventional wisdom declares that international labour migration is a natural consequence

of globalization the process of rapid economic integration among countries driven by the

liberalization of trade, investment and capital flows as well as rapid technological change.

However, the globalization of the world economy has not led to the freer flow of workers -

the most abundant factor of production in labour-sending countries. In fact, while the flows

of the trade and investment aspects of globalization were directed towards the minimal

amount of control possible, international labour migration has provoked greater intervention

towards blocking and tightening controls of the flow of overseas contract workers (OCWs).

Consequently, opportunities for foreign employment may have shrunk further even as the

flow of capital, goods and services became freer. The logical effect is to increase the burden

on individuals seeking employment abroad and to aggravate the tremendous pressure on the

high labour force growth rates of countries that seek to ease unemployment and raise foreign

exchange through the operations of their overseas employment programme (OEP).

Roger Boning (1995) concludes that despite political and economic barriers falling left and

right towards a borderlines world, there does not seem to be a short-term remedy to

removing the emigration pressure that is associated with the interplay of poverty and the

existence of information and recruitment networks in Asia and the Pacific.

He further claims that even if these countries were to make notable achievements towards

development, international labour migration would still take place because growth results in

gaps at the bottom rungs of the labour market. The danger of massive irregular and illegal

migration, especially in bottom rung jobs, will continue unabated as long as there are enough

poor or close-to-poor people in Asia and the Pacific


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Low and middle-skilled workers from predominantly developing countries that typically

lack measures to protect and facilitate their movement occupy most of these bottom-rung

jobs. While the General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) accords service

providers recognition due to their being considered as a prominent factor in trade and its

growth, the definition provided by GATS of who constitutes service providers is

embroiled in controversy because it limits coverage only to professionals and highly skilled

workers.

In effect, whatever umbrella of protection might have been intended by this accord is

rendered inutile since the low and medium-skilled workers who far outnumber

professional/highly skilled workers and who need protection most are excluded from any

meaningful attention. Professional and highly skilled workers usually end up working in

industrially advanced countries where there are adequate protection mechanisms and safety

nets.

Due to profound economic, political and social factors, inter alia, of rapid population growth

in many developing countries, failing developmental plans, increasing urbanization, and

environmental degradation, the management of the international labour migration

phenomena (ILMP) became more complex in the face of new challenges brought about by

globalization. It exposed the inadequateness of existing legal and institutional policies and

arrangements to promote the orderly movement of people. Malpractices and exploitative

conditions remained unabated despite the worthy efforts of national governments,

international organizations, researchers and academicians.


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Chapter 2: History

India has been a major source of human resource for my countries of the world for long.

Substantial migration of people from the Indian subcontinent, which started in the 1830s and

led thousands of Indians to colonial destinations, still continues. However, the later migrants

differ marked, particular from the earlier migrants of the 19th century, in terms of various

socio-economic attributes, intentions o migrate, and the diversity in destinations as well

Moreover, India is not on seen as a Country origin; rather it is fast catching up as a country of

destination too. Quite a significant number of people from African countries and the

neighboring countries of Asia such as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal come to India for

education and work. Now-a-days, because of the euphoria about high rates of growth in

India (and China) as well as insulation from the economic crisis, as compared to my other

countries of the world, people from developed countries are also pouring in India to look for

profitable business prospects, employment in the multinational companies and for

education. But, despite having experienced migratory flows, India's involvement in

international migration lacks a well-structured policy framework. Also, there are no relevant

data sets on the outflows, inflows and stocks of migrants belonging to various categories and

countries. This paper attempts to put together issues related to international migration in a

global perspective and covers wide range of issues crucial for migration policy. Assuming

that migration is a process and requires a multi-level planning not onthe individual migrants

but also by the family, the community, and the government, the paper discusses several

important areas ofmigration cycle. The paper arguesthat migration policy cannot be

formulated in isolation from the changes and developments taking place across the global

socio-political spectrum and need to be in harmony withinternational law while

acknowledging the rights of every stakeholder, i.e., the receiving country, thesending

country, local communities in both the countries, and the migrants themselves.


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but the Act remained silent on the issues of exploitation of emigrants and the emigration of

people with technical qualification or professional expertise. Even in the post-independence

period international migration has not been paid considerable attention in the policy

perspectives and the same old legislation kept in vogue until the enactment of the

Emigration Act 1983. The Act, which made it mandatory for certain workers or prospective

migrants put under a category called Emigration Check Required (ECR) to obtain clearances

form the office of the Protectorate of Emigrants, under the Ministry of Labour, was put in

place to protect the emigrant workers from abuses in the labour market.

