midterm essay 131

7/25/2019 Midterm Essay 131

1/5

Owen Palmer ISAT 131Professor McGraw February 23, 2015

Science, an !"e euca!e emo#ra$"ic of men an women !"a!

com$rise !"e communi!y !"a! s!ri%es !o e&is! an aa$! in !"is e%er'e%ol%in#

(el, are for !"e mos! $ar! re#are as !ru!" wor!"y, $rofessional, an e&$er!

meiums of )u#men!* +owe%er !"is o$inion "as been rainin# in creibili!y

as of la!e, in some $ar! ue !o conic!s wi!" -!"e funin# e.ec!/ w"ic"

$er!ains !o w"ere researc" scien!is!s are able !o (nin# funin# for !"eir

wor an !"e $o!en!ial bias !"a! may resul!, an more #enerally s$eain# !"e

o%erarc"in# e!"ical lansca$e of !"e scien!i(c communi!y as a w"ole*

Science an !ec"nolo#y, rela!e ye! is!inc!, are !"e !o$ics of a #rea! eal of

iscussion bu! are usually !rus!e as en!i!y !"a! is ecien! a! $ro%iin# an

u$a!e consensus on !"e em$irical !ru!" rela!i%e !o !"e s$eci(cs of !"e

si!ua!ion* To is!in#uis" from scien!i(c su$remacy $ro$a#ana, i! is eually

as rele%an! !o say !"a! scien!is!s an !ec"nolo#is!s "a%e been c"allen#e for

aws in !"eir $ursui! an $rocess of a%ancin# w"a! we acce$! as !rue, as

well as for !"e corru$!ion !"a! leas in!o !"e (el %ia !"e $oli!ical an

economic com$onen!s of o$era!ion* Fur!"ermore !"ese in%es!i#a!ions in!o

!"e erosion of creibili!y in !"e scien!i(c (el an !"e conseuen!ial $rac!ical

an social ilemmas will unoub!ely rela!e closely wi!" !"e scenario of !"e

MM %accine an alle#e au!ism correla!ion* 4efore we $rocee wi!" curren!

s!a!e of !"e scien!i(c communi!y, i! seems im$era!i%e !o (rs! ou!line w"ere

an "ow science #aine !"e once "i#"ly re#are socie!al s!anin# an "ow

an au!"ori!y in !ru!" a%ancemen! was for#e*

T"e $ro#ression of science "as in $ar! been a!!ribu!e !o a

number of i.eren! inuen!ial (#ures, %aryin# in $ar!icular %iews, bu! in !"e

en a%oca!in# for scien!i(c reco#ni!ion an res$ec!* 4acon is crei!e wi!"

some of !"e earlies! con!ribu!ions !o !"e s!ruc!ure of moern science an

"ow i! s!ar!e !o #ain some leeway as a meium of in%es!i#a!ion an

researc" in $ursui! of communal a%ancemen!* Muc" of 4acons wor

in%ol%e !"e scien!i(c me!"o, an %i!al com$onen!s of !"is me!"oolo#y

suc" as lo#ical reasonin#, em$iricism, an limi!in# e&!raneous fac!ors*

Po$$er is !"e ne&! inuen!ial (#ure"ea !"a! s"oul be iscusse, w"o "el

(rm !o !"e belief !"e science was e$enen! on main# new $reic!ion !o


2/5

!es! !"em !o see if !"ey were is$ro%able* T"is was !"e basis of $ro#ression

for Po$$er, sayin# !"a! claimin# bol new $reic!ions an is$ro%in#

$re%iously'belie%e !"eories were essen!ial* 6u"n was !o follow, wi!" a

s$eci(c minse! for "ow scien!i(c sys!em o$era!e* T"e ynamic in w"ic"

