middlehurst; tom kennie -- leadership and professionals

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Te r t iary E duc a t i on and M anage me nt , V o l . I , N o . 2 , 199 5 , 1 20 -13 0

Leadership and ProfessionalsCom parative Frameworks

Robi n M idd l ehu r s t and Tom Kenn i e

In t ro d u c t i o n

This p aper explores the background to cal ls for

stronger leadership in 'professional organiza-

tions' a nd th e associated responses o f profession-

als. Two differe nt case studies are used in o rderto draw o ut comparative features.

The organizat ions chosen are a co mpan y of

international prop erty advisers (formerly a pro-

fessional partnership and no w a public comp any

with a national and international focus) and an

institution o f hig he r education (drawing upon

insights from several universities in the U K). Both

kinds o f organization are subject to a cha nging

extern al environment, both face questions about

the form oflead ership appropriate to an organi-

zation o f professionals, both are altering existing

structures and practices, and both are experienc-

ing shifts and dilemmas in relation to staff roles,

professional values and culture. The parallels are

ma de more potent - and the learning to be

achieved by these comparisons more worthw hile

- since the two kinds of organization are, in

different ways, e ach cl ients o f the other.

Th e paper addresses three main issue s and is

organ ized accordingly. First, the nature o f profes-

sionals, professionalism and professional organi-

zat ions in a changing context is addressed;

second, the impact o f cha nge on th e structures

and practices o f professional organizations is

explored; and third, th e implications o f these two

them es on leadership is discussed.

Pro fess iona l s and Pro fess iona l Organ iza t ions

Trac~zional view s o fpmfessionalism

The professions have, until recently, been per-

ceived by the general public to be a necessary and

genera lly wor thwhi le fea tu re o f mode m soc ie ~Although the concept of the professions as 'a

con spira cy against the lai ty ' has also been sug-

gested, on balance the benefits of a self-regulat-

i n g a s s o c i a t i o n o f i n d i v id u a l s w h o a r e

responsible for control l ing their own wo rk prac-

t ices has been well reco gniz ed.

The te rm 'profession' is today used to describe

a grow ing range o f occupational groupings weU

beyond the ancient professions of divinity, law

and medicine. The nineteenth century saw the

addition o f engineers, chemists and accountants

to the list of professional occupations and th etwentieth century has produced a s t i ll greater

expansion o f those coun ted as professionals. The

most recent additions include: teachers; social

workers; business and m anag em ent specialists;

information, comm unications a nd m edia experts

(Watkins, Drury and P redd y 1992).

The nature of professionalism is subject to a

var ie ty o f d i f fe ren t in te rp re ta t ions (Johnson

1972; Jarvis 1983; Downie 1990). A recent

survey con duc ted by Watkins and his colleagues

suggests that at the he art o f traditional views o f

professionalism lies a relationship o f trust be-tween professional and client. The attributes

com mo n to professionals that these authors

M s Rob in MiddldTurst is Director, O, ality Enhancon ent at tbe Hig her Education QEality Council. Address or correspondence.

344 -35 4 Gra js Inn .Road, London W C IX 8BP, Uni ted Kingdor~ Tel: 44 -I 71-8 37 2223. Fa.~"4 4 - I 7 1 -2 7 8 1 67 6 .

D r Tom Km nie is Director, Hum an Resourcesat D TZ - Debmbam ThorpeZadelboff. Address o r correspondrac~ 44 B rook Stre~

London W' tA 4AG, Uni ted Kingdor~ Tel:44 - t71 . - 408 2720. F ax: 44 - t71 - 40 8 2770 .

120



L E A D E R S H I P A N D P R O F E S S IO N A L S 1 21

n o t e d w e r e : h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s

( wh ic h d e mo n s t r a te a n a b i l i ty to l e a r n a n d to

a ma s s k n o w le d g e ) ; in t e l l e c tu a l sk i ll s ( s h o win g a n

a b i l i ty to g r a s p n e w e v e n t s q u ic k ly a n d to r e -

s p o n d e f f e c t iv e ly a n d c r e a tiv e ly ); a n d d i s c r e t io n

a t th e wo r k p la c e ( s h o win g a n a b i l i ty to a s s u me

mu l t ip le r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s a n d s e l f - ma n a g e me n t

w h e n d i s c h a r g i n g t h e m ) ( W a tk in s, D r u r y a n d

P r e d d y I 9 9 2 ) .

H is to r i c a l ly ' p r o f e ss io n a l s ' wo r k e d a s a u to n o -

mo u s in d iv id u a l s , o f t e n p r o v id in g a w id e r a n g e

o f a d v i s o r y s e r v ic e g I n c r e a s in g ly a s th e n a tu r e o f

' p r o f e s s io n a l wo r k ' b e c a me mo r e s p e c ia l i z e d ,

p r o f e s s io n a l s f o r me d p a r tn e r s h ip a g r e e me n ts to

e n a b le t h e m t o o f f e r a w i d e r r a n g e o f m o r e

s p e c ia l i z e d s e r v ic e s to th e i r ma r k e tp la c e . A l -

t h o u g h p a r t n e rs h i p s s t il l r e m a i n t h e m o s t c o m -

mo n f o r m o f l e g a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p r o fe ss io n a ls ,

in r e c e n t y e a r s th e c o n c e p t o f l imi te d l i a b i l i ty

s truc tures for profess iona l se rv ice organiza t ions

h a s b e c o m e m o r e c o m m o n . I n s o m e c a s e s, t h is

l imi te d l i a b i li ty f r a me wo r k h a s a l s o in v o lv e d in -

c o r p o r a t io n a s a p u b l i c l imi te d c o mp a n y ( P L C) .

