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MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENT ACTIVITY INTERESTS AND THEIR ATTITUDES

TOWARD CURRICULUM, LEARNING ENVIRONMENT, AND

ACHIEVEMENT GOALS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

A Dissertation submitted by

James W. Wright

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of Doctor of Education at Dowling College, School of Education,

Department of Educational Administration, Leadership and Technology

Dowling College

Shirley, New York

2011



UMI Number: 34593

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iv

noting that there are differences in interests and that there are commonalities in student

expectations regardless of the activity.

There were minimal effects on activity interests and attitudes based on ethnicity,

yet gender difference was noted for all activity interests as well as differences in

attitudes. There were small positive correlations between activity interests and selected

attitudes at the p = .05 and p = .01 levels of significance.

Based on preferred activity interests, students' attitudes can be used as a predictor

satisfying the hypothesis that if a student has a certain amount of autonomy he/she will

choose activities that he/she feels comfortable participating in for the purpose of

becoming successful in that activity of interest.

These responses will assist administrators and teachers in writing curriculum that

reflects the preferences of students and gives these same administrators and teachers'

insight into how their attitudes are developed.



V

DEDICATION

None of this would have been possible without the support of my soul mate,

Isabella, the one who reminds me what the big picture is and my children, Sabina, the

true teacher and Christina, the one that puts the proper perspective on life and therefore I

dedicate this work to them.

This work is also dedicated to three men who have since passed; my father, Jim

Wright Sr., who unknowingly drove me to be better, my father-in-law, Stephan Kurjanski

who survived WWII as a Prisoner of War to share his stories with me, and to Dr. Jack

Foley, who was first a friend, then a mentor and lastly an inspiration.

I would also like to dedicate this work to anyone that has been told that they are

incapable of doing the improbable and to use this work as proof that the only one that can

stop you from personal success is yourself.



vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to acknowledge my chair, Dr. Thomas Kelly. Our first day

together ended in a golf outing, but I knew then that it would be your view of the world

and the perspectives you held on education and religion that I would pull from to get to

the finish line.

To my design specialist. Dr. Richard Walter, I appreciate your sense of humor and

knowledge of how education works. Your desire to help me succeed is something I have

continually reflected on as I pushed through this work.

I would also like to acknowledge the brilliance of Dr. Elsa-Sofia Morote. Your

ability to make sense of the chaos of statistics is what keeps all of us at your doorstep.

To Dr. Albert Inserra, you gave me direction when I needed it the most to find my

research interest and followed me through the process of developing a coherent study.

I would also like to thank Dr. Stephanie Tatum for making me see all sides of an

issue and to see those sides as an observer without opinion so I can truly understand the

culture.

I would also like to offer a special thank you to Dr. Charles Rudiger and Dr.

Robert Manley for providing exceptional leadership and guidance throughout the past 3

years.

Finally, I want to thank nine of the brightest individuals I have ever been involved

with throughout my many years as a student; Executive 9. Your support, tolerance, and

teamwork combined with a superior sense of humor made every day in class a

pleasurable one.



vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT iii

DEDICATION v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction 1

Purpose of the Study 10

Statement of the Problem 11

Research Questions 11

Research Question One 11

Research Question Two 11

Research Question Three 12

Research Question Four 12

Research Question Five 12

Research Question Six 13

Definition of Major Variables and Terms 13

Activity Interests (TA, IA, and LA) 13

Attitude toward physical education 13

Curriculum Enjoyment (CE) 13

Curriculum Perceived Usefulness (CPU) 14

Learning Environment Perceived Challenge (LEPCH) 14

Learning Environment Perceived Threat (LEPT) 14



viii

Learning Environment Perceived Internal Control (LEPIC) 14

Learning Environment Perceived Competence (LEPC) 15

Achievement Goals Performance Approach (AGPAP) 15

Achievement Goals Mastery (AGM) 15

Achievement Goals Performance Avoidance (AGPAV) 15

Achievement Goals Social Approval (AGSA) 15

Title IX 16

Conceptual Rationale 16

Significance of the Study 20

Limitations 20

CHAPTERn EVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH 22

Introduction 22

Activity Interests in Physical Education by Gender 22

Ethnicity Differences in Physical Education 36

Curriculum in Physical Education 39

Learning Environment and Physical Education 48

Achievement Goals in Physical Education 53

Summary 61

CHAPTERn - METHODOLOGY 63

Introduction 63







ix




Setting 66

Description of the Subjects 66

Data Gathering Procedure 67

Instrumentation 68

Validity 70

Reliability 71

Raw Score Range 72

Student Response Scale 72

Data Analysis 73








CHAPTER IV- DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 76

Introduction 76

Demographic Analysis 77




X






Summary 102

CHAPTER V UMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 105

Introduction 105

Summary 107







Conclusions 115

Recommendations 127

Recommendations for Future Research 129

REFERENCES 133

APPENDIX 145

Al. Interest Inventory 145

A2. Student Attitudes toward Physical education 146

A3. NIH Completion Certification 149



xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Variables with Corresponding Statements and Authors 69

