middle eastern & african journal of educational · pdf filesisimwo joshua s

Middle Eastern & African Journal of Educational Research

MAJER

Issue: 13

ISSN: 2146 – 684X

http://www.majersite.org

Editorial Board

Dr. Ahmet Baytak - Harran University / Turkey

Dr. Antonis Lionarakis - Hellenic Open University / Greece

Dr. Cenk Akbiyik / Erciyes University

Dr. Ezendu Ariwa - University of Bedfordshire / UK

Dr. Hanafi Atan - Universiti Sains Malaysia / Malaysia

Dr. Muhammet Usak – Gazi University / Turkey

Dr. Piet Kommers - University of Twente / Netherlands

Dr. Santosh Panda - Indira Gandhi National Open University / India

Dr. S. Sadi Seferoglu - Hacettepe University / Turkey

Dr. Yilmaz Aksoy - Erciyes University / Turkey

Editor in Chief

Dr. Cenk Akbiyik / Erciyes University

MAJER (ISSN: 2146-684X) is abstracted or indexed in:

Index Copernicus, Asos Index, Index of Turkish Educational

Table of Contents

Citizenship in a Hybrid State: Civic Curriculum in Jordan’s Education Reform for Knowledge Economy

Era ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4

Patricia K. Kubow .......................................................................................................................................................... 4

Lana Kreishan ................................................................................................................................................................ 4

A Reflection on the Works of Paulo Freire and its Relevance to Classroom Teaching ...................................... 21

Sisimwo Joshua S ......................................................................................................................................................... 21

Rop Caren J ................................................................................................................................................................... 21

Osman A. Ahmed ........................................................................................................................................................ 21

Teachers’ Preferences for Selecting New Media Tools for Education ................................................................... 27

Ahmet Baytak............................................................................................................................................................... 27

Academics Development: Aspirations vs. Realities at Haramaya University ..................................................... 40

Yilfashewa Seyoum ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

Analysis of Emphatic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking Disposition of Philosophy Teacher

Candidates According to a Number of Variables ..................................................................................................... 64

Mehmet Ali DOMBAYCI ........................................................................................................................................... 64

Zeynep BAŞERER ........................................................................................................................................................ 64

Dilek BAŞERER ........................................................................................................................................................... 64

About MAJER .................................................................................................................................................................. 80

Middle Eastern & African Journal of Educational Research, Issue 13

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Citizenship in a Hybrid State: Civic Curriculum in Jordan’s

Education Reform for Knowledge Economy Era

Patricia K. Kubow

[email protected]

Professor in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies and Curriculum and Instruction at Indiana University. She is

also Director of the Center for International Education, Development and Research (CIEDR) in the School of Education.

Her research interests focus on the comparative study of constructions of democracy and citizenship education in sub-

Saharan Africa and the Middle East.

Lana Kreishan

[email protected]

Assistant Professor in the English Language and Literature Department at Al-Hussein Bin Talal University in Jordan.

She is recent Visiting Professor and Fulbright Scholar to the U.S. Her research interests focus on language acquisition,

bilingualism, and international education.

Abstract

Jordan, a small and less affluent economy in the Middle East, has recently engaged in a

comprehensive educational reform effort to prepare learners for the knowledge economy.

This article examines some of the challenges faced by the Jordanian government as it

simultaneously navigates liberalization and traditional markers of citizen identity. The

literature review reveals that both tradition and modernity are promoted in a hybridized

school curriculum. Interviews with teachers who instruct from the National and Civic

Curriculum illustrate how Jordan is being influenced by the global-local interplay of

political, economic, and sociocultural forces. The construction of citizenship promoted is

one of tentativeness toward ‚becoming modern‛ while adhering to a prescribed morality.

The concept of ‘hybrid sovereignty’ advanced by Gökhan Bacik is the main theoretical

perspective applied in our analysis of citizen identity in civic curriculum in Jordan. The

article concludes with some influences of the Arab Spring on the nation and its educational

reform processes.

Keywords

Civic Education; Citizen Identity; Citizenship Curriculum; Jordan; Hybridity

mailto:[email protected]



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Introduction and Purpose

This paper explores the constructions of Jordanian identity promoted by the government through its

recent educational reform project called Education Reform for Knowledge Economy (ERfKE). The

overall aim of ERfKE is to equip students with knowledge and technical skills for adaptability in an

unpredictable labor market. Investment in its human capital, namely its youth, through formal

education is seen as crucial to national development, given Jordan’s scarcity of natural resources.

ERfKE’s first phase (2003-2007) witnessed the revision and modernization of curriculum to develop

students’ technical knowledge and creativity. The reform’s second phase (2008-2013) focused on

updating teacher pedagogy and stimulating greater community involvement in schooling. Of

particular interest in the ERfKE movement is how notions of civic identity are reflected in the

national civic curriculum. Although knowledge production does not occur solely through

schooling, the formal curriculum is a contextual and cultural space that exposes children and youth

to particular conceptions of citizen identity promoted by the state.