T h e w o r k o f p r o f e s s io n a l s a s a n o v e ra ll e m -

p l o y m e n t g r o u p a n d t h e s p e c if ic w o r k o f a ca -

d e mic s s h a r e a n u m b e r o f c o m mo n fe a tu r es : b o th

r e q u i r e e x p e r t is e , s p e c if i c t r a in in g o r a lo n g s e m i -

f o r ma l i z e d a p p r e n t i c e s h ip a n d th e e x e r c i s e o fi n d e p e n d e n t j u d g e m e n t . B o t h g r o u p s m a y o p e r -

a te e i th e r a s in d iv id u a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s b e i t i n

c o m m e r c e o r i n t h e v a r io u s f ie l ds o f h u m a n

k n o w l e d g e , o r a s t ea m s o f e n t r e p r e n e u rs p u s h i n g

f o r wa r d th e b o u n d a r ie s o f th e i r s u b je c t a n d t r a d -

in g th e i r k n o wle d g e a n d id e a s . T y p ic a l ly , th e

p u r s u i t o f c a r e e r in th e p r o f e s s io n s r e li e s u p o n a

h ig h d e g r e e o f p e r s o n a l in i t i a tiv e a n d in t r in s ic

m o t i v a t i o n , r e w a r d s a n d p r o m o t i o n b e i n g

a c h i ev e d t h r o u g h a p r o c e ss o f p e e r j u d g e m e n t

a n d r e c o g n i ti o n .

C h a n g e a n d R e s p o n se t o a C h a n g i n g

E x t e rn a l E n v i r o n m e n t

T h e i m p a c t o f e x t e r n a l c h a n g e h a s l e d t o a

s i g n if i ca n t n u m b e r o f c h a n g e s o c c u r ri n g b o t h i n

th e p r o f e s s io n s ( th r o u g h th e i r r e s p e c tiv e p r o fe s -

s iona l bodies ) , with in profess iona l se rv ice or -

g a n iz a t io n s a n d wi th in a c a d e mic in s t i tu t io n s .

S o m e o f t h e m a i n r e sp o n s es i n t h e U K t o t h e

c h a n g i n g e x t e rn a l e n v i r o n m e n t a r e s u m m a r i z e d

b e lo w . M a n y o f t h e s e t r e n d s h a v e b e e n i d e n t if i e d

in two r e p o r t s b y th e Un iv e r s i ty o f Br i s to l ( W a t -

k i n s , D r u r y a n d P r e d d y 1 9 9 2 ; W a t l d n s a n d

D r u r y 1 9 9 4 ) . M a j o r t h e m e s w h i c h e m e r g e c a n

be ca tegor ized as fo l lows .

1. Changingattitudes toward sprofessionals an d~ a d ~ i c s

T h e h e a d l in e - c a tc h in g s to r i e s o f n e g l ig e n c e in

bus iness (Maxwell , BCCI e tc . ) , toge ther with an

in c r e a s in g ly l i t ig io u s a n d b e t t e r - in f o r m e d c l i e n t

, g r o u p me a n th a t p r o f e s sio n a l s c a n n o lo n g e r r e ly

o n u n q u e s t io n e d t r u s t b y th e i r cl ie n ts . A l th o u g h

th is pa t te rn is no t ident ica l in un ivers i t ies , then o t i c ea b l e i n cr e as e in n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n t c o m -

p la in t s a n d a p p e a l s ma y in d ic a te a s imi la r tr e n d .

I n b o th c o n te x t s , t h e r e i s a g r o w in g e m p h a s i s o n

a c c o u n ta b i l i ty a n d a u d i t a b i l i ty o f a c t io n to g e th e r

w i t h a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f a w i d e r c h o i c e o f s er v ic e s

a n d imp r o v e d q u al ity .

As m e n t io n e d p r e vio us ly , th e p r iv i l e g e o f s e l f-

r e g u la t io n e n jo y e d b y m a n y p r o f e s s io n s is b e in g

q u e s t i o n e d . C l i e n t s i n c re a s i n g l y d e m a n d t h e

a b i l ity to g a in r e c o m p e n s e f o r p o o r s e r v ic e wi th -

o u t n e c e s s a r i ly h a v in g to s e e k l e g a l a d v ic e . P r o -

f e s sio n a l s a r e a l so n o lo n g e r a s e le c t g r o u p . T h eg r o w th in th e n u m b e r s o f p r ac t i t io n e r s in th e

p r o f e s s io n s h a s c h a n g e d th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c' s p e r -

c e p t io n to w a r d s th i s g ro u p .

2. Chang ing organizationalaruct lwes

As th e m a r k e t f o r s u p p l i e rs o f se r v ic e s h a s m o v e d

to wa r d s th e c r e a t io n o f l a r g e r mu l t id i s c ip l in a r y

bus inesses , there has a lso been an increas ing

mo v e a wa y f r o m th e t r a d i t io n a l h ie r a r c h ic a l o r -

g a n iz a t io n a l s t ru c tu r e. I n o r d e r to c o m p e te e f f e c -

t i v e l y s u c h o r g a n i z a t io n s h a v e h a d t o m o v e

to wa r d s m o r e ma t r ix ma n a g e m e n t st r u c tu r e s . T h ec o n c e p t o f a m o v e f ro m ' b u r e a u c r a c y ' to ' a d - h o c -

r a c y ' o r n e t w o r k o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s g r o w n i n

in f lu e n c e a n d s ig n i fi c a n c e . I n m a n y c a se s , u n iv e r -

s it ie s a r e a h e a d o f b u s in e s s in th e u s e o f th e s e

structures.

M a tr ix s t r u c tu r e s c a n o f t e n b lu r th e d i s t in c t io n s

b e tw e e n r o le s, a n d a l s o r e q u i r e th a t m o r e l e a d e r -

s h ip i s d e v o lv e d . F o r s o me s e n io r b u s in e s s p r o -



122 ROB IN MIDDLEHURST AND TOM KENNIE

fessionals, such a shift wi th its perceived loss of

a power-base can b e particularly threatening. In

m any old' universities in the UK such devolution

is alrea dy well established.