Table 3.2 Reliability Statistics 72

Table 3.3 Raw Score Ranges of Variables with Coefficient Alpha 72

Table 4.1 Respondents by Gender {N = 602) 78

Table 4.2 Respondents by Ethnicity 78

Table 4.3 Male Team Activity Preferences N = 266) 79

Table 4.4 Female Team Activity Preferences T V = 336) 80

Table 4.5 Male Individual Activity Preferences (N= 266) 80

Table 4.6 Female Individual Activity Preferences N = 336) 81

Table 4.7 Male Lifetime Activity Interests {N = 266) 82

Table 4.8 Female Lifetime Activity Preferences N = 3 3 6 ) 82

Table 4.9 Student Responses to Activity Interests in Physical Education 83

Table 4.10 Student Attitudes toward Physical Education 85

Table 4.11 Independent Samples t test

Gender Differences for Activity Interests in Physical Education 86

Table 4.12 ANOVA Ethnicity Differences for Activity Interests in Physical Education:

Team Activities, Individual Activities, and Lifetime Activities 88

Table 4.13 ANOVA for Individual Activity Preferences by Ethnicity

(M = 24.00) 88

Table 4.14 Individual Activities between Ethnic Groups 89

Table 4.15 Independent Samples t test ender Differences for Attitudes toward

Physical Education 91

Table 4.16 ANOVA—Attitudes toward Physical Education by Ethnicity 92

Table 4.17 Significance for LEPIC and AGPAP by Ethnicity 92



xii

Table 4.18 Post Hoc with Equal Variances Assumed using Scheffe for Significance in

Ethnicity for LEPIC (ql8, q26, q28, q30) and AGPAP (q32, q33, q37, q49) 93

Table 4.19 Bivariate Correlation for Activity Interests and Attitudes toward

Physical Education 96

Table 4.20 Discriminant Analysis 99

Tale 4.21 Eigenvalues 100

Table 4.22 Wilk's Lambda 100

Table 4.23 Structure Matrix 101

Table 4.24 Functions at GroupCentroids 102



CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

The increases in the levels of Childhood Obesity and Type IIDiabetes along with

the avoidance of physical education by some females and low-skilled males have been

the focus of studies conducted by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and researchers.

These studies reaffirmed the importanceof an active lifestyle that required physical

education classes to provide a curriculum that addresses these concerns (Chen, 1996;

Mitchell, 1996; Portman, 2003; Hannon Ratliff, 2005; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009;

Center for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). These concerns might be directly

related to factors such as genetics, culture in the home, nutrition, or a lack of motivation

to participate in physical education on the part of the child (Lirgg, 1993, 1994; Bowyer,

1996; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009). In the school system, physical education has the

daunting task of providing a curriculum that not only focuses on combating these

diseases, but also on reaching across the cultural divides that exist in school populations.

Regardless of gender, ethnicity, level of skill, or physical disability, schools must ensure

that the needsof

these populations are being met at all levels. (Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang,

2009).

During the 1960s and as a part of the physical fitness initiatives sponsored by

President Kennedy's Council on Physical Fitness programs, Methany (1965) studied the

attitudes of female college students toward physical activity and proposed acceptable



2

sports for girls that included individual activities and that emphasized aesthetics. This

pre-Title IX (1972) approach to developing gender preferred activities was supported by

future studies noting that girls tended to prefer dance and gymnastics while boys tended

to prefer team sports (Griffin, 1981, 1983, 1985; Lirgg, 1993, 1994; Napper-Owen,

Kovar, Ermler, & Mehrof, 1999).