India is not only seen as an emigration country today, rather it also attracts a large number of

people from across the nations in Africa, Asia and even in the West. However, the

immigrants are quite different from Indian emigrants particularly in terms of their education,

socio-economic composition and motivation. There have been large inflows of people from

neighboring countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, Tibet, etc., which has even made significant

changes in the demographic profile of some states in India. India is also fast emerging as a

destination for many multinational companies (MNCs) to outsource some of their

operations.

Medical tourism is the new addition in the list of immigration to India. People not only from

the developing countries but from the developed world too have now been heading to India.

The immigration policies of the destination countries are being reshaped and remodeled by

three important factors, (i) the demographic imbalances and consequent labour shortages,

(ii) pressure of increasing internationalization and competition for superiority in the global

market, and (iii) security concerns to safeguard the interests of their local citizens from

undesirable immigrants and terrorist activities. The receiving countries are now focusing on

skilled migrants, favoring their temporary stay. For example, France is aiming at recruiting

more skilled workers whereas curtailing the family reunion category (Murphy, 2006).


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Theimmigration countries whose policies must be taken into account while framing India's

migration policy could be classified into the following geographical groups:

The United Kingdom

North America, viz., USA and Canada Australia and New Zealand Gulf counties The European Union (ED) - old and new members of the EU Newly emerging labour-importing countries in East and South-East Asia, VIZ., Singapore, Malaysia,Japan, South Korea, etc.

Focusing on emigration, the questions facing India's policy stance are paradoxical: Whether

more outrnigration is good and should be encouraged, or is bad and therefore should be

discouraged? Good for whom, bad for whom - for the country as a whole, for the migrants,

for the family accompanying them, for those left behind? Is there an optimum rate of

outrnigration? Whose emigration should be supported and whose to be restricted? These are

tough and serious questions which have no unique answers for all times to come.

Themigration policy addressing them must therefore have an implicit or explicit flexibility

forincorporating amendments according to the changing circumstances and paradigms.

In the domain of migration policy, there is a general lack of emigration policies in themodem-

day world because of one simple reason, that is, given that the right to leave acountry is

considered absolute, emigration policies are difficult to implement. In migrationpolicy, what

most countries have, therefore, are immigration policies that control and monitorthe inflow

of people from across the borders.


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India's migration policy too cannot, therefore,be shaped in isolation of

(i) The immigration policies of the destination countries, and(ii) India's own immigration policy. In other words, there is a strong rationale for

framing aholistic migration policy of India incorporating all aspects of the

phenomenon.


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Chapter 5: Areas of key Circle in Migration Cycle

1. Job Search/Education SearchIt is a fact that majority of people who intend to move overseas do so for better employment

prospects and therefore gather information regarding the job opportunities in the labour

markets of their preferred destination countries from various sources, e.g., newspapers and

employment news, online advertisements, companies' bulletins, personal contact of the

people in the host country, and from recruitment agents. Likewise, students who intend to

study abroad look for information related to the courses on offer suitable for their career

aspirations, scholarships, duration of the courses, fee structures, etc. Their search generally

depends on the advertisements in the newspapers, web sites, contacts with the people in the

concerned areas of academic interest, and now the frequently held education fairs. However,

no systematic mechanism has been put in place for collecting, compiling and disseminating

information about overseas job opportunities and educational avenues in India so far.

Given the massive outflow of people from India in search of employment and for education as

well systematic information related to different aspects of migration decision is imperative.

This enunciates the need to develop an index for major destination countries based on

certain variables such as access to labour market, prospects for family reunion, education,

transportation, residential rights, political participation, political stability, migration

governance, social security, climate and others.

2. RecruitmentMigrants are employed either directly by the employer or through some outsourcing agency

or an agent. In India there are a large number of agents. As on 31st December 2007 there were


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1835 recruiting agents in the country (MOIA, 2008). The task of these recruiting agents is to

facilitate the process of emigration, particularly in case of low-skilled and semi-skilled

people, and help them coordinate with their overseas employers. However, there are frequent

reports of cheating by these agents.