3. C hanging towardsmore l ex ib leemploymen tpractices

The Western Europ ean recession has forced ma ny

organizations to focus their attention on the

'core' business and review those activities and

funct ions whic h do not form part o f the prime

purpose of the busines~ On e o f the consequences

of th is process toge ther with a recognit ion of the

ad-hocracy referred to previously, has been a

significant change towards more flexible em-

p loymen t p rac t i c~The modern professional organizat ion often

has several or al l of the fol lowing employment

conditions for its staff. Firstly, there are those

w ho are emp loyed in the traditional sense as full

time em ployees providing client services in small

autono mo us business units, perhaps similar to th e

'tenured academics' in universities. Secondly,

there are a small num ber o f central core advisers

who provide high level advice on pol io/and

strategy. These are general ly few in number and

are similar to the 'executive' team at the centre of

a university. Thirdly, there are internal profitcentres prov iding services to bo th ' internal' and

'external ' markets. These may be full-time em-

ployees or possibly outsourced employees pro-

viding internal support; in a cadem ic institutions,

the self- financing research o r research institutes

ma y offer a parallel. Finally, there a re the g row-

ing numbers o f peripheral service providers who

contract part of heir t ime to the organizat ion and

wh o operate independe ntly or as consul tants to

one or mo re businesses. In academ ic institutions

this might relate to the increasing num ber of oint

venture companies employing academics withinthe growing n umb er of universi ty research/sci-

ence parks.

Employment for those who are 'non-core ' is

becoming more varied in its nature (often a

euphemism for less secure): consul tano /arrange-

ments, fixed-term contracts, secondments, job-

s h a r i n g , p a r t - t i m e w o r k i n g a r e a l l n o w

commonplace and show no s ign o f reduc ing in

the future.

4. Changing at ti tudes towards hecompetenceg a p

Th e increasing com plexity o f practice and the

need to retain a high level o f expertise in a r apidly

changing world has led many professions to

embrace the concept of 'cont inuing professional

developmen t ' (CPD). CPD helps to ensure that

professionals underta ke some fo rm o f post-quali-

fication education and training bo th to m aintain

and develop their knowledge base. More re-

cently , the importance o f more ' informal ' modes

of learning has been recognized as being of

particular relevance to the developm ent of com -petence within the professions (Gear, McIntosh

and Squires 1994). In addition, the importance

o f processes such as action learning an d self-man-

aged learning are becoming more widely ut i l -

ized. In the universities, staff development has

achieved a much higher profile within the last

five years. However, a trad ition o f initial training

and continuing professional development, par-

ticularly for teaching, has yet to become firmly

established in high er education (HE Q.C 1994).

s . c h a n g i n g c a r e er u r um esCareer development in the 'flat ' organizational

strnctures of the professions has tended to be a

relatively simple process involving progression

thr ou gh to 'partnership' or 'professorial' level.

Increasingly, however, the com plexity of th e or-

ganization isd em and ing a w ider range of ski lls

and, with this, alternative career develo pme nt

routes. O ne particular m odel of potential career

routes wh ich recognizes the distinction betw een

the professional specialist, managerial generalist

and professional generalist is eme rging with in

some professional organizations. Such parallelcareer develop me nt routes w hich give equivalent

recogu ition to both managerial and professional

skills are of gro win g imp ortance particularly in

the 'n ew ' universi ties within th e UK.



L E A D E R S H I P A N D P R O F E S S IO N A L S 1 2 3

I m p l i c a t io n s f o r L e a d e r s h i p i n A c a d e m i c

a n d P r o f e s s i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n s

Th i s sec t i o n o f t h e p ap er wi l l co n s id e r so m eem erg in g s im i l a r i t i e s b e tween ap p ro ach es t o

l ead er sh ip w i th in p ro fess io n a l se rv i ce a n d aca -

dem ic organizat ions. F i rst , changes in the func-

t i o n s o f s e n i o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s / a c a d e m i c s a n d

professional mana gers in relat ion to the prov is ion

o f o rg an i za t i o n a l lead er sh ip an d m an ag em en t a r e

ex am in ed . S ec o n d , co n s id e ra t i o n is g iv en t o t h e

p u rp o ses an d fu n c t i o n s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l l ead er -

ship, and finally, to th e crit ical pers ona l capabili-

t i e s w h i c h n e e d t o b e e x h i b i t e d b y s e n i o r

professiona l and academ ic leaders .

professional m anagers and professionals and

academics as managers

In the i r s tudy o f the pressures on professional l i fe

i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , Watk in s , Dru ry an d P red d y (1 9 9 2 )

dem arcate 'man agers ' f rom 'p rofessionals ' in the

fo l l o win g way s . Th ey d esc r ib e m an ag ers as b e in g

resp o n s ib l e fo r d ay - to -d ay co o rd in a t i o n an d

co n t ro l o f t h e ac ti v it ie s o f o th e r p e o p l e i n o rd er

to ensure thei r con t r ibu t ion to business resu l t s

an d p ro f it ab l e p e rfo rm an ce2 Th ey see m an ag er s '

a l leg iance to the business as being to tal . This

d esc r ip t i o n o f m an ag er s m ig h t eq u a ll y b e ap p l i ed

to th e a dm inis t rat ive cadre in un ivers i ties .

Professionals, in contrast , are res pon sible for

thei r ind iv idual cont r ibu t ions to the business .

Th e i r i n d iv id u a l co n t r i b u t io n s h av e a d i r ec t an d

m ajo r im p ac t o n p ro fi tab le p e r fo rm an c e (o r o n

ach i ev em en t o f t a rg e ts an d i n s t i tu t i o n a l r ep u t a -

t ion) . As ou t l ined ear l ier, p rofessionals are ind e-

p e n d e n t a n d a u t o n o m o u s . W h i l s t t h e i r m a i n

al leg iance i s to thei r p rofessional d iscip l ine, thei r

ac t i v i t i e s a r e co n t ro l l ed b y a co d e o f co n d u c t

wh ich s t r es ses t h a t t h e i n t e res t s o f t h e ' c l i en t' a r e

to be pu t before sel f - in terest . Again there are

p aral le l s h e re wi th acad em ic s t a ff , a l t h o u g h t h ey

are perhaps less exact than for managers and

administrators.