The issue of gender effects on participation began with the advent of Title IX of

the Educational Amendments Act (1972). This was considered a large step in eliminating

segregation of the sexes in physical education classes (Griffin, 1981; Lirgg, 1993, 1994;

Napper-Owen, et al., 1999; Derry & Phillips, 2004; Hill & Cleven, 2005). The

assumption that Title IX (1972) did not do what it was intended for was challenged in

studies that recorded gender responses and teacher interactions. In these instances, males

began to show their dominance in the classroom either by getting more attention from

teachers or by dominating the activity (Ritson, Smith, & Twa, 1982; Kirk, 2003).

Various themes and sub-themes emerged from previous research such as: 1)

Teachers expected students to increase their efforts and participation in physical

education, 2) Boys were skillful and aggressive and created a competitive atmosphere in

physical education, 3) Girls perceived themselves as being athletic and competitive

regardless of skill-level (sub-theme), and 4) As children aged, their levels of activity

decreased. (Griffin, 1983, 1985; Figley, 1985; Luke & Sinclair, 1991; Napper-Owen, et

al., 1999, Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999; Kulinna, Martin, Lai, Kilber, & Reed, 2003;

Hill & eleven, 2005; Hannon & Ratliff, 2005; Constantinou, Manson, & Silverman,

2009). While this was just a sample of themes that emerged, it represented the general

characteristics of boys and girls in physical education class.



3

There were, however, significant studies on specific activities that recorded actual

activity data (Kulinna, et al., 2003). Consequently, the physical assessment results called

for a further analysis of female students' experiences in single gender and coeducational

physical education classes.

Addressing this need, research was conducted to compare teacher behaviors in

these situations and provide a descriptive experience (Derry & Phillips, 2004). Engaged

Skill Learning Time (ESLT) and Student-integrated Interactions testing was conducted as

one part of the research and there was significance found ip < .05) favoring female

students in the single sex class. While perceptions of students in coeducational classes

showed little or no significance, the mean scores for single sex classes were considerably

higher (Derry & Phillips, 2004). The researchers felt that students should be offered a

variety of choices that included single sex and coeducational settings, and that those

curriculum offerings should be structured to permit students to become successful. Yet,

the research did not specify how the curriculum should be structured, just that it should

allow students to be successful (Derry & Phillips, 2004).

With the focus centering on gender having an impact on how physical education

curriculum was being delivered, specific standards attempted to guide teachers and

administrators. While these standards did not consider gender appropriateness, activity

levels, or curriculum design, there was a series of goals that students should aspire to if

they wished to live a healthy lifestyle.

Organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education

(NASPE), and the American Alliance for Health, Physical education. Recreation and

Dance (AAHPERD), and states, such as New York, introduced standards and



4

performance indicators to guide physical education teachers and directors in developing

curriculum that focused on the general fitness and lifetime activities to which students

should aspire (Macarle, 2003). The New York State Department of Education (NYSED)

was clear on the presentation of the physical education standards and relied on schools to

fit the curriculum to meet those standards (NYSED, Sec. 135.4).

The NYSED endorsed a curriculum guide that gave physical educators a chance

to assess student ability levels for the purpose of developing a competency requirement

for graduation from high school. Initial reactions to the Physical education Profile, a new

curriculum with updated standards (NYSED, 2008), had not been studied. While there

were indications that teachers would be better prepared for assessments of skill, this

particular physical education curriculum failed to address avoidance issues. These issues

of avoidance became more prevalent as the incidents of lower participation rates of some

female students and low-skilled male students (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999)

seemed to be increasing. In fact, based o the attention given to team sports and

appropriate skill proficiency within the Physical Education Profile, adhering to this

curriculum may have increased avoidance by females and low-skilled males. Studies on

the perceptions of students towards physical education and what motivated them focused

primarily on curriculum influences and skill development (Silverman & Subramaniam,

1999; Burkhalter & Wendt, 2001; Shen Chen, 2007, 1997) including certain

perceptions of skill mastery and competence (Papaioannou, Tsigilis, Kosmidou, & Milos,

2007).

Problems with developing a diversified curriculum came as a result of research

that only dealt with analyzing activities such as basketball, soccer, and gymnastics, and



5

student attitudes toward individual activities such as dance (Shen, Chen, Tolley, &

Scrabis, 2003).

It had been suggested that teachers must be open to change in order to meet the

wide variety of needs and interests in a population of culturally diverse students (Strand

& Scantling, 1994). Strand and Scantling (1994) recognized that school cultures were

not limited to ethnic groupings, but incorporated student ability levels, physical

appearance, and gender as some of the factors used in the development of a fulfilling

physical education program. Traditionally, attitude measurement was considered a

secondary data source to direct observation and the need to give attention to attitude

assessments should be the focus of future research (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999).