The registration of recruitment agents needs to be made more rigorous. It might be made

mandatory for them to deposit a reasonable amount as security taking into account the

number of emigrants recruited during a specified period, their performance in keeping and

maintaining information about the foreign employers and the assistance extended to the

emigrants. Further, they should be asked to verify the credibility of the foreign employer and

keep comprehensive data of the employers falling in the ambit of their operation. Their track

record of treating the foreign employees in the last few years (say for example five years),

disbursement of salary and perks of the employees, housing and settlement facilities

provided or arranged for the foreign workers, etc. The recruitment agents could be asked

keep informing the concerned state authorities from time-to-time about their clients in

foreign countries and about the credibility of employers.

Registered recruiting agents can be extended logistic support based on public-private-

partnership model for keeping and maintaining the database, like working in collaboration

with employment exchanges in India. But it is to be noted at the same time that everything is

not topsy-turvy with migration agents. Many of them would be doing commendable jobs.

But there is no system to recognize them and reward them accordingly. Incentives such as a

running trophy, concession in deposit money, etc., should be provided to those agents who

have been doing their job excellency. They can be ranked and can be accorded grades that

would indicate their status in their business. Orientation programme and training

workshops, involving all stakeholders, could be organizedfocusing on issues of importance


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for each stakeholder like the code of conduct, bureaucratic delays, etc. These should not

become one time activity but should be followed by regular appraisals.

3. PassportA passport is a document that recognizes the individual as a citizen of the country granting

it. It is a right of every individual in India to obtain a passport within prescribed timeframe

after the payment of certain fee. Under the Passport Act 1967, three kinds of passports may

be issued: (i) ordinary passport - to the citizens of India, (ii) official passport - to the

specified government officials of different categories, and (iii) diplomatic passport - to the

officials of the Indian Foreign Services and some other specifically enticed for the same.

Mainly three kinds of documents are required for getting the passport (i) age related (ii)

residential address related, and (iii) Educational certificates.

Due to the lack of a centralized network connecting all the 28 passport offices across the

Country, quite a few times an individual has been issued more than one passport. This can

have serious consequences for national security as by this way erroneous people can get into

India using fake passports. At present, passports are either delivered by post or can be

obtained by the person from the counter at the passport office. Both these modes of passport

delivery are continuing for several years and have been good enough. But certain problems

have been creeping up regarding the efficacy of these mechanisms. Delivery by post has

uncertain timings and can take a lot of time. Due to the long queues and the harassment

caused by the system of getting passport at the counter is itself a very tedious and

cumbersome task. Police verification is fought with problems of delays and corruption. If one

has to get the task done earlier one has to pay bribe to the police. This delay and corruption

breeds middlemen and hinders mobility.


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Modem technology in data handling combined with systemic reforms can make the system

quick and efficient. A national database of citizenship can be prepared. This database can be

linked up with crime records (reports of the violation of law, misconduct, or criminal

offence) available with police departments and investigation agencies across the states, and

the judiciary. The task of the regional passport offices then is to collate the data procured

from various agencies. Information about any individual could be accessed at the click of a

mouse. However, this is a very ambitious task.

4. VisaA visa is an endorsement on the passport. It allows the holder to enter in the territory of the

issuing country. However, unlike the passport, getting a visa is not the right of every

individual. In order to get the visa for entering into a country one has to undergo the

processes as specified by the government of that country. Depending upon the country's

requirements and the terms of cooperation between nations there are different requirements

and processes for getting visa for different countries. Visas are generally of three types: (i)

immigrant or permanent resident visa, issued to the persons who intend to immigrate or

settle permanently in destination/receiving country; (ii) non-immigrant or temporary visa,

issued for a temporary period after which the holder of the visa will have to leave the

country, visitor's visa, tourist visa, student visa, business, visa, work visa; and (iii) transit

visa, required when somebody passes through a foreign country which comes in the way to

reach another foreign country as the destination. For getting transit visa, to and fro tickets

are necessary to be produced along with the destination country visa.

Besides these common forms, several other forms of visa have been introduced in the last few

years, e.g., airport visa, working holiday maker's visa. Airport visa is issued to those who tend


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to change a flight at the airport en-route to some other country. Working holiday maker's

visa is issued to those who are allowed to work in the country for a limited time to satisfy

primarily non-economic objectives.

There are also cases where unscrupulous elements get involved in corruption and visa fraud.

Instructions regarding the issuance of visa therefore need to be spelt out very clearly

mentioning every minute detail about the documents required, mode and amount of fee to be

paid for each type of visa, method and duration of delivery, etc. Coordination with foreign

missions and consulates might help save the emigrants from being exploited at the hands of

rout.