This article draws on relevant literature, as well as teacher perspectives, to consider how the

ongoing education reform, within a broader process of liberalization, influences national civic

curriculum in Jordan. Our analysis reveals the state’s emphasis on teaching a conception of ‚good

citizenship‛ to young Jordanians, while also navigating a global-local interplay of economic,

political, and sociocultural factors that shape Jordan’s national narrative. The school curriculum

serves as a vehicle to examine political liberalizing tendencies alongside traditional cultural markers

of identity. As such, a hybridized school curriculum, one that features the traditional and the

modern, characterizes Jordan’s national civic education. The concept of ‘hybrid sovereignty’

developed by Gökhan Bacik is the main theoretical perspective applied in our analysis of citizen

identity in Jordan. According to Bacik (2008), the clash between Western and traditional patterns

has led to a hybrid form of sovereignty in Jordan whereby tradition is infused into a ‚colonially-

injected‛ Western state. Neither solely traditional nor Western, Jordanian identity, we argue, is

composed of a complex set of identity markers, and efforts to indigenize the national civic

curriculum has exposed teachers and students to a hybrid citizen identity.

Literature Review

Jordan is an epicenter of policy interest and cultural interaction. The long-standing Palestinian

question, the Iraqi and Syrian refugee situation, Jordan’s status as an ally of the West, and its

dependence on international aid for national development positions Jordan geographically and

ideologically at the center of policy debate, implicating its educational response with respect to

citizenship education. Jordan, therefore, presents an interesting policy-scape for inquiry into citizen

identity through its official civic school curriculum. To aid in this discussion, we draw upon the

concept of hybrid sovereignty, which is defined as ‚the condition in which the modern and the

traditional coexist behind the formal appearance of statehood‛ (Bacik, 2008, p. 9). Jordan, a creation


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of British colonialism in the early 20th century, provides a case in point of hybrid sovereignty and

constitutes a cultural space in which to examine the constructions of nation and citizen promoted by

the state’s schools.

Constructing Nation and Citizen in a Hybrid State

TransJordan was formed in 1921 after Arabs cooperated with the British government against the

Ottomans. The Hashemites who came to rule over the entity known as TransJordan were the

erstwhile rulers of the Hijaz (located in present day Saudi Arabia) and were removed from power

when the Saud family established rule over the Hijaz and much of the Arabian Peninsula. After

independence, TransJordan was named the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. An army was created in

the Kingdom to strengthen the role of the Amir in a patriarchal political system that emphasized the

monarchy, whereby the king was introduced to the people as the only legitimate national leader

(Layne, 1994). The Bedouin, who compose the majority of Jordan’s military, are the major

supporters of the country’s monarchy and help maintain the legitimacy of the Hashemite Kingdom

(Layne, 1994). National identity in Jordan, therefore, is based in ‚the tribes,‛ and the tribes are

dependent on the state for employment and patronage (Nanes, 2008, p. 89). The Jordanian

government has sought to respect and preserve tribal identity and, in return, the Hashemite regime

has been maintained. As Layne (1994) explains, the King bans any disrespect to the tribe and its

traditions, and any insult to the identities and traditions of the tribe is an insult to the identity of

Jordanian society. In recent years, more attention has been given to building a civil society, though

tradition and religion influence the nation-building process.

In the Arab world, ‘citizen’ (muwatin) is linked to the root word watan, which has been used by

Arabs since pre-Islam days to refer ‚to one’s permanent place of residence, or homeland‛ (Abul-

Basal, 2011, cited in Faour & Muasher, 2011, p. 8). Moreover, as Frisch (2002) explains, ‚the term

‘Arab’ does not denote the imagined impersonal collective identity identified by Benedict Anderson

[1983] but rather the genealogical cultural sense of what it means in Bedouin [sic] culture—nasb and

fad’il: lineage and virile virtues‛ (p. 93, italics added). Mohammad Abu Hassan (1984) distinguishes

Bedouin tribes from non-Bedouin tribes due to their desert habitation, source of livelihood, tribal

mobility, and provision of the law. In Jordan, tribal identity is very important and does not

necessarily fit with the Western concept of nationalism (Al Oudat & Alshboul, 2010). Because tribal

identity helps to legitimate and maintain the monarchy (and in return is granted patronage and

influence), the modern nation-state, as Al Oudat and Alshboul (2010) argue, does not have full

influence on society.

The late King Hussein and now his son, King Abdullah II, have sought to form an Arab nation

under the laws of the Hashemite family. The ruling family is a descendent of the prophet

Mohammad, and the Hashemite family played an important role in the Arab Revolt against the

Ottoman Empire. Thus, Jordan has always defended the Arab national movement. Having arrived

from the Hijaz as recently as World War I, the Jordanian government’s commitment to Arabism as

opposed to tribal identity alone is an appeal to the many citizens in the Kingdom who, like

themselves, are not from the East Bank.

Jordan’s population is composed of Palestinians and TransJordanians. Laurie Brand (2010) has

studied the relationship between emigration and state experience in Jordan and the positioning of

emigrants in the national narrative, especially the large Palestinian immigration after 1948 and the

second wave after 1967 as the result of Israel’s occupation of the West Bank. After the 1970 Civil

War, the Jordanian government created a policy to allow TransJordanians to obtain civil sector

positions, thereby excluding Palestinians from jobs in the state bureaucracy and military. Because


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Jordan’s economy is vulnerable, with limited natural resources and dependence on other Arab

countries for oil, this has resulted in prolonged absences from Jordan for the sake of securing

employment elsewhere. Fargues (2011) found that ‚twenty million nationals from Arab states

currently live outside their countries of origin. Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, Syria,

Tunisia, and Yemen are major senders, with between 5 and 20 percent of their nationals currently

living abroad‛ (p. 3).