6u"n su##es!e was a cycle, wi!" a re%olu!ions of -normal science/ in!o crisis

in!o re%olu!ion an !"en a#ain re!urnin# bac !o a $erio of normali!y* T"is

cyclic !"inin# was also a$$lie in !"e sense !"a! 6u"n saw !"e scien!i(c

lansca$e as $arai#m'base, meanin# !"e communi!y o$era!es rela!i%ely

calmly w"ile acce$!in# a cer!ain $arai#m, bu! !"en e%en!ually !"e

anomalies on! a u$ an !"ere is re%olu!ionary science !"a! yiels a

$arai#m s"if!* For "im science was a social $rocess, o$era!in# wi!"in a

communi!y w"ere !"e $rofessionals seemin#ly e(nes !"e $rofession, an

!"ere is "inere $ro#ress ue !o cyclic !enencies* In w"a! can be seen as

an e.or! !o syner#i7e !"ese !wo se!s of ieals from Po$$er an 6u"n, 8aa!os

in!rouce a !wo sys!em moel in w"ic" !"e inner core layer o$era!e

accorin# !o 6u"ns $rinci$les w"ile !"e ou!er $eri$"ery bel! func!ione

closer !o Po$$ers $reic!ions* In o!"er wors, 8aa!os $ro$ose !"a! science

is lie a c"erry, wi!" !"e $i! bein# !"e "ar inner core of more concre!e

scien!i(c conce$!s ou!line by 6u"n an !"e ou!er c"erry es" is !"e

$eri$"ery $ro!ec!i%e bel! of new ye! re#ularly !es!e an re)ec!e

"y$o!"eses* Feyeraben is !"e las! ma)or $layer !o allue !o, a man w"o "a

ui!e a no!iceable amoun! of in!erac!ion amon#s! !"e $re%iously ci!e

scien!is! bu! en!ere !"e eba!e wi!" a %iew of "is own* +e ar#ue !"a!, in

!"e in!eres! of scien!i(c $ro#ress an be!!ermen!, !"e #row!" of nowle#e

ou#"! no! !o be res!ric!e an con(ne !o one sin#ular -scien!i(c me!"o*/

Al!"ou#" a%oca!in# for less cu!'an'ry s!ruc!ure in science, Feyeraben

s!ill insis!e !"a! scien!i(c !ru!" mus! be able !o con%ince !"e communi!y of

au!"en!ici!y before i! can be acce$!e, w"ic" similar !o 6u"ns asser!ions

#ran!s !"e au!"ori!y of self're#ula!ion !o !"e scien!i(c communi!y bu! ra#s

!"is claim !o a more rama!ic e&!reme* Al!"ou#" an on#oin# iscussion

!"rou#"ou! "is!ory, !"e eba!e of w"a! is science an "ow i! s"oul be

2


3/5

conuc!e is cer!ainly %ery rele%an! !o !"e e&$resse o$inions of !"ese men*

9es$i!e any of !"em ac"ie%in# !"e ominan!ly mos! $o$ularly acce$!e

!"eory i! is more (!!in#ly uali(e !"a! !"eir con!ribu!ions )oin !"ose of o!"er

e&$er!s in !"e all'encom$assin# mosaic !"a! re$resen!s w"a! science is an

s!ans for* e#arless of "ow you e(ne or em$loy a me!"oolo#y !o

science, i! remains )us!i(e !o escribe i! as a reliable sys!em of u$a!in# !"e

curren!ly'acce$!e uners!anin#s of !ru!" an nowle#e insofar !"a!

accura!e !ec"niue, cri!ical e%alua!ion, e!"ical consiera!ion are a$$lie*

A newly emer#in# ye! bla!an!ly %aluable coun!er$ar! of science is

becomin# $o$ular amon#s! sc"olars !"a! "a%e an in!eres! in analy7in#

science wi!"ou! bein# in%ol%e in !"e ac!ual $roceural $ursui!* I! is almos!

as if !"ese science s!uies s!uen!s are in !"e $osi!ion of an aui!or,

obser%in# from bo!" !"e in!ernal an e&!ernal %iew$oin! !o #ain insi#"! in!o

o$era!ion an im$era!i%e %ariables in !"e $rocess, w"ile also e&$ressin#

in!eres! in w"e!"er or no! !"e !ec"niues are accura!e an !"e resul!s are

!rus!wor!"y* In !"e case of !"e MM %accine, :ae(els resul!s, an !"e

claime correla!ion be!ween %accina!ion an au!ism, !"e science s!uies

isci$line an !"e areas in w"ic" i! focuses i!s e%alua!ion woul liely $ro%e

!o be in%ariably useful* :"ile a)us!in# !"e lens !o encom$ass bo!" $ublic

an $ri%a!e, ama!eur an $rofessional science !"e #eneral focus remains on

w"ere an "ow a cer!ain researc" $ro#ram was e&ecu!e an w"e!"er or no!

!"ere were inuences in!rouce %ia re$u!a!ion, au!"ori!y, $res!i#e, funin#,

$a!rona#e, communica!ion, an $ersuasion* T"ese consiera!ions coul "a%e

been, an s!ill can be, %aluable in cases suc" as !"e :ae(el %accine'

au!ism lin claim* To elabora!e !"ese !ec"niues of aui!in# science, or

be!!er ye! an ine$enen! en!i!y res$onsible for carryin# ou! !"ese

!ec"niues, woul ensure !"a! w"olesome, unbiase researc" is bein#

$erforme for !"e sole in!eres! of a%ancin# $ublic nowle#e wi!" no

e&!ernal economic or $oli!ical in!eres!s !o in!er%ene* From !"eir scien!i(c

creibili!y coul be re'ins!ille an scenarios of ues!ionable in!e#ri!y wi!"in

3


4/5

!"e (el coul $roac!i%ely be remeie wi!" closer e%alua!ion before bein#

sensa!ionali7e by !"e meia*

;l!ima!ely i! boils own !o a few in"eren!ly funamen!al ues!ions

w"en consierin# w"e!"er !"e scien!i(c communi!y is eser%ely losin# i!s$osi!ion of inuence an creibili!y in socie!y, bu! eba!ably !"e mos! crucial

concern is w"e!"er !"e researc" bein# $resen!e can be !rus!e as bein#

conuc!e uner an e!"ical commi!men!* Touc"in# u$on $re%iously no!e

sources of ne#a!i%e inuence in !"e scien!i(c researc" lansca$e, an e!"ical

commi!men! woul be broen if members of a researc" $ro#ram were

$ressure !o re$resen! any o$inion ra!"er !"an a neu!ral one w"en

conuc!in# !"eir in%es!i#a!ion, or if economics became more im$or!an! !"an

!"e em$irical isco%ery $rocess, or if o$$or!uni!y an au!"ori!y was sewe

by $res!i#e an re$u!a!ion< bu! in muc" ismay i! woul be i#noran! !o say

!"ese !"in#s aren! alreay "a$$enin# re#ularly* Science is "el in !"e bes!