5. Travel and Foreign ExchangeTravel involves several decisions such as the air route, the cost of travel, check-in,

arrangements of foreign exchange, etc. Due to the lack of specified and categorical

mechanism of providing information on such issues many people have to bank upon the

services of middlemen and agents involved in this industry, even the credibility of whom is

not known. This increases the probability of people being trapped into some fraud or

misappropriation. There is a need to develop some mechanism of collecting up-to-date


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freemovement between countries of origin and destination. This is likely to protect the

migrantsfrom falling into the clandestine ways and protect them from exploitation. A

number ofmigrants resort to fake marriages with the citizens of the destination countries in

order tobecome eligible for citizenship. However, laws have been amended in this concern

incountries like the UK, but the resultant impact on the families is to be looked into as

thiscauses unnecessary stress and troubles for honest migrants also.

7. IntegrationThe issue of integration is one of the most widely debated one in migration literature. The

term usually refers to the involvement of migrants in the social, economic, political and

cultural life of the destination country. It is related to the adaptability of the migrants in

their new home, that is, how and in what way migrants adapt themselves in the social and

community life in the destination country maintaining their own socio-cultural artifacts. The

integration of the migrants in the host country depends on several factors such as the

sociopolitical conditions at the destination, diasporic presence of the people from their own

country, prospects of getting permanent residential rights in the destination country,

inevitability of return, and various other push-pull factors. Due to diverse socio-cultural or

religious practices sometimes even a clash of values occurs between the migrants and the

host communities that may lead to tension in the society causing ripple effects on the state

policy as well.

Social cohesion provides migrants and citizens alike with an opportunity to contribute to

the host country, and is therefore, an important determinant of economic success. In order to

maintain the cohesiveness in the host country and to reap the benefits of migration,

integration is most desired. This was also pointed out by the Global Commission on

International Migration: Migrants and citizens of destination countries should respect their


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legal obligations and benefit from a mutual process of adaptation and integration that

accommodates cultural diversity and fosters social cohesion. The integration process should

be actively supported by local and national authorities, employers and members of civil

society, and should be based on a commitment to non-discrimination and gender equity. It

should also be informed by an objective public, political and media discourse on

international migration.

Although nation-states have a sovereign right to draft their own policies it is yet desirable

that integration policies are consistent with international human rights. Policies should

recognize the migrants as members of their society to make them feel at home and fully

contribute to their adopted country. Equal emphasis need to be given to all the migrants

including temporary workers and asylum seekers. Moreover, the policy should not force the

migrants to abandon their own culture and absorb in the majority culture. Following points

can be taken into consideration in order to promote social cohesiveness and cooperation

between the migrants and the host society:

Naturalization can be facilitated within a more reasonable and flexible time frame.

Dual citizenship can be extended to larger sets of migrants.

Appropriate mechanisms should be devised in order to confirm that the migrants are able

to get social security benefits such as healthcare, insurance, pension.

Receiving countries which tend to take services of migrants for short durations and deport

them when the shortage is over need to re-examine their policy stance.


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For example, Germany expected immigrants to come there for five years and then go back for

in the meanwhile market would be able to adjust and so the services of immigrants would

not be required.

In order to deal with the language-related issues the host countries can provide facilities

for those migrants who aspire to learn the new language.

Policies should encourage members of the society, including migrants, to express their

own cultural values and beliefs that subscribe to the common social values.

8. Return and Re-integrationIn the age of globalization where communication has become so instant and travelling to far

off places/countries easier and cheaper than ever before not only the nation-states but the

migrants themselves too sometimes favour frequent return between home and the host

countries. Many migrants, especially the economic ones today prefer better opportunities

irrespective of the place where they are offered to, provided that their safety and security

concerns are taken care of. Moreover, emergence of job opportunities in various sectors at

home particularly due to economic liberalization many high-skilled Indians who went

abroad in search of better educational and professional opportunities are returning home.

Source countries like India, which once viewed the migration of their educated individuals as

brain


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drain for they had an inclination for permanent settlement in the destination countries, are

no more worried about the current scale of migration, including those of highly skilled

individuals, for they are witnessing now that a large number of people tend to return home

after having some foreign exposure. Their return is being seen as beneficial for the source

country, as return migrants come back with improved levels of knowledge and technical

skills, i.e., human capital.