Thus, forced migration and labor migration have posed challenges to the development of communal

identities in Jordan (Brand, 2010). The Jordanian government tries to downplay controversies

surrounding Palestinian identity. For example, school textbooks give less attention to the historical

period prior to Islam and increased attention to the early years of Islam, highlighting the Hashemite

Kingdom and its ruling family as descendants of Muhammad. History textbooks give scant

attention to the Ottoman period, emphasizing rather Jordan’s history from World War I and the role

of Shariff Hussein Bin Ali of Mecca (the great- great- grandfather of the king of Jordan) in the Arab

Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. School textbooks emphasize Jordan’s history as core to national

identity, with attention given to maintenance of an Arab identity and the relationship of the king

with Prophet Muhammad. The profound influence of population movement in Jordan, however, is

given scant attention in official school curricula, considering its effects on the country’s economic,

political, and social development (Brand, 2010). As Brand (2010) explains,

‚when dealing with specific historical examples, such as refugee movements caused by wars, the

narrative as read though these schoolbooks’ treatment is at best thin even for labor migration, which

is much less sensitive from the point of view of regime legitimacy, the texts address the

phenomenon in a largely decontextualized way, with the Jordanian experience in effect subsumed

into discussion of a large Arab societal experience, long on generalities and short on case specific.‛

(p. 106)

Hybridization, Citizenship Influences, and the Nationalist-Pluralist Debate

Tribal patterns and cultural identities coexist with political conceptions of citizenship within

Jordan’s Western-like borders, resulting in ‚a hybrid strain of sovereignty that is neither completely

Western nor traditional‛ (Bacik, 2008, p. 7). Extending this argument to formal education, we argue

that the constructions of citizen promoted in the official national civic curriculum reflect a hybrid

identity as well, due to the injection of Western-like forms and practices alongside traditional forms.

Hybrid sovereignty ‚accepts the coexistence of tribal (or communitarian) networks and ethno-

religious loyalties and the modern state format‛ (p. 5). After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire,

many countries in the Middle East had no homogeneity, fake borders, and weak internal unity and

have tried to solve this problem with authority or religion (Kumaraswamy, 2006). The public

expression of religion is a central facet of life in contemporary Arab society, as ‚religion has been

deeply intertwined with both culture and politics throughout Islamic history‛ (Abu-Rabi`, 2004, p.

127). The role that Islam has played in the historical and contemporary period is that of the

vanguard of tradition and the counter-balance to Western modernity. To illustrate, King Abdullah

II of Jordan was recently named as the custodian of holy sites in Al Quds in an agreement signed

between his Majesty and the Palestinian president to safeguard the holy sites from Judaization (The

News, 2013). This example illuminates the historic role of Jordan’s Hashemite royal family in

preserving the holy sites in Palestine and their involvement in the Palestinians’ conflict with Israel.

Two conceptions of citizenship exist in Jordan: one that is cultural and another that is contractual

(Nanes, 2008). Nationalists believe that a person must hold one national identity and that is to

Jordan. TransJordanians are concerned that many Palestinians in Jordan do not hold loyalty to the


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nation as do TransJordanians and view Palestinians as a problem for Jordanian identity (Nanes,

2008). In contrast, pluralists view Jordanian identity as being held by a wide range of different

groups and that Palestinian Jordanians are a part of the multicultural society. For pluralists, a

person can hold multiple identities and loyalties, and one can choose both Palestinian and Jordanian

identities without it being problematic for Jordan (Nanes, 2008). Pluralists believe that diverse

groups can maintain their identities without assimilation into one vision for Jordan. A study of

national identity conducted by The Center for Strategic Studies at the University of Jordan,

however, found that there is no consensus about Jordanian identity among people in the country

(Frisch, 2002).

Frisch (2002) asserts that fears about security from within and outside Jordan are ‚at the root of this

fuzziness about nationalism‛ (p. 100). Jordan’s ‚fuzzy nationalism‛ is the result of what Frisch

views as four disparate elements, namely lineage and family, civic identity, pan-Arab identity, and

religion. Hybridity, however, may more accurately describe the cultural flows and interactions

between nationalism and pluralism and tradition and modernity in Jordan. Homi Bhabha (2006), a

prominent theorist of hybridity, argues that cultural difference is the construction of systems of

cultural identification in which ‘the cultural’ holds distinct meanings and values and also signifies

the boundaries of cultures. According to Bhabha, ‚Cultural difference is a process of signification

through which statements of culture or on culture differentiate, discriminate, and authorize the

production of fields of force, reference, applicability, and capacity‛ (p. 155, italics in original).

Hybridity, therefore, is a way to interpret then King Hussein’s efforts to advocate for pan-Arabism

alongside a territorial state identity (Dann, 1989). As the Hashemite monarchy has navigated a

complex political terrain, its promotion of citizen identity is necessarily fluid. The monarchy has

invented tradition along the way (Anderson, 1991), which accounts for why neither tribal identity

nor King Hussein’s pan-Arabism aligns with an institutionalized or fixed collective identity as the

West has used to imagine the nation-state. As Frisch contends, the application of Eurocentric

models to institutionalize a fixed collective identity in a country, such as Jordan, where people

adhere to kinship and religion rather than national spatial identities, is unlikely to be successful. A

more fruitful inquiry into citizen identity is to explore ‚how, in signifying the present, something

comes to be repeated, relocated, and translated in the name of tradition, in the guise of a pastness

that is not necessarily a faithful sign of historical memory but a strategy of representing authority in

terms of the artifice of the archaic‛ (Bhabha, 2006, p. 155). It is toward this discussion of Arab

modernization and educational reform in Jordan that we now turn.