To fully understand how attitudes and perceptions were developed, it was

necessary to consider several variables including activity interests curriculum, learning

environment, and achievement goals based on gender and ethnicity to determine how

these attitudes related to student participation and their activity interests in physical

education (Strand & Scantling, 1994; Mitchell, 1996; Chen, 1996, 1998; Silverman &

Subramaniam, 1999; Papaioannou, et al., 2007).

Over the years, as Title IX (1972) provided opportunity for females incollegiate

sports, it also placed educators in the position of providing a physical education

curriculum that was gender neutral and still offered students an opportunity to select

activities they found interesting and useful to help combat the increasing health problems

in young children. Females also were provided greater access and similar experiences

that could be measured in places such as public school physical education classes

(Azzarito & Solomon, 2006).



6

There was Uttle argument that Title DC (1972) affected how physical education

curriculum was delivered (Kirk, 2003). In spite of these gains. Kirk (2003) hypothesized

that the pre-Title IX mentality that only dealt with male physical educational concerns

was removed and negative perceptions about physical education by female students was

more a choice than a trend. Understanding the reason these negative decisions to

participate in physical education class was made by females as well as low-skilled males

became the basis for research that centered on gender attitudes.

Early research conducted post-Title IX, during the years 1984-1999, showed that

there was a large emphasis on teaching methodology and that 92.5 percent of physical

education dissertations completed centered on teacher effectiveness in the classroom,

with most of the focus on teaching methods compared to a student attitude variable

(Silverman & Manson, 2003). This did not necessarily reflect poorly on ineffective

teachers as student attitudes remained high when the curriculum fit and the self-

perceptions of skill level were high (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2000).

Regardless of what may interest a student to like a particular activity, there was a

definitive lack of understanding of the motivating factors that inspired students to

develop interests and how they actually learned under conditions that did not provide

activities that interested students in physical education class. The research conducted in

this area was limited, and studying the effects of learning acquisition on curriculum

development by administrators must come to the forefront if they are to address the

maladies of the 21^ century such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes (Chen & Ennis,

2004).



7

The most significant effect of gender on these attitudes and perceptions focused

on female students' perception on stereotyping and the incidences of similar negative

attitudes toward physical education (Constantinou, Manson, & Silverman 2009). One

accepted hypothesis was that as students entered adolescence, their approach to physical

education changed as their perception of body image underwent a change (Azzarito &

Solomon, 2006a). Students with low self-image would ultimately avoid activities unless

they possessed a better than average level of skill in that activity. This fact precluded

some females and low-skilled males with low self-image from fully avoiding

participation in physical education class (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006b), but may have

affected the level of intensity put into the activity, thereby creating the possibility that

bad exercise habits would develop.

Studies showed, for example, how females' activity levels decreased while

engaged in mandated coeducational physical education programs (Lirgg, 1993; 1994;

Napper-Owen, Kovar, Ermler, & Mehrhof, 1999; Hannon & Ratliff, 2005). Similar

studies for males tracked decreased activity levels during certain physical education units,

including those where the student felt that the activity was feminine or that the student

had not yet mastered the skills necessary to participate (Carlson, 1995; Silverman, 1999).

It had also been reported that those activity levels changed depending on the setting for

the student either single gender or coeducational (Hannon & Ratliff, 2005). Rethinking

the implementation of Title DC (1972) in physical education class was not readily

discussed, but the research would offer that consideration for opening specific

discussions about curriculum delivery was necessary (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999).



8

The results of attitude surveys conducted on middle school students showed that

satisfactory participation in activities resulting in increased skill development and

physical conditioning were in direct correlation to students that possessed a positive self-

efficacy (Shen & Chen, 2007; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007; Gao, Lodewyk, &

Zhang, 2009). When the experiences are positive they could lead students to develop

better attitudes about physical fitness and subsequently, higher activity levels

(Mackenzie, Alcaraz, & Sallis 1994). If this was true, then female participation, or for

that matter, full participation of the entire student body should be affected by a positive

self-image and activities that encouraged participation (Mitchell, 1996).

The research continued to show that if students were able to develop positive

attitudes towards physical education, it would be because physical educators understood

the need to encourage participation and to become role models across the gender lines by

exploring a non-traditional curriculum that moved away from contact team sports

(Napper-Owen, Kovar, Ermler, & Mehrhof, 1999). This also tended to improve the self-

image of students as they felt more comfortable in an environment that better reflected

their interests (Napper-Owen, et al., 1999).