However, the impact of return migration in the domestic economy depends to a large extent

on the kind of migrants, that is, with which skill category the migrants belong to. Return

migration of some high-skilled professionals from developed countries may be highly

beneficial for the source country for they bring with them the latest knowledge and skill

components and may generate more employment at home while the return movement of

unskilled migrants may not be as beneficial. Notwithstanding, the state should facilitate each

and every individual who want to come back with open arm. Further, in order to harness the

potential benefits of return migration a comprehensive approach aiming at integration of all

categories of return migrants in the socio-economic structure is vital. It should inspire their

confidence in their own country and 'homecoming' should no longer be felt a nightmare for

potential returnees. It is very important to gain trust and confidence of the Indian overseas

diaspora. As long as they do not perceive it worthwhile to return to the home country they

will be hesitant.


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Chapter 6: Trends in Migration

1. Gender and International MigrationAt present, the number of people living outside their own country of birth is larger than at

any time in history. Among the huge migrant population, nearly 50 percent are women.

Unlike in the past, when women migrated mostly due to marriage, a large number of them

are now migrating for work. In Asia, the number of women migrating from some countries

has surpassed males. For example, in the Philippines, nearly 65 percent of those who left the

country for work were women. In Sri Lanka, there were two women for every male emigrant

in 2002. Between 2000 and 2003, about 70 percent of those who left Indonesia to work

abroad were woman. Domestic work is the largest sector driving international women labour

migration. Women tend to send a much larger share of their earnings home. A 2000 study by

a UN organization found that Bangladeshi women migrants sent 72 percent of their earnings

home. These remittances have a great role in poverty reduction and development (UNFP A,

2006).

Migration can provide new opportunities for women to improve their lives, escape

oppressive social relations, and support those who are left behind. But at the same time it can

also expose them to new vulnerabilities as the result of their precarious legal status, abusive

working conditions, exposure to certain health risks, and most importantly being perceived

as weaker sex. Instances are abounding regarding the trafficking and exploitation of women

by touts and agents, who sometimes force them into flesh trade. Due to the pitiable state of

women migrants many source countries have started putting age restrictions, insisted on

male guardian's consent and put temporary blanket bans. In the early 1990s, Bangladesh,

India and Indonesia imposed minimum age restriction. Currently, the minimum age


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requirement for women to be eligible to migrate overseas in Indonesia and Pakistan is 22

years and 35 years, respectively. In 1998, Bangladesh banned women from migrating as

domestic workers; four years later, the government was urged to remove the ban.

The Indian government's balancing act between protective considerations and economic

imperative is articulated in the annual report of National Commission for Women (2006-07).

In 2001, NCW was asked by the Labour Ministry to consider greater "flexibility and fewer

impositions of age restrictions". NCWs concern was that minors should not be allowed to

migrate for work as they could be easily exploited. It recommended that women below 30

years of age should not be allowed to migrate. Later on, the MOIA urged that the age-bar

should be brought down to 21 years as it was adversely affecting employment opportunities

for women (India Together, 2007). In 2007, again India banned the emigration for

womenunder 30 going abroad to work as domestic help and caregivers. But this move would

not stop women migration effectively. Rather, it will drive them into clandestine mobility

mechanisms, putting them at greater risk to trafficking and exploitative treatment - the very

concerns that have driven the ban. For instance, as observed by noted lawyer Flavia Agnes,

during the campaign for the rights of bar girls in Mumbai some Bangladeshis women were

jailed. Interviewed in prison, they asked Agnes and other campaigners to drop the campaign

as they were frightened that within a few weeks they would be back through the clandestine

networks (India Together, 2007).

Despite being a major source country India still does not have enough information on women

migrants. There have been many studies from gender perspective in the field of international

migration but significant work on the gender dimensions in international migration from

India is not available. Khadria (2003, 2007) conducted studies in India but they were on

migration of nurses. This gap needs to be bridged. Empirical studies on women migrants are


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required in region/state specific contexts capturing the condition of Indian women who have

migrated either as immediate relatives and later on took jobs or directly migrating as

economic migrants. The problems faced by them due to the triple effect of (i) being an

immigrant, (ii) being a women, and (iii) profession specific as in the case of housemaids, etc.,

need in-depth investigation and fair treatment.

2. International Migration and RemittancesIncreased labour mobility has led to an upsurge in the magnitude of money transfers across

international borders as migrant workers send a large proportion of their earnings home to

help families left behind. Remittances constitute a vast sub-economy upon which many

nations depend to sustain their gross domestic product. Remittances have more than

doubled in the past six years to $318 billion in 2008, of which $240 billion came from

migrants from developing countries. Countries receiving the largest amount of money from

their nationals working abroad were India ($27 billion), China ($25.7 billion), Mexico ($25

billion) and the Philippines ($17 billion). The main sources of remittances were the US ($42

billion) and Saudi Arabia ($15.6 billion) (World Bank, 2008).