Arab Modernization and Educational Reform in Jordan

As a postcolonial nation, Jordan mainly depends on external resources and international aid to

secure its survival. The economic liberalization program launched in 1989 was an important

historical move to create a modern civil society through emphasizing political participation and

democracy and modifying governmental control (Bacik, 2008). National, regional, and geopolitical

agendas of different actors are revealed in the current economic development and educational

reforms in the Arab region (Georg Eckert Institut, 2009). Recent policies, such as ERfKE in Jordan,

have received significant financial support from the West, including a 120 million dollar loan from

the World Bank (2009), the largest loan the Bank has given to an educational development project.

Underlying the Bank’s aid is the belief in the free market enterprise, the emphasis on global

competition, and the notion that schools should produce productive workers (Joshee, 2012).

ERfKE is an example of a nation-building project that is meant to align Jordan with a Western model

(Bacik, 2008). Because Western donors sponsor Jordan’s government-mandated education reform,


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the state is concerned about the public’s view of foreign involvement in the education of their

children (Al-Dakkah, 2010). There is fear among parents that foreign involvement in the reform

efforts will lead to undesirable changes to the national curriculum (interview with Abu Al Rageb in

Al-Dakkah, 2010). Jordanians refuse any interference in their national educational system that

would reinterpret the representation of the Jordanian national experience or its religious beliefs and

social values that are a central part of the curricula (Kubow et al., 2009).

Although the educational system has integrated concepts of liberalization into its school curriculum,

traditional, religious, and patriarchal forms of authority continue to shape students’ views of their

society and to socialize them in their homes and schools. In the case of Jordan, the maintenance of

these cultural markers of citizen identity are also the result of resistance by the Muslim Brotherhood

and other members of society to guard against imperialist impulses from the West and from the

Jordanian government to modernize the Kingdom. Schools, therefore, play a central role in reform

efforts because they are cultural sites where citizen identity is learned and reproduced.

Contemporary Arab thought in school curriculum is grounded in Islam, which is both theological in

its concern with divine mystery and rational in its concern with historical conditions (Abu-Rabi`,

2004). Islam and the education systems in Islamic states have been influenced by the anti-colonial,

anti-imperial struggle. Thus, the articulation of a Muslim self is often positioned in contrast to the

Other (i.e., the non-Muslim self and the West). With the advent of Western colonialism and

modernity, followed by the present era of neoliberal policy borrowing, Muslim leadership has

sought to balance modernity and tradition by offering new religious and legal formulations

emphasizing ‚the compatibility of reason and revelation‛ (Abu-Rabi`, 2004, p. 129). This effort to

balance modernity-tradition and reason-revelation is manifested in civic education curriculum in

Jordan.

A Hybrid Civic Education Curriculum

‘Hybridity’ commonly refers to the creation of new transcultural forms produced by colonial contact

(Ashcroft et al., 2007). The concept of hybridity, signifying mixture, is applied here to a discussion

of citizen identity and civic education in post-colonial Jordan. ‚A nation’s history and cultural and

socio-political structures significantly affect the context in which citizenship [is] conceptualized and

incorporated into an education curriculum‛ (Faour & Muasher, 2011, p. 16). The Jordanian

government and its education officials have assumed a position of hybridity that is reflected in the

civic school curriculum. A particular national narrative premised on cultural markers of identity

(e.g., tribe, nation, and religion) is promoted while also being imbedded in a liberal discourse of

modernization, pluralism, and democracy.

Considering the large number of youths in Jordan, namely 60% under the age of 24 (Steityeh, 2010),

the government desires to empower them to effectively build the nation. Lustick (1993) has argued

that governmental regimes and elites construct a hegemonic belief that aligns identity with political

purpose to form the ethos of the state as a bounded system or community. On the one hand, the

monarchy fosters an image of a paternal relationship with its society, promoting tribe, family, and

lineage in an effort to neutralize revolutionary elements (Frisch, 2002). On the other hand, the

monarchy seeks to modernize Jordan, as a reliance on foreign assistance from the West comes with a

legal conception of the state as a grantor of political and liberal rights (Frisch, 2002).

An example of this hegemonic discourse manifested in the educational system is the ‘Jordan First’

(al Urdun Awalan) initiative. Launched in 2002, the aim of Jordan First, which has continued in the

ERfKE era, was to orient students away from regional affairs, such as concerns regarding Palestine,


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toward building a modern Jordan (Adely, 2007). As articulated by King Abdullah II in 2008 on his

official website (2013):

‚Jordan First emphasizes the supremacy of Jordan’s interests over all other considerations and

reformulates the individual’s relationship with the State<It targets a generation of young

Jordanians, who pride themselves in their Homeland and their Monarch’s throne and who beam

with their democracy and effective, responsible participation in shaping their parliamentary

institutions to be both accountable for, and loyal to Jordan.‛

The Jordan First national initiative has sought to promote pride in the homeland, to unite the

country, and to foster the building of a civil society along the principles of freedom, opportunity,

and democracy (Bacik, 2008). The intention is to unify ‚all Jordanians behind a national goal,‛ to

encourage ‚modernization,‛ and to ‚improve the active role of formal institutions,‛ as a main

problem of political development in Jordan is the lack of mass participation in governance (Al

Oudat & Alshboul, 2010, pp. 81-82). As a part of ERfKE, school curriculum was updated with the

aim of providing students with new scientific knowledge in various subjects and stimulating

innovation and critical thinking skills based on a philosophy of education identified by the Ministry

of Education as originating from Jordan’s Constitution, the Islamic Arab heritage, the Great Arab

Revolt, and the national experience of Jordanians.