Recorded incidents of lower participation numbers as a result of avoidance

suggested the antithesis to motivation, which was amotivation. Amotivational research

models have been developed to assess the reasons for student apathy towards physical

education (Shen, Wingert, Li, Sun, & Rukavina, 2010). Self-Determination Theory

studied by Deci and Ryan (2002, 1985), asserted that an individual's behavior could be

assessed on three factors related to motivation; extrinsic, intrinsic, and amotivation or an

absence of motivation. By understanding why students avoid participating in physical



9

education, teachers and administrators should look to how the curriculum is delivered and

how students participate based on their activity interests (Strand & Scantling, 1994).

There is additionally the case for standards being introduced that require

competency and proficiency on the part of students to measure skill development in

physical education. These standards tended to ignore student attitudes towards the

curriculum and the pressure to achieve mastery in skill, which led to avoidance (Chen,

1998). High school students in the Pacific Northwest, revealed patterns showing that

attitudes can be formed as a direct result of boredom based on curriculum offerings that

do not serve the interests of either gender (Chen, 1998). Similar studies in other areas of

the United States reflected similar results, but physical education in these areas may or

may not have been mandatory as it is in New York (NYSED Regulation 135.4)

Although Silverman and Subramaniam (1999) found that instruments used to

measure these attitudes were potentially flawed and failed to fully establish a correlation,

they do contend that the premise for conducting attitude surveys was sound. The idea of

recording attitudes over time would help develop a pattern of finding common themes for

developing appropriate curriculum models (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999).

Luke and Sinclair (1991) reported that student attitude was directly affected by

the physical educator and further stated that a student's positive or negative experience

was correlated to the effectiveness of the physical educator. There were discrepancies in

these findings when compared to Figley's (1985) attitude study. After comparing the

research, the fact that Figley used college age students asopposed to Luke and Sinclair's

study that focused on high school students did not make a case foreither, but provided a

need to focus on the attitudes of younger students.



10

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate middle school students' activity

interests in three physical education activity categories: team activities, individual

activities, and lifetime activities in physical education class. This study also explored

their attitudes toward physical education curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and

perceived usefulness; learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge,

perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence; and achievement

goals on the dimension of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and

social approval.

This study investigated the relationships between those interests and middle

school student attitudes toward physical education curriculum on the dimensions of

enjoyment and perceived usefulness; learning environment on the dimensions of

perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived

competence; and achievement goals on the dimension of performance approach, mastery,

performance avoidance, and social approval and their activity interests by gender and

ethnicity. The study also analyzed differences in middle school student activity interests

and their attitudes toward curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived

usefulness; learning environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived

threat, perceived internal control, and perceived competence; and achievement goals on

the dimension of performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social

approval by gender and ethnicity. Additionally, this study analyzed how middle school

student attitudes toward curriculum, learning environment, and achievement goals by



11

gender and ethnicity predict their activity interests in three physical education activity

categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities.

Statement of the Problem

There were several factors that contributed to the health problems children

experienced as they grew into adolescence, such as lack of physical activity and poor

diet. As researchers began to study effects of these factors and the potential for

contracting health related diseases, a common theme arose: as children grew, their

participation levels in physical education tended to decline.

This study examined middle school student activity interests in three physical

education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities

The study also measured their attitudes toward curriculum on the dimensions of

enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the dimensions of

perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and perceived

competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance approach, mastery,

performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education class by gender and

ethnicity.

Research Questions

Research Question One

What were the activity interests of middle school students in the three physical

education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities?

Research Question Two

What were the attitudes of middle school students toward curriculum on the

dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the



12

dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and

perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance

approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education?

Research Question Three

How did middle school students differ in their activity interests in three physical

education activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities

based on gender and ethnicity?

Research Question Four

How did middle school students differ in their attitudes toward curriculum on the

dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning environment on the

dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived internal control, and

perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of performance

approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval in physical education

based on their gender and ethnicity?

Research Question Five

What were the relationships between middle school student attitudes toward

curriculum on the dimensions of enjoyment and perceived usefulness, learning

environment on the dimensions of perceived challenge, perceived threat, perceived

internal control, and perceived competence and achievement goals on the dimensions of

performance approach, mastery, performance avoidance, and social approval in physical

education class, gender, ethnicity, and their activity interests in three physical education

activity categories: team activities; individual activities; and lifetime activities?

middle school student activity interests and their attitudes

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