A major chunk of the remittances, comprising as much as 80-90 percent, is spent on

consumption worldwide (Migration News, 2008), reflecting that the breadwinner is often

abroad and that remittances substitute for local earnings. Some amount of remittances is also

used in housing, education and health care, i.e., investment that makes it unnecessary for

others to emigrate. The consumption of remittances, which is generally perceived as very

high, policy makers intend to divert the maximum part of remittances to be utilized for

investment purpose. But, the fact is that even that part of remittances used for consumption

cannot be simply termed as unproductive; rather the family that does not have money for its

subsistence is saved from starving. In such cases remittances help in poverty alleviation too.


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If the remittances are spent on the locally produced goods or services the community as a

whole benefits as significant proportions of remittances are spent on labour intensive

activities. In this way, it enhances employment opportunities for low-skilled and semi-

skilled people. Also, as the return migrants keep domestic helps, it gives employment to the

local people mainly unskilled male or female. Therefore, the consumption part of remittances

need not be of such high concern so far as it generates employment and reduces poverty.

However, it needs to be studied what proportion of remittances is put into investment

activities and what proportion is consumed.

Brady (2008) points out that migrants probably send as much as $400 billion to their home

countries each year, i.e., four times the West gives in aid. But the cost of transferring

remittances can be extremely high. The Government of India has taken this issue with banks

like the AXIS Bank and the State Bank of India and pursuaded them to bring down the

transfer cost reasonably low. In this regard some exclusive rights can be given to the banks to

lower the transfer charges. Also, the migrants should be informed about the transfer rates

charged by different banks.

3. Climate Change and International Migration


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According to Dr. Thomas Fingar, Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Analysis and

Chairman of the National Intelligence Council current research in Asia indicate that South,

Southeast, and East Asia will face risks of reduced agricultural productivity as large parts of

the region face increased risk of floods and droughts. By 2025, cereal crop yields will decrease

2.5-10 percent. We expect that economic refugees will perceive additional reasons to flee

their homes because of harsher climatic conditions. Besides the movement within countries,

especially to urban areas, many displaced persons will move into neighbouring developing

countries, sometimes as a staging ground for subsequent movement onward to more

developed and richer countries with greater economic opportunities. Many likely receiving

nations will have neither the resources nor interest to host the climate induced migration.

Receiving nations probably will have increased concern about migrants who may be exposed

to or are carrying infectious diseases that may put host nation's populations at higher risk.

The consequences of global warming are expected to include faster rising sea levels (seas rose

six to nine inches in the 20th century) and more precipitation at higher latitudes and less in

semi-arid subtropical regions, many of which already suffer droughts. The US National

Intelligence Council released a report in June 2008 that predicted destabilizing events

around the world in the wake of climate change, including ethnic violence and illegal

immigration (NIC, 2008). Climate change, according to the NIC, "will worsen existing

problems such as poverty, social tensions, environmental degradation, ineffectual leadership

and weak political institutions." The NIC predicted that the effects of global warming are

likely to be most severe in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Central and Southeast

Asia, where farm output may drop and encourage rural-urban migration (Migration News,

2008).


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opening up labour markets to migrants, at the same time avoiding any commitment to keep

these markets open during economic downturns. A global migration regime may make sense

for reasons such as increasing economic efficiency worldwide, ensuring poor migrant source

countries' access to the wealthier migrant destination markets, and for the sake of

international development and reducing global inequalities.

5. Future of MigrationDue to shortage of labour in many of the developed countries, there has been an increasing

competition among them to attract skilled labour from developing countries. This tendency

of fulfilling labour shortage in the developed countries by imported manpower is perceived

to pose certain challenges as well as provide opportunities for source countries. India being a

leading labour export country has to ponder over the future impacts that this may have on

the Indian economy as well as the Indian Diaspora. Considering the demographic shifts and

India's own position in producing human capital two possible scenarios emerge for India:

a. India losing out

According to the World Population Council the productive population of India, i.e.,

peoplebelonging to the age group 15-60, will stop increasing in the coming years and it will

stabilize at 64 percent of the total population from 2025 to 2050 and will decrease thereafter

to 62percent of the total population in 2050 Gain, 2008). It may lead to shortage of skilled

labour in India too, if the present rate of migration from the country continues unabated. The

government is right now focusing on the immediate benefits associated with emigration. But

the pattern of emigration shows that the migrants belong to the high-skilled categories such

as the scientists, engineers, doctors, management and IT professionals, academicians, who

are already in short supply, may lead to decline in productivity. Also, the education system