The national civic textbooks show how the construction of Jordanian identity is promoted via

ERfKE. The textbooks aim to develop good citizenship among students and to strengthen the sense

of loyalty and belonging to their country and to the Arabic and Islamic nation (Touqan, 2005). Civic

education is taught once a week to Grades 5-10 students, and new national textbooks have been

written as a result of reform initiatives to teach different issues stemming from geography, history,

and civics (Touqan, 2005). Civic education was previously integrated with other school subjects

such as social studies. The civics textbooks focus on civic and cultural heritage, citizen roles and

responsibilities, and different political, economic, social, and environmental concepts and issues.

Environmental, demographic, health, and traffic awareness are four new guiding concepts

introduced in Jordan’s civic education textbooks as a result of educational reforms (The Ministry of

Education, 2004). The vision of the Ministry of Education is to introduce youths to issues tied to

socioeconomic plans of countries (e.g., population explosion, ecological imbalance, health problems,

and traffic accidents) and to develop students’ awareness of themselves as citizens. According to the

Ministry of Education (2004), this curricular direction provides learners with knowledge and skills

to help address societal problems. Students have also been encouraged to connect with their society

through volunteerism as a way to practice service and to connect with their communities (Touqan,

2005).

A study by Khaled Alazzi (2012), however, revealed that middle and high school students related

citizenship to civic engagement and obligation but did not equate citizenship with political aspects

such as voting. The reasons the students cited for dismissing the political nature of citizenship is

that the education system emphasizes morality and virtue, as well as individuality and social

relations. For example, ninth graders equated citizenship with ‚being good.‛ When asked about

citizen participation in national development, secondary students focused on the importance of

keeping their country clean and obeying the law. These findings are consistent with our review of

the new curriculum, which emphasizes obedience as opposed to helping young Jordanians

understand deeper meanings of citizenship. The textbooks depict a modern, democratic Jordanian

society (e.g., respect for human rights) but do not necessarily encourage critical thinking about and

engagement in national and international affairs.


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To illustrate, The National and Civic Education Textbook for 10th Grade Students (The Ministry of

Education, 2005) addresses the following areas: 1) the concepts of citizenship and citizens’ rights and

duties; 2) the principles of democracy in general and the Jordanian democratic experience; 3) the

rights of women and children in society; 4) the role of political parties and political freedom in the

Constitution; 5) tolerance and respect and their effect on human relations; 6) management and

leadership (dictatorship vs. democratic); 7) human motivation theories; and, 8) an introduction to

active institutions and their functions in the country (e.g., the Control and Inspection Bureau, the

armed force, and national security). A concept introduced to 10th grade students is ‘active

citizenship’ and the features of good citizens, which entails believing in God and his messengers,

respecting the law and regulations, respecting other opinions, taking responsibility, paying taxes to

the government, showing loyalty to the country, and participating in problem solving. The

assignment asks learners to identify features of the ‚good‛ student and to share those characteristics

with their peers.

Another concept introduced is democracy, and the curriculum addresses the Jordanian democratic

experience and the challenges to implementing democracy in a society with high unemployment

and poverty. In these civic lessons, the difference between the democratic experience in Jordan as

an Arab Islamic country and the democratic experience of Western countries is briefly addressed.

Students are asked to think and give examples of the peculiarities of the Jordanian context. For

example, Lesson Three in the 10th grade civic education textbook asks students to compare

principles (articles) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with Islamic law and to consider

the merits of the latter. The national internal narrative of identity and heritage, loyalty to the

monarchy, Islamic values in the society, and the distinctiveness of being Jordanian as opposed to an

Arab from another nation, are integral elements of the curriculum and uphold the Ministry’s

educational philosophy and mission (Georg Eckert Institut, 2009). Compared to the old curriculum,

the new curriculum seeks to integrate technology into classroom teaching and encourages students

to broaden their knowledge through searching for information on a given subject (Georg Eckert

Institut, 2009).

To examine factors influencing curriculum reform efforts in Jordan, Al-Dakkah (2011) conducted a

large qualitative study involving interviews with diverse educational stakeholders. Despite the

government’s stated objective of developing students’ critical thinking skills, the high stakes exam

(i.e., Tawjihi) focuses on rote memorization and undermines some of the reform’s more democratic

aims. For example, Al-Anati (2010) found that only 20% of the questions on the Tawjihi require

critical thinking. Thus, for university admittance, students need not focus on skills associated with

the knowledge economy (e.g., critical thinking and problem solving); rather, students have learned

that memorizing content as opposed to understanding and applying skills is the path to their

educational and economic future (Al-Dakkah, 2011). Because the exam content is drawn practically

verbatim from the official school textbooks, ‚teachers need to teach exactly what the textbooks

contain, not skills or applications‛ (p. 3).