In r ecen t y ea r s , t h e b o u n d ary b e tween b o th

ty p es o f ac t i v it y is b ec o m in g b lu r r ed so t h a t t h epoten t ial fo r conf l ict is increasing . T his po te n t ial

m a y b e h e i g h t e n e d w h e n t h e m a n a g e r s / a d m i n -

i st ra tor s i n b o th acad em ic an d p ro fess io n a l o r -

gan izations, dev elop increasing responsibility fo r

t h e fo rm u la t io n o f p o l ic i es r e l a t in g t o t h e ' co re '

p u rp o se o f t h e o rg an i za t i o n (wh ich i n i t s e l f m ay

b e i n a s t a t e o f f l u x o r t r an s fo rm at io n ) . On e

m o d e l wh ich m ay p ro v e h e lp fu l i n i l I u s t r a t i n g

th is i ssue i s p rov ided by f igures la , lb , and lc

d e v e l o p ed f ro m H a n d y ( 1 9 8 3 ).

F ig u re l a i ll u st ra t es o n e i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h m a y b e m a d e b e t w e e n t h e

L e a d e r s h i p I

Management

Managers

t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

1P o l i c y ]

lExecution

M a n a g e m e n t b a se d o n c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l

Figure la M anagem ent n a traditional business environment



1 2 4 R O B I N M I D D L E H U R S T A N D T O M K E N NI E

lL e a d e r s h i p

Senior

Professionals

P o l i c y [

Management

I [ A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

I P r o f e s s i o n a l

M a n a g e r s

E x e c u t i o n

Man ag em en t

based on consensus

Man ag em en t

b ased o n co n se n t

Figure I b Ma nagem ent in a professional business environm ent

t e rm s m an ag em en t , l ead er sh ip an d ad m in i s t r a -

t ion in a t rad i t ional , indust r ial ized business envi -

r o n m e n t . L e a d e r s h i p a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e

c o n s i d e r e d to b e s u b - e l e m e n ts o f m a n a g e m e n t

an d t h i s t r i o o f ac t i vi ti e s i s p e r fo rm e d b y ' p ro fes -

s io n a l m an ag e r s ' w h o a re a lso r esp o n s ib l e fo r t h efo rm u la t i o n o f p o l i cy an d i t s su b seq u en t ex ecu -

t i o n . Dec i s io n s a re m ad e i n a h i e ra rch i ca l ' co m -

m an d an d co n t ro l ' f a sh io n .

In cont rast , f igure lb i l lus t rates the s ign i f ican t

d i f f e r en ces wh ich ex i s t b e tween t h e t r ad i t i o n a l

im p ress io n o f a ' ty p i ca l ' i n d u s t r ia l o rg an i za t i o n

an d t h e s i t u a t i o n wh ich m ay ex i s ts i n b o th aca -

demic and professional serv ice organizat ions.

Lead er sh ip an d ad m in i s t r a t i o n ar e n o l o n g er p e r -

fo rm e d so l e ly b y ' p ro fess io n a l m an ag er s ' . Org an -

i za t i o n a l l ead er sh ip i s p r im ar i l y t h e d o m ain o f

the sen ior professionals and sen ior academics ,w h e r e a s a d m i n i s t ra t i o n is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t c o n -

t e rn o f t h e ' p ro fess io n a l m an ag er s ' i n t h e fo rm o f

sen ior adminis t rators or p rofessional ly qual i f ied

sp eci a li st s i n f i n an ce , h u m an r es o u rces /p e r so n -

n e l o r co rp o ra t e p l an n in g . Th e es t ab l i sh m en t o f

p o l i cy i s ach i ev ed i n a co n sen su a l m an n er b y t h e

sen io r acad em ics /p ro fess io n a l s , wh i l s t t h e ex e-

c u t i o n / i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p o l i c y i s d e l e g a te d t o

t h e p r o f e s s io n a l m a n a g e m T h e l a tt e r m a y o p e r a t e

o n t h e b a s is o f m a n a g e m e n t b y c o n s e n t o r ' p a s -

s iv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n ', wh e re l im i t ed t im e i s p ro v id ed

b y t h e ad m in i s t r a to r s fo r t h e acad em ics /p ro fes -

s io n a l s t o ex p ress d i s sen t an d w h ere n o co m m e n t

impl ies no d issen t.N ei the r of the abov e f igures , howeve r , real is t i-

ca l l y cap tu res t h e ch an g in g n a tu re o f b o th t r ad i-

t i o n a l c o m m e r c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d

a c a d e m i c / p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n c re a s -

i n gly , th e fo rm u la t i o n o f p o l i cy i s n o t c o n d u c t ed

in i so l a t i o n f ro m 'p ro fess io n a l m an ag er s ' . I n d eed ,

s o m e w o u l d a r g u e t h a t to a n i n c r e a s in g e x t e n t a n

ex ch an g e o f rol es h as t ak en p l ace i n so m e in s ti -

t u t io n s w i t h p o l ic y f o r m u l a ti o n n o w b e i n g t h e

p r im ary d o m ain o f t h e ' p ro fess io n a l m an ag er s '

a n d e x e c u t i o n / i m p l e m e n t a t i o n d e l e g a t e d t o s e n -

io r acad em ics /p ro fess io n a l s .As t h e i s su es wh ich r eq u i r e t o b e r eso lv ed

b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x , t h e n e e d f o r p o l i c y d e -

v e lo p m e n t t o i n v o lv e a wid e r r an g e o f ski ll s h as

b eco m e im p o r t an t . Th e case fo r ' p ro fess io n a l

m an ag er s ' t o b eco m e cen t r a l l y i n v o lv ed i n t h e

s t r a t eg i c d i r ec t i o n - se t t i n g o f t h e o rg an i za t i o n

in ev i tab ly o ccu r s, wh i l s t a t t h e sam e t im e o th e r

s e n i o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s m a y b e c o m e ' d i s e n f r a n -



LEADERSHIP AND P R O F E S S I O N A L S 12 5

M a n a g e m e n t

Le a d e r s h i p I

S e n i o r

Pro fess iona l s

I 1l -Management I Exe cution

based on consensus '

I[ 1A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

Pro fess iona l "M a n a g e r s

Management

based on consent

Figure ! c M anagem ent in a professional business environment

chised' from the sen ior decision-making process.