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shall face severe shortage of teachers and researchers resulting in poor quality students

passing out from educational institutions.

b. India gains

The second scenario postulates that India along with China would emerge as a major global

player having an immense impact on the geo-political landscape. India is well positioned to

become a technology leader in the coming decades. Sustainable high economic growth,

expanding military capabilities and large demographic dividend will be the contributing

factors to the expected elevation of the country. Knowledge and technology involving the

convergence of nano-, bio-, information and material technology could further its prospects

in the forthcoming global economy. Substantial enhancement of financial recourses in social

sector, especially on education and research, would help India to become the largest source

of knowledge professionals in the world.

The two scenarios just described are based on the recent indicators of economic performance

and potential for future growth. Nothing is sure to happen. Nevertheless, projections provide

food for intellectual engagement and help moving ahead with certain degree of expected

outcomes. Projections, therefore should be given due importance in policy perspectives if

they are based on solid empirical indicators. Migration policy of India should, therefore, be

based upon vital datasets of social and economic importance.

Chapter 7: Data and methods

The paper uses data from Census of India 2001 as well as data from the National Sample

Survey Organization (NSSO) 55th Round on Migration. According to Indian Census, a

person is considered a migrant if birthplace or place of last residence is different from place


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of enumeration. The National Sample Survey Organization of Government of India carried

out an all-India survey on the situation of employment and unemployment in India during

the period July 1999-June 2000. This 55th Round Data was published in August 2001. In this

survey, data was collected on migrants as well. It defines a migrant as a member of the

sample household who had stayed continuously for at least six months or more in a place

other than the place of enumeration. It collects the reasons for leaving the last usual place of

residence under the following heads: (a) in search of employment (b) in search of better

employment (c) to take up employment/better employment (d) transfer of service/contract

(e) proximity to place of work (f) studies (g) acquisition of own house/flat (h) housing

problems (i) social/political problem (j) health (k) marriage (l) migration of parent/earning

member of the family and (m) others. A simple analysis using bivariate tables has been

carried out in the paper to bring out the extent of employment oriented migration in India.

Moreover, the paper also attempts to study the difference between the stated reasons for

migration and the labor force participation, taking into account duration and educational

qualification of the migrants.

Employment oriented migration

Employment oriented migration is obtained by combining the migrants that have

givenwork/employment and business as their reason for migration. It is found that

employmentoriented migration is quite small, particularly among female migrants with just


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around 2percent of total female migrants giving employment or business as the reason for

theirmigration.

Table 1:

As shown by Table: 1, it is however clear that migration towards urban areas are stillmore

likely to be associated with employment oriented reasons. It is also seen that thepercentage

of employment migration for males are quite high, whether it is rural-boundor urban-bound

migration. It is interesting to observe that out of the total rural-boundmale migration, 40

percent have moved for work related reasons.

Table 2:


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From Table: 2, we see that the percentage of employment oriented migrants is quite highfor

migrants moving from urban areas. More than half of male migrants in the urban torural

streams have moved for work or business purposes.Looking at the interstate streams of

migration, nearly 41 percent of migrants have statedwork or business as their reasons of their

move from urban to rural areas. Two-third ofmales from urban to rural areas have migrated

for employment and related reasons.The following tables (Table 3 onwards) are obtained

from the NSSO 55th Round onMigration. NSSO collects data on both temporary and long

term migrants. However, thepaper has considered only the long term migrants for the

following analysis. In thefollowing analysis, employment oriented migrants are the

migrants who had givenreasons (a) to (e) for their move. Labor force participants are the

migrants who arecurrently employed or are seeking or available for work.

Table 3:


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Table 3 gives the percentage of migrants who have given employment related reasons

formigration vis--vis labor force participation by sex and rural urban status. Table 3

givesthe percentage of migrants giving employment and related reasons for migration vis--

visthe labor force participation of the migrants. It is clearly seen from the table that nearly46

percent of male migrants have reported employment related reasons as their motivebehind

migration, while it is just above 2 percent of female migrants that have reportedemployment

and work related reason for their move.Comparison with census figure in table 1, it is learnt

that the sample survey data (7%)shows a smaller percentage of employment oriented

migrants in rural areas than thecensus (10%). This could be the result of the difference in the

definition of migrants in

the two data sources. Circular migrants and temporary migrants could not be captured bythe

present dataset of the NSSO.If we further compare employment oriented migrants and the

labor force participation ofthe migrants, it is evident that more migrants are in the labor

force, and be it male or femalemigrants. Around 38 percent of total migrants are in the labor

market with 70 percent ofmales and 26 percent of females. This is in vast contrast to the


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stated reasons formigration particularly for females, among which just a meager 3 percent

have givenemployment and work related reasons.