In their Citizenship in the Arab World report, Faour and Muasher (2011) asserted that ERfKE, which

heavily emphasizes technical aspects such as building and equipping schools with computers to

improve test scores especially in mathematics and science, has missed the basic element of

schooling, namely ‚what it means to be citizens who learn how to think, seek and produce

knowledge, question, and innovate rather than be subjects of the state who are taught what to think

and how to behave‛ (p. 1). Because the Jordanian government seeks to have its version of history,

values, and religion imparted to the next generation, national civic curriculum in Jordan’s public


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schools focuses on state ideology and moral and religious norms and values. This heavy emphasis

has contributed to limited opportunities for students to engage in social critique and assessment.

According to the United Nations Development Programme (2003), Jordanian schools, not unlike

other Arab countries, ‚instill obedience and submission to a regime rather than freedom of thought

and critical thinking‛ (p. 11).

Although ERfKE acquainted some educators with modern teaching methods and technology, the

project did not formally address citizenship education or ensure that active participatory techniques

were implemented (Faour & Muasher, 2011). Moreover, Jordanians have challenged the curricula’s

emphasis on science and technology because they want to ensure that the centrality of Islam and the

family unit, with gender-specific roles, are reinforced in the school’s curriculum. The Georg Eckert

Institut (2009) found that secondary level history textbooks do not portray the roles that women

play in Jordanian society past or present. When women are featured, they are spoken of in terms of

their family roles or as fulfilling particular ‚gender appropriate‛ positions in textiles, teaching, and

nursing. Although equal to men in the area of educational attainment, women largely do not obtain

jobs in the private sector, which pays more and is occupied by men.

A recent comparative study of national civic curricula in Jordan and Malaysia revealed different

experiences in relation to national identity development and nation building. According to Khader

(2012), Jordanian curricula address allegiance to the regime and the nation with no attention given

to social conflicts among various groups in the society and their causes. Malaysia, however, has

experienced success in addressing concepts such as multiculturalism and tolerance, which are

viewed as central to Malaysian national identity development (Khader, 2012). Despite the Ministry

of Education’s efforts, the failure of teachers in Jordan to participate effectively in the current

education reform process is attributed to a lack of awareness of their new roles brought by the

reform and the lack of appropriate skills and tools to perform their new tasks (Al-Dakkah, 2011).

Data Collection: Method and Participants

To investigate teacher perspectives of the national civic curriculum, individual interviews were

conducted with a total of 24 teachers (14 females and 10 males) from 16 different schools in the

Ma’an Governorate who teach the civic curriculum in Grades 4-12. The teachers were chosen from

Ma’an, a conservative region of the country, and the largest governorate (province) in Jordan. The

city of Ma’an is located on the main road linking Syria with Saudi Arabia and is a rest area for

pilgrims traveling to Mecca from other countries. Compared to culturally diverse Amman (e.g.,

home to Circassians, Chechens, Iraqis, Lebanese, Palestinians, Syrians, and East Jordanians), Ma’an

is composed mainly of East Jordanians (those not of Palestinian origin). Ma’an is also considered

one of the underprivileged areas in the southern part of Jordan due to the relative lack of social

services in the area.

Each teacher interview was conducted in Arabic (and later translated into English) and lasted

between 45-60 minutes. The participants’ teaching experiences ranged from 3-20 years. At each

school, there were one or two teachers who taught the national and civic education curriculum at

more than one grade level. Teachers were asked the following research questions: 1) What do you

identify in students’ civic education curriculum as being imported from the West?; 2) What do you

identify in students’ civic education curriculum as being more cultural, national, and Jordanian?; 3)

Do you see tensions or a clash between cultural markers of identity and democratic aims?; 4) In


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what ways do you work to make your curriculum culturally-relevant to the Jordanian context?; and,

5) How is citizenship presented and taught in the curriculum?

Findings: Teacher Perspectives of Civic Curriculum

In relation to the first research question, the majority of teacher participants did not perceive any

topics in Jordan’s civic curriculum as being imported from the West except, importantly, the concept

of democracy, which they viewed as a new topic. One female teacher at School 16, who teaches

Grades 4-10, asserted that the Jordanian civic curriculum fights any Western cultural influence.

However, a male teacher (Teacher 2, Grades 6-8 & 10) at School 14 asserted that ‚there are many

topics from the West, but all of them do not contradict with the Islamic Sharia (law). In reality,

democracy is not applied in our society.‛ Similarly, female teacher 1, who teaches Grades 8, 10, and

12 at School 4, emphasized that topics imported from the West such as ‚democracy and human

rights do not contradict with our values because our religion gave us these rights *a+ long time ago.‛

In contrast, a Grades 6-10 male teacher at School 7 stated that the subject of birth control that

appears in the Grade 6 curriculum is taken from the West. Several teachers also mentioned that

‘globalization’ is related to the West. A Grades 8-10 male teacher from School 9 suggested that a

lesson on human rights for Grade 8 ‚aims to convince students that *the+ civil rights set out in the

United Nations declaration are the only solution to the world problems.‛

Some teachers reported that students find that their social reality contradicts with the principles of

human rights, so the students are not convinced that what they study in school can change things in

Jordan. In addition, a male teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 6-10, School 7) stated that democracy is

presented only briefly to students, and thus more information should be taught about democracy

and how it works in Jordanian society. A Grade 9 female teacher (Teacher 2, School 4) stated that

some English terms used in the civic curriculum, such as ‘ideology’ and ‘social change’, are difficult

for teachers and students to understand.