A similar process is occurring in many higher

education institutions as functional special is ts in

areas such as f inance , personnel /human re -

sources, strategic planning (in addition to the

traditional senior administrative cadre o f Secre-

tary/R egistra r) are involved as eq uals in top

managem ent teams. The jo int board approach,

(figure lc) of senior academics~professionals an d

senior professional managers, operating as a

small senior management team is becoming the

norm in ma ny organizations. Managing the tran-

sition to this joint boar d approach demands sen-

sitivity by both the senior professionals and

managers to ensure that the com munication and

netwo rk linkages with the wide r group ofse nior

p r o f e s s i o n a l s / a c a d e m i c s i s maintained and de-

veloped. Th e possibility of this generally small,

highly centralized senior-level direction-setting

and decision-making body becoming isolated

from the w ider pee r group is an obvious danger

which needs to be avoided. Regular two-way

forums for communicat ion betwee n both group-

ings is essential.

P u r p o s e s a n d u n c t i o n s o f o r g a n iz a t io n a l

leadership

All of he previous discussion has high lighte d the

breadth and de pth o f change which is occurring

around and within academic in s t i tu t ions and p ro -

fessional service organizations.

Several authors have noted the relationship

between change and leadership. Adair (1983)

suggests that a ch ang ing conte xt creates instabil-

it'g, uncer tainty and a n eed f or adaptation in

individual roles and attitudes as we ll as organiza-tional structures and cultures. Such turbulence

creates both a psychological and a practical need

for leadership. He also suggests , in common wi th

Zaleznik (1977) and Bennis (1989), that those

w ho are leaders will themselves initiate change,

whether as a resul t of their own psychosocial

make-up o r as a result of the social and cultural

expectations surrounding 'leadership'. Change



1 2 6 R O B I N M I D D L E H U R S T A N D T O M K E N N I E

a n d l e a d e r s h i p a r e t h e r e f o r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d :

c h a n g e c r e a te s th e n e e d f o r l e a d e r s h ip a n d l e a d -

er s a re , o r a re perce ived to be , in i t ia tor s and

d r iv e r s o f c h a n g e .

Ko t te r ( 1 9 9 0 ) p r e s e n t s a s l ig h t ly d i f f e r e n t p ic -

tu r e , b u t th e a s s o c ia t io n b e twe e n l e a d e r s h ip a n d

change is main ta ined . He sugges ts , f i r s t , tha t a

d i s t in c t i o n c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n l e a d er s h ip a n d

ma n a g e m e n t . L e a d e r s h ip a t s e n io r l ev e ls e n c o m -

p a s s e s th e d i r e c t io n - s e t t in g , in s p i r a t io n a l a n d

mo t iv a t io n a l a s p e c t s n e c e s s a r y f o r e f f e c t iv e o r -

g a n i z a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i l e m a n a g e m e n t

in c lu d e s th e p la n n in g , c o o r d in a t in g a n d f in a n c ia l

c a p a c i t i e s wh ic h e n a b le a c o mp le x o r g a n iz a t io n

to o p e r a te e f f i c i e n t ly o n a c o n t in u in g b a si s. L e a d -

e r s h ip a n d m a n a g e m e n t a r e t h e r e fo r e tw o n e c e s-s a r y a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y s y st e m s o f a c ti o n .

Ko t te r th e n a r g u e s th a t l e a d e r s h ip i s r e q u i r e d to

e f fe c t , o r t o c o p e w i t h , c h a n g e , w h i l e m a n a g e -

m e n t i s n e e d e d t o h a n d l e c o m p l e x i t y w i t h i n a n d

a r o u n d o r g a n iz a t io n s .

An a s s o c ia t io n b e twe e n l e a d e r s h ip a n d c h a n g e

h e lp s to e x p la in wh y th e r e a r e c a l ls f o r s t ro n g e r

le a d e r s h ip in u n iv e r s i t i e s a n d in p r o f e s s io n a l

s e r v ic e o r g a n iz a t io n s a n d a l s o d e mo n s t r a te s a

ma jo r p u r p o s e o f l e a d e r s h ip a t in s t i tu t io n a l l ev e l,

i . e . t o e f f e c t c h a n g e s in s t r u c tu r e a n d c u l tu r e

wh ic h wi l l e n a b le th e o r g a n iz a t io n to s u r v iv e a n dd e v e l o p

C o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f l e a d e r s h i p a s ' a

p r o c e s s o f s o cia l in f lu e n c e wh ic h g u id e s a g r o u p

t o w a r d s c o m m o n g o a ts ' (B r y m a n 1 9 8 6 ) a l so i m -

p ly th a t l e a d e r s h ip i s l in k e d to m o v e m e n t a n d

c h a n g e . T h e s e a s s o c ia t io n s h ig h l ig h t f u r th e r p u r -

p o s e s o f in s t itu t io n a l l e a d e r s h ip : in t e r p r e t in g th e

e x te r n a l e n v i r o n me n t in r e l a t io n to in s t i tu t io n a l

mis s io n , r e p u ta t io n a n d t r a d i t io n ; p r o v id in g v i -

s io n a n d d i r e c t io n f o r th e o r g a n iz a t io n ; c r e a t in g

n e w o r g a n iz a t io n a l f r a me wo r l~ , a n d s t r u c tu r e s ,

r o le s a n d o p p o r tu n i t i e s wh e r e n e c e s s a r y ; t a k in ga n d a s s e s s in g r i s k to th e o r g a n iz a t io n a n d a t -

t e m p t in g to p o s i t io n i t i n th e m a r k e t -p la c e ; a lig n -

i n g p e o p l e w i t h a n e w d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h

c o n s u l t a t io n , c o mmu n ic a t io n , c o a l i t io n - b u i ld in g

a n d n e two r k in g ; r e p r e s e n t in g th e o r g a n iz a t io n ,

legal ly , po l i t ica l ly and sym bolica l ly ; and a rb i t r a t-

in g b e twe e n c o n f l i c t in g p r io r i t i e s ( M id d le h u r s t

1 9 9 3 ) .