re#ar w"en s!ric!ly consiere as a (el of obser%in# na!ural $"enomena,

"y$o!"esi7in# !"eories, an !es!in# !"em !o analy7e !"e resul!in# em$irical

a!a* A$ar! from !"is e&is!ence science #e!s i!self in!o !rouble,

simul!aneously )eo$ari7in# !"e e!"ical framewor for !"e communi!y, w"en

i! "as !o o$era!e in o!"er omains !"a! reuire economic, $oli!ical, an

commerciali7e in!erac!ion* I! oesn! seem (!!in# !o claim !"a! !"ese

"inrances of science !o be newly arisen in curren! cul!ure, bu! $er"a$s ue

!o !"e na!ure of moern cul!ure i! "as become increasin#ly more a$$aren! !o

!"e a%era#e ci!i7en !"a! !"ese ne#a!i%e inuences ac!i%ely e&is!, w"ic"

con!ribu!es !o $ublic reainess !o iscrei! an oub! !"e $rofession

collec!i%ely*

T"is recen!ly s!imula!e sense !o oub! an iscrei! !"e $ublis"e

researc" wor of !"e scien!i(c communi!y is uners!anable bu! also

unoub!ely o%er'accen!ua!e, wi!" a mos!ly ne#a!i%e conno!a!ion bu! !"e

$ossibili!y !o learn, #row, an reform !o be!!er re#ula!e !"e sys!em of

a%ancin# $ublic nowle#e* =o! all researc" !"a! is $ublis"e is #oin# !o be

>


5/5

conuc!e an $resen!e as i! s"oul, !"a! is an in"eren! !ru!" wi!"in !"e

sys!em, bu! !"a! oesn! mean !"a! any!"in# s"oul be "as!ily rule ou!*

ecen!ly ina!e $ublic se$!icism of science is no! some!"in# en!irely ba,

e%eryone !"a! "as an in!eres! in a%oiin# #ullibili!y s"oul e&$ress a cer!ain

e&!en! of sus$icion cons!an!ly, bu! i! nees !o be im$lemen!e in a useful

way* T"e en!ire func!ionin# boy of science s"oul "onor !"e $rinci$le of

cons!ruc!i%e se$!icism, w"ic" im$lies no! )um$in# !o conclusions bu!

e&$ressin# an in!eres! in w"e!"er !"e $roceures, ins!rumen!s, !ec"niues,

an analyses in a researc" $ro#ram can be !rus!e* T"is is no! !o be

confuse wi!" es!ruc!i%e se$!icism, w"ic" woul be more %es!e in bein#

oub!ful of someones wor ue !o $re%ious fallbacs or lowly le%el of

$res!i#e* Se$!icism is w"a! ri%es !"e con(rma!ion or refu!a!ion of !"eories,

an can be associa!e wi!" !"e core a!!ribu!es of science as a w"ole, bu! i!

mus! be alloca!e in !"e ri#"! $laces in !"e ri#"! way for i! !o be

a%an!a#eous* In orer !o isru$! !"e scien!i(c Ma!!"ew e.ec! an i!s

resul!in# "ierarc"y !"e ubiui!ous im$lemen!a!ion of unbiase ye! cri!ical

se$!icism is neee wi!"in !"e communi!y, w"ic" is no! !o say !"a! !"e

resul!s of !"is se$!icism s"oul lea !o !"e e#raa!ion of !"e (els

re$u!a!ion as a w"ole sim$ly for self're#ula!in#* ?us! lie any o!"er sys!em

embee in!o !"e $ublic social in!erac!ional s$"ere i! was only a ma!!er of

!ime before corru$!ion an bias woul s!ar! !o be#in $ene!ra!in#, bu! feasibly

i! will ul!ima!ely be for !"e be!!er* T"e scien!i(c (el "as #rown in si7e an

inuence w"ere i! is now in!e#ra!e seamlessly !"rou#"ou! socie!y, bu! a!

!"e same !ime i! becomes an en!i!y e&$onen!ially more icul! !o re#ula!e*

A remoelin# of !"e infras!ruc!ure of !"e scien!i(c (el is warran!e !o aa$!

!o moern !imes, an al!"ou#" far from a solu!ion, !"e inna!e !enency !o be

se$!ical ye! cri!ical is cer!ainly a s!ar! for !"innin# ou! !"e mos! funamen!al

$rinci$les of scien!i(c $ro#ression*

5

midterm essay 131

Documents