Regarding what the teachers identified in the civic education curriculum as being more cultural,

national, and Jordanian, the majority of teachers reported that topics related to citizenship, loyalty to

the King, and belonging to the country are emphasized. The Grade 4 and 5 curricula focus on

agriculture, environment, the early battles of Islam, and initiatives of the royal family. In reference

to the Grade 5 curriculum, one female teacher for Grades 4-7 at School 2 commented that, ‚it *the

civic textbook+ is a religious historical textbook.‛ The civic curriculum in Grade 6 focuses on the

Jordanian constitution, citizenship, human rights in Islam, and family. In Grade 7, topics such as

good and bad behaviors in Jordanian culture, social security, social and economic problems, and

scientific thinking are presented. The Grade 8 civic curriculum focuses on Jordanian peace troops,

the rights of citizens, cultural values, Jordanian traditions, and issues related to youths. A male

teacher (Teacher 2, Grades 6-8 & 10) from School 14 pointed out that Jordanian traditional values

and the importance of family are also addressed in the Grade 8 curriculum.

In the ninth grade, the civic curriculum deals with topics such as tolerance, cooperation, social

change, economic security, administrative and educational institutions in Jordan, ‚authenticity and

contemporaneity‛ (focused on family disintegration and technology use), and cultural shock as the

result of people moving from villages to larger cities. A female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 4-6 & 9-

10, School 1) stated, ‚There is reference to Islamic history and Caliph when topics related to

ministries and their functions are discussed in the ninth grade.‛ The civic curriculum for Grade 9

also includes the history of different sites and tourism in Jordan.


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The Amman Message is one of the topics discussed in Grade 10. Released by King Abdullah II in

2004, the message represents an effort, as stated in the document, to present ‚the true image of Islam

to the world.‛ In reference to the King’s ‘Jordan First’ Initiative, which seeks to instill national

pride, unity, and an Islamic citizen identity, a female teacher (Teacher 2), who teaches Grades 10 and

12 at School 3, said that, ‚‘Jordan First’ is introduced to students in the 10th grade<I think it should

be introduced to the primary national and civic education curriculums.‛ The concept of democracy

is introduced in the Grade 10 and 12 curriculums. Yet, as the same teacher argued, there is no new

information presented to 12th grade students with regards to the issue of democracy, and it is

merely a repetition of the sections covered in the 10th grade. She added that, ‚I would prefer if it

*democracy+ was presented in a different way.‛ Another female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 9-10 &

12, School 6) mentioned that the history textbooks focus on the history of Jordan, but, despite this

emphasis, students do not know much about the history of their country. The national royal anthem

and the country’s security maintenance are topics used to emphasize national loyalty and belonging

in Grade 10. In Grade 12, the role of the Hashemite family is presented in detail, as well as the

historical relationship with neighboring countries such as Iraq and Saudi Arabia. As one female

teacher (Teacher 2, Grades 4, 7-9, & 12, School 2) expressed, the curriculum book contains only

condensed information about Jordan’s neighbors.

With regard to aspects presented in the civic curriculum, one female teacher (Teacher 2, Grades 10 &

12, School 3) stated, ‚Every topic that covers the history of the Jordanian country to the present time

reinforces the cultural and Jordanian identity.‛ As a male teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 4-7) from

School 12 explained, ‚curriculums of the sixth, seventh, and tenth grades give more attention to

loyalty and belonging to the Jordanian culture<they also focus on the Arabic traditions.‛ A female

teacher at School 4 (Teacher 1, Grades 8-10 & 12) offered a particularly interesting observation that

reinforces how factors outside school may yield more influence than modest modernizing aims

within schools:

‚A lesson about political parties in Jordan is presented to students in the tenth

grade curriculum<My students refuse to talk about parties in the class. Parents ask

their daughters not to give opinions about political parties<People do not understand

the meaning of belonging to a political party because they think parties work against the country.‛

A female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 9 & 12) from School 3 stated that there are ‚no examples on the

political parties and their trends mentioned in the curriculum. Students do not see [the] link

between concepts and real life.‛ In general, the interviews revealed that many topics are repeated in

the curriculum of all grades. Moroever, most teachers commented that civic education curricula do

not focus on national and international issues. Only one teacher (Female Teacher 2, Grades 4, 7-9,

School 1) asserted that students need to know more about the articles of the Jordanian Constitution.

As to whether teachers see any tensions or a clash between cultural markers of identity and

democratic aims, some viewed all of the topics and concepts in the civic education curriculum as

relevant to Jordanian culture and Islamic values. However, some teachers expressed that

democracy does clash with cultural markers of identity. As a male respondent who teaches Grades

6-10 at School 7 explained, students confuse democracy and shura in Islam, suggesting that students

think any concept imported from the West is something negative. Another male teacher (Teacher 2,

Grades 6-8 & 10, School 14) commented that intellectual trends and totalitarianism are new topics

for his students.


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All of the 24 teachers who were interviewed did not see a clash between culture and the application

of different (more democratic-oriented) learning styles, such as discussion, critical thinking, and

role-play. Some teachers commented that the new educational reform trends are focused on

student-centered learning. As a female teacher from School 6 explained, ‚I supervise my students in

the class. All my students should [take] part in the class discussion. My role is to give them some

instruction and direct them‛ (Teacher 1, Grades 9-10 & 12).