Ad a i r ( 1 9 8 3 ) h a s id e n t i f i e d l e a d e r s h ip a s a

f u n c t io n wh ic h a d d r e s s e s th e n e e d s wh ic h a r i s e

f o r th o s e wo r k in g in o r g a n iz a t io n s , th a t i s , t h e

nee d to ach ieve success fu l ly a task or tasks , the

n e e d to b e l in k e d to g e th e r c o o p e r a t iv e ly a n d

p r o d u c t iv e ly a s a wo r k in g g r o u p , a n d th e n e e d to

a c h ie v e in d iv id u a l s a t i s f a c t io n a n d r e c o g n i t io n

f o r c o n t r ib u t io n s to a s h a r e d e n te r p r i s e . Be n s i -

m o n , N e u m a n n a n d B i r u b au m ( 1 9 8 9 ) a r g u e t h e

c a s e s o me w h a t d i f f e re n t ly , a l th o u g h th e r e a r e

c o m mo n e le me n t s . I n th e i r t e r ms , s u c ce s s fu l in -

s t i tu t io n a l l e a d e r s h ip in v o lv e s r e s o u r c e a c q u i s i -

t i o n , g o a l a c h i e v e m e n t a n d c o n s t i t u e n t

s a t is f a ct io n , th e l as t b e in g p a r t i c u lar ly in te r e s t in g

s in c e mo s t p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n iz a t io n s h a v e a

w i d e r a n g e o f d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u e n c i e s w h i c hneed to be sa t is f ied . Of ten , these cons t i tuenc ies

h a v e c o n f l i c t in g p r io r it i e s a n d in te re s t s ( f o r e x -

a mp le , p r o v id e r s a n d c l i en t s, a c a d e mic s a n d a d -

m i n i s t r a t o r s , s t u d e n t s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s ) .

L e a d e r s h ip a t in s t i tu t io n a l l e v e l th e r e f o r e in -

v o lv e s t r a d e -o f f s , d il e mma s , a n d ' t h e n e g o t i a t io n

o f a m b ig u i t i e s '.

As wa s d i s c u s s e d ea rl ie r, s o m e o f th e k e y c h a r -

a c te ri s t ic s o f p r o f e s s io n a l s ( w h e th e r a c a d e m ic s in

univers i t ies or surveyors in pr iva te prac t ices and

P L Cs ) a r e th e i r e x p e c ta t io n o f in d iv id u a l a u to n -

o my , e f f e c t iv e ly g r a n te d a s a ' l i c e n c e to p r a c t i se 'b y th e i r p r o f e s s io n a l in s t i tu t io n ; th e i r e x p e r t i s e

( g e n e r a l ly r e f l e c t in g a r t i c u la c y a n d in te l l e c tu a l

s t a n d in g ) ; a n d th e i r in t r in s i c mo t iv a t io n in th e

d i r e c t io n o f s e l f - a c tu a l i z a t io n th r o u g h wo r th -

wh i le wo r k , to u s e M a s lo w ' s t e r m ( 1 9 5 4 ) . L o y a l -

t i e s e x i s t to wa r d s a d i s c ip lin e o r p r o f e s sio n a l a r e a

a s m u c h a s t o w a r d s t h e e m p l o y i n g o r g a n i za t i o n ,

a n d o f t e n a c lo s e r e la t io n s h ip i s a n t i c ip a te d a n d

d e v e lo p e d w i th c l ie n ts ~ L a te r al n e tw o r k s w i th

c l i e n t s a n d p r o f e s sio n a l c o l l e a g u e s wh ic h e x te n d

o u t s id e th e b o u n d a r ie s o f th e o r g a n iz a t io n a r e a s

imp o r ta n t a s in te r n a l n e two r k s . In d e e d , b e c a u s eo f h i g h d e g r e e s o f s tr u c tu r a l a n d m a n a g e r ia l

d e v o lu t io n to o p e r a t in g u n i t s in p r o f e s s io n a l o r -

g a n iz a t io n s, v e r t i c a l a n d p a r t i c u la rly h o r i z o n ta l

r e l a t io n s h ip s m a y b e r e l a tiv e ly we a k e r in th e s e

k i n d s o f o r g a n i z a ti o n s t h a n i n o t h e r m o r e h i e r -

a r c h ic a l a r r a n g e me n ts . On e c o u ld e v e n a r g u e th a t

e x te r n a l l a t e r a l r e l a t io n s h ip s wi l l t h u s e x e r t a

s t r o n g e r p u l l in t e r ms o f a p r o f e s s io n a l ' s ' p s y c h o -



L E A D E R S H I P A N D P R O F E S S I O N A L S 1 2 7

l o g ic a l c o n t r a c t ' w i t h h i s / h e r w o r k t h a n d o e s t h e

e m p l o y i n g o r g a n i z a t io n . T h e i m p a c t o f i n f o r m a -

t i o n t e c h n o l o g y o n s u c h n e t w o r k s i s l i k e l y t o

i n c re a s e t h e i r r e l e v a n c e a n d i m p o r t a n c e .

L e a d e r s h i p i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s

m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c -

t e r is t i c s o f t h e s e k i n d s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e i r

c o n t e x t a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e i r i n t e r n a l m e m -

b e r s a n d t h e e x p e c t a t io n s o f m a j o r s t a k e h o ld e r s .