Table 4:

Table 4 dissects the vast difference between stated reasons and labor participation

intodifferent streams of migration. Here, the biggest difference is seen in the rural to

ruralstream, with around 6 percent employment oriented migrants while 38 percent from

thisstream are in the labor force. The difference is smaller in urban bound migration

whencompared with rural bound migration. The gap between employment oriented

migration and labor force participation furtherdecreases for the interstate streams of

migration. Though, there is gap for male andfemale migrants, it is clear that greater difference

is seen among female migrants.


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Table 5:

Table 5 shows the percentage of labor migration by educational qualification andduration

since migration. It is seen from the table that at higher educational qualificationlevel, higher

percentage of migrants is migrating for employment or work related reasonsirrespective of

duration since their migration. Sex differential are clearly seen in allduration and educational

level, with the percentage of employment oriented femalemigrant ranging from as low as 1

percent in illiterate and primary category to about 10percent in graduate & above category

migrated within 1-4 years. A meager 2 percent ofilliterate female have migrated for

employment or work related reasons compared toabove 7 percent of graduate and above

female migrants. Higher percentage of male havemigrated for employment and related

reasons, ranging from around 37 percent in primarycategory to about 59 percent in graduate

and above category. From the table it is alsoseen that recent migrants are more likely to have

moved for employment or relatedreasons. However, it is noted that about 58 percent of male


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migrants who migrated 15-19years back reported employment and work related reasons for

migration.

Table 6:

Table 6 gives the percentage of labor force participation of migrants by

educationalqualification and duration. From the table, it is seen that the percentage of labor

forceparticipation is greatest among graduate and above migrants and lowest among

primaryeducated migrants. It is surprising to note that labor force participation is greater

amongilliterate migrants than primary educated migrants. A positive relationship of

durationwith labor force participation is evident from the table. However, highly qualified

recentmigrants are more likely to be in the labor force than illiterate migrants of any

duration.


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Graph 1:

The following graph 1 shows the gap between the stated reasons for migration and laborforce

participation by education and duration. As could be seen from the graph, thedifference is

wider for the illiterate and the highly educated migrants, significantly for themigrants of 15-

19 years duration.


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Conclusion

This project has tried to cover a wide range of issues concerning the subject of international

migration in India today. It presumes that migration decision-making and processes are

overarching fields which requires a well-structured policy framework taking care of the

concerns of both countries, i.e., the host country and the country of origin. Migration affects

and gets affected too by a large number of issues and developments taking place in the larger

socio-political context and cannot be governed or managed by unilateral laws.

In order to create a win-win situation for all the stakeholders, viz., the destination country

and the host society, the country of origin, the local community and the migrants,

developing a national migration regime necessitates working in tandem with other

participating nation-states as well as the related international organizations through

bilateral and multilateral dialogues. Various concerned departments such as education,

labour, home, and foreign affairs need to work out a comprehensive long-term plan to reap

the advantages of India's large quantum of unnurtured or under-nurtured human resources.

In order to maximize the positive impacts of cross-border migration and minimize the

negative consequences veritable statistics is fundamental requirement. Data related to

various aspects of migration such as flow/stock of migrants, destination countries, countries

of origin, profile of migrants, their intentions, mode of crossing borders, legal status,

remittances, etc., for all migrants should be collected. However, the fact is that despite

growing scale of international migratory flows necessary statistics in India is not easily

available simply because it is neither collected properly nor maintained. At present, statistics

relevant to migration is being collected in India for different purposes by different

government departments and other organizations, namely, Bureau of Immigration,

Protectorate of Emigrants, Ministry of External Affairs, Office of the Registrar General


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&Census Commissioner and National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO). Since migration

statistics is collected by different agencies to meet their own individual requirements and

differs in coverage, it purportedly lacks uniformity and comparability. Some academic

institutions such as Centre for Development Studies, Kerala, are also engaged in collecting

and analyzing migration data with focus on unskilled migration. However, it would really be

very ambitious to expect from individual institutions to provide a comprehensive coverage of

migration form a country like India. This situation warrants sequential coordination

between various government departments, universities and institutions involved in study

and monitoring of migration.

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