I n e s s e n c e , l e a d e r s h i p i s l i k e l y t o b e a p o l i t i c a l

a n d i n t e ll e c t u a ll y c o m p l e x a c t i v it y i n w h i c h i n -

t e r p r e ti n g , n e g o t i a t i n g , b u i l d i n g f o r m a l a n d i n -

f o r m a l n e t w o r k s , f r a m i n g , s i g n a l l in g ,

c h a l l e n g i n g , g u i d i n g , w i e l d i n g i n f lu e n c e a n d d e -

c i d i n g a r e o f c e n t r al i m p o r t a n c e i n c r e a t i n g a n

a p p r o p r i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c l im a t e f o r p r o f e s-

s i o n a l w o r k . L e a d e r s h i p w i l l i n v o l v e d e v e l o p i n g

b o t h t h e h a r d e r s t r u c tu r a l a s p e c ts o f t h e o r g a n i -

z a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e s o f t e r a s p e c t s o f v a lu e s ,

p u r p o s e , m e a n i n g a n d c u l t u r e . T h e p u r p o s e o f

l e a d e r s h i p i n p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , h o w -

e v e r , r e m a i n s s i m i l a r t o i t s p u r p o s e i n a n y o r g a n i -

z a t i o n i m a k i n g i t h a p p e n , d e c i d i n g a n d

a r t i c u l a t i n g w h a t ' i t ' i s, a n d t a k i n g p e o p l e w i t h

y o u i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d c o r p o ra t el y :

I n o u r d i s c u s s i o n , w e h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p . C l e a rl y , le a d e r s h i p e x -

i s ts a t m a n y l e v e l s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( f o r e x a m -p l e a t s t r a te g i c , o p e r a t i o n a l a n d t e a m l e v el s) a n d

o u t s i d e i t a t n a t i o n a l l e v e l i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n o r

t h r o u g h n a t i o n a l o r r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s . T h e

n e e d f o r l e a d e r s h i p t o b e w i d e l y d i s pe r s ed , t o b e

p a r t i c i p a t i v e a n d t o b e p e r c e i v e d a s a s h a r e d

f u n c t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t i n p r o f e s s i o n a l

o r g a n i z at i o n s. M a n y i n d i v id u a l s a n d g r o u p s w i ll

n e e d t o e x e r c i s e i n i t i a t i v e , t a k e r i s k s , b e i n n o v a -

t i v e a n d c r e a t i v e i n t h e i r o w n s p h e r e s o f a c ti v i t y

a s w e l l a s in t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i se .

F o r e x a m p l e , i n u n i v e r si t ie s , i t is p o s s i b l e t o t h i n k

i n t e r m s o f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p e x e r c i s e dw i t h i n t h e w i d e r s o c i e ~ , a c a d e m i c l e a d e r s h i p

e x e r c i s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t e a c h i n g a n d r e s e a r c h a n d

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r m a n a g e r i a l l e a d e r s h i p e x e r c i s ed

i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g o f a u n i t

o r o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n e a c h c a se , l e a d e r s h i p i n v o l v e s

g u i d i n g b y b e i n g c r e a t i v e , b y d e t e c t i n g p a t t e r n s ,

b y a r t i c u l a ti n g p u r p o s e a n d b y f o s t e r in g c o m m i t -

m e n t t o c o l l e c t i v e go a l s. A c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k

w h i c h r e la t es a p p r o a c h e s t o l e a d e r s h i p w / t h d i f -

f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l s i s d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r

i n t h e f i n al s e c t io n o f t h i s p a p e r .

Impl ications o r leaders: individualcharacterim'cs o r s enio rprofessional an dacadem ic leaders

H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d l e a d e r s h i p i n f u n c t i o n a l

t e r m s , i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e t h e c a p a c i -

t i e s n e e d e d t o e x e r c i s e l e a d e r s h i p i n p r o f e s s i o n a l

o r g a n iz a t io n s . T h e d a n g e r s o f a t t e m p t i n g t o e s -

t a b l is h a l i s t o f s p e c i fi c l e a d e r s h i p t r a it s i s w e l l

d o c u m e n t e d i n t h e l it e ra t u re ( B ir d 1 9 4 0 , 3 7 8 - 9 )

a l t h o u g h i t d o e s n o w a p p e a r t h a t s o m e c r i t i c a l

p e r s o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o e m e r g e .

F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o v a l i d a t et h e f o l l o w i n g l is t w h i c h i s b a s e d o n a r e v i e w o f

t h e r e l e v a n t l i te r a t u re , p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h i n l e a d -

e r s h i p a n d c u r r e n t e x p e r i e n c e . T h e c a p a b i l i t i e s

n e e d e d f o r s u c h s e n i o r l ev e l le a d e r s h i p r o l e s m a y

b e c a t e g o ri z e d a s f o l lo w s ( a d a p t e d f r o m M i d d l e -

h u r s t 1 9 9 3 ) :

1. Conceptualabilit ies-Handling "cognitivecomplexiLy"

S e v e ra l a u t h o r s ( B e n si m o n , N e u m a n n a n d B i r n -

b a u m 1 9 8 9 ; S t r eu f e r t a n d N o g a m i 1 9 8 9 ; H u n t

1 9 9 2 ) p o i n t t o ' c o g n i t i v e c o m p l e x i t y ' a s a n i m -p o r t a n t t o p - l e v e l l e a d e rs h i p c a p a b i l it y w h i c h e n -

a b l e s i n d i v i d u a l s t o c r e a t e s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e n t a l

m a p s o f s t r a t e g ic a n d o p e r a t i o n a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n -

s h i p s o v e r t im e . O t h e r i n d i c a to r s o f s u c h c a p a -

b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e : t h e a b i l i t y t o c o m b i n e r a t i o n a l

a n d i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e a n d s k i l ls ; t h e c a p a b i l i t y

t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e c o m p l e x a n d a m b i g u o u s s i t u -

a t i o n s ; a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o b e c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n

d e a l i n g w i t h m a n a g e r ia l d i le m m a s . T h i s k i n d o f

i n t e l l e c t u a l f l e x i b i l i t y i s v i t a l w h e n h a n d l i n g

h i g h l y c o m p l e x a n d d y n a m i c o r g a n i z a ti o n s s u c h

a s l a r g e p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n s t i t u t i o n s .

2. W el l developed nter- and intra-personal ski l ls

W i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y f a l l t h e f a m i l i a r c a p a c i t i e s

r e q u i r e d b y m a n a g e r s a t a l l l e v e l s b u t w h i c h a r e

o f p a r ti c u la r i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h o s e o p e r a t i n g a t

t h e t o p l e ve ls o f a n o r g a n i z a t i o n . E v i d e n c e o f

t h e s e c a p a b i l i t i e s i n c l u d e : a n a b i l i t y t o u n d e r -



128 ROBIN MIDDLEHURST AND TO M KENNIE

stand the feelings, attitudes and motives of oth-

ers; a capacity to persuade o thers often based on

stron g rational argument; mediation capabilities

to resolve an d de fuse conflict.

Interpers onal capabilities are paralleled by in -

tra-personal capacities; for example knowing

one's strengths and weaknesses; the capacity to

be introspective abou t One's impact on others;

physical and em otional resilience and a capacity

to b e able to reflect on and learn from experience.

A h igh level o f self-worth and self-bel iefare also

fundam ental ly important .

3 . P o l i a 'c a l s ~ s i t i v i t y

Possibly th e k ey distinguishing feature of profes-

sional service and academ ic organizations is themyria d of networks o f influence which develop

throughout the organization. Relying solely on

the formal decis ion-making processes and co n-

ventional formal communicat ion channels in

such c omp lex organizations is very limited and

insufficient if senio r level leaders are to remain

credible. Managing and influencing both the

formal and, more importantly, the informal net-

wo rks is a critical capability for top-level leaders.

Unde rstanding the nature of pow er relationships

and appreciating the need to establish alliances

and build coalitions is vital to succes s in suchorganizational settings.

4 . / / tb ica/cons/s t tney

Exhibiting in a consistent mann er con grue nt be-

haviour between w hat is said an d wh at actual ly

occurs in pra ctice is a ~com petence elevant to a ll

senior managem ent roles . However, g iven th e

particular visibility of se nior professional a nd

acade mic leadership roles its importance is par-

ticularly high in such environments.

5 . P r o f e s u ' o n a l c r e d i b i l i t yA fu rthe r distinguishing feature of leaders in

professional service and academic organizations

is the importance of professional credibili~. A

track record o f success in th e particular field of

professional a ctivity is generally a nece ssary pre -

requisite for a senior-level position. In a limited

num ber o f cases such experience m ay have been

gained in o ther professional organizat ions W hat

appears to be important is not onl y professional

credibility but also an appreciation o f th e values

and cultural characteristics o f wo rking in su ch

organizations. In higher education the impor-

tance o f academic credibility is well established,

althou gh in those universities wh ich have a mor e

professional ly oriented cul ture, a successful

managerial career appears to be b ecoming m ore

of a necessary prerequisite than the historically

higher weighting at tached to high level aca-

dem ic expertise and reputation.

A Con cep tua l Fram ework : Levels o f

Leadersh ip fo r Pro fess iona ls

In this final section we have brought together arange of research perspectives on leadership

(which we have labelled 'concepts') and have

ma tched the se against diff eren t structural levels

from national to team levels of leadership.

In so doing , we are attemp ting to illustrate the

different manifestations of leadership roles and

actions whic h characterize these d ifferent levels.

By und ertak ing this analysis, it is possible to see

that the nature and funct ion of leadership differs

according to the scope, scale and c omplexity of

the task.

Th.e importance of developing a framew ork ofthis k ind l ies in emphasizing the mult i -dimen-

sional c haracter of leadership in the comp lex

world of professional service /academ ic organi-

zations. Traditional perspectives on leadership,

which suggest a unilateral relationship between

a visionary, charismatic or autocratic le ader an d

a group of obedient or submissive followers is

wholly inappropriate in our context.

Conclus ions

In summary, th is paper has highlighted som e of

the changes which have been affect ing profes-

sional service organizations and higher educa-

tion institutions in the UK in the recent past.

Som e similarities exist and it will be interesting

to note w hethe r the responses which professional

service organizations have initiated m ay provide

some gu idance as to h ow high er education inst i-

tutions ma y also respond to similar pressures in

the future.



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1 3 0 R O B I N M I D D L E H U R S T A N D T O M K E N N I E

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f c e rt a i n s im i la r it ie s a n d a

c o m m o n a l i t y o f c u l tu r a l p e r sp e c t iv e , t h e l e a d er -

s h i p a n d m a n a g e m e n t r o l e o f s e n i o r p ro f e s si o n a ls

and sen ior academics has para l le l s . In par t icu la r ,

w e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t c h a n g e s a r e o c c u r r in g i n t h e

r o l e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l m a n a g e r s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p . W e s u g g e s t t h a t a ' jo i n t

b o a r d ' a p p r o a c h t o l e a d e r s h i p a n d m a n a g e m e n t

w i l l e v o l v e .

F i na ll y , w e h a v e e x p l o r e d t h e n a t u r e o f l e a d e r -

s h i p i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p r o f es s i o n al s a n d p r o f e s -

s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n a c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t .

H a v i n g e x a m i n e d t h e p u r p o s e s o f le a d e rs h ip , w e

p r o v i d e a m o r e d e t a i l e d v i e w o f t h e c r it ic a l p e r -

s o n a l c a p a b i l i t ie s r e q u i r e d b y s e n i o r l e v e l l e a d e r s

i n b o t h t y p e s o f o r g a n iz a t io n . T o s u m m a r i ze o u r

d i s c u s si o n , w e p r e s e n t a f r a m e w o r k w h i c h b r i n g s

t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t l ea d e r s h ip f u n c t io n s w h i c h a r e

m a n i f e s t e d a t d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e ls .

T h e c o r e o f o u r a r g u m e n t h a s b e e n t h a t it is

p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e c a l ls f o r s t r o n g e r l e a d e r s h i p

a n d g o v e r n a n c e w i t h r e q u i r em e n t s f o r p r o fe s -

s i o n a l a u to n o m y .

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middlehurst; tom kennie -- leadership and professionals

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