Those interviewed reported that their students have become more active participants in light of

recent educational reform. Some teachers, however, mentioned that some topics are boring to

students and that students participate in class discussion only if the topics are culturally relevant to

them. Other teachers have noticed the application of critical thinking as students discuss issues such

as social change, university education, and drug smuggling and trafficking. A Grade 10 male

teacher (Teacher 2, Grades 6-8 & 10, School 14) asserted that due to brief elaborations in the

textbook, the curriculum necessarily encourages students to think about concepts. However, a

female teacher from School 1 (Teacher 1, Grades 4-6 & 9-10) disagreed: ‚Critical thinking skills are

not used in my class. My students do not take seriously if lesson activities and questions require

applying these skills. They think this *critical+ question is not part of the curriculum.‛

In terms of how teachers make their curriculum culturally relevant to the Jordanian context, a

female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 4-10, School 10) uses real-life examples and classroom discussion

on topics that relate to students’ lives. When she talked about Jordan’s parliamentary elections, she

also made reference to the student council elections:

‚Candidates in the parliamentary elections are elected based on their tribal and familial

affiliations<this is similar to *the+ student council election in our school. Students are not elected

based on their personal characteristics and performance.

Students are elected because they are from certain tribes. When elections in Jordan are discussed,

my students make reference to real-life examples.‛

Another female teacher (Teacher 2, Grades 4 & 7-9, School 1) said, ‚I display information in a simple

way because information and concepts covered in the curriculum introduced to my students are

higher than their present level.‛ For one educator (Teacher 1, Grades 8, 10, & 12) at School 4, she

refers to Islam to make topics relevant to her students’ real lives. For instance, when talking with

her students about the value of education, she makes reference to Islam, explaining how Islam

encourages people to learn, to get an education, and to know about other cultures. In contrast, some

teachers reported that they look to external sources such as the Internet and books to explain

concepts presented in the curriculum.

When asked how citizenship is presented and taught in the civic curriculum, the interviewees

provided examples based on the grades they teach. As a female respondent (Teacher 1, Grades 4-7,

School 2) explained, ‚The concept of citizenship is introduced to the sixth grade students. It has

been defined briefly. Students are only asked to answer the following question: What is your role

towards your country? It is our role *as teachers+ to explain to students this term with examples.‛

Another female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 9-10 & 12, School 6) mentioned that she tries to reinforce

loyalty in her class by referring to certain behaviors such as cleaning the classroom, engaging in

school, maintaining and keeping their school facilities and services, and giving relevant illustrations

(e.g., election rights) to her students. In Grade 10, a female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 8-10, School

8) asks students to think about their societal role by giving real-life examples such as, ‚What do you

do about a leaky pipe in the street?‛ A Grade 10 male teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 8-10, School 9)

commented that citizenship in the curriculum focuses on ‚some values that students need to know


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about how to be good citizens in their country, such as respect for laws and regulations, apply

critical thinking without extremism, and loyalty to the ruler.‛ In Grade 12, citizenship as a concept

is presented with reference to religion through Qur’anic verse. A female teacher (Teacher 2, Grades

10 & 12, School 3) stated that her Grade 12 students were surprised to hear there is an international

day for tolerance. The same teacher thought that being aware of these concepts is a part of being a

good citizen. Most teachers reported that they reinforce with students the notion of belonging to the

classroom, school, family, and country.

Two teachers, however, felt that scant attention was being paid to citizenship, even when conceived

primarily as that of belonging. For example, a male teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 6-8, School 13) said

that ‚the concept of citizenship is not presented in the eighth grade curriculum, so I give examples

on loyalty and human rights in Jordan.‛ A female teacher (Teacher 1, School 10) who has taught the

curriculum in Grades 4-10 mentioned that citizenship as a concept is presented in one or two

paragraphs in the curriculum, but teachers seek to elaborate on the concept in class and via the

school radio. Another female teacher (Teacher 1, Grades 8, 10, & 12, School 4) reported that students

have a weak sense of belonging to the country, explaining that students are not aware of how their

engagement at school informs their role in the society at large. A Grade 9 female teacher (Teacher 2,

Grades 5-10, School 5) mentioned that some activities in the civic curriculum require the Internet for

technology-based activities, but there are no computers in her classrooms to use. In conclusion, two

teachers—one female (Teacher 1, Grades 4-10, School 16) and one male (Teacher 1, Grades 6-10,

School 7)— asserted that the curriculum should address the changing events in Jordanian society.

In general, the interview findings with teachers suggest that more attention in school is being given

to the notion of belonging to family and country with only limited attention to helping students

consider what Jordan is becoming as a result of political dissent, economic challenges, and human

rights assertions associated with the Arab Spring and contemporary developments in the region.

Although the teachers did not find difficulty with democracy as pedagogical practice, asserting that

curricular reform has stimulated more active student participation in the classroom, the findings do

suggest that teachers, and those they teach, wrestle with democracy as a concept. In fact, our

findings suggest that conceptual thinking is an area that is challenging for educators and students,

as teachers reported that there is difficulty in understanding concepts such as democracy,

globalization, tolerance, and totalitarianism.

The degree to which critical questioning is made a part of the learning experience for students in

Jordanian schools is an area that needs further research. Teachers did note that their students find a

disconnect between democracy and their lived experiences in Jordan; moreover, school council

elections, much like the elections in the society at large, are based on decisions about the ethnie

(tribal and cultural affiliation, and attendant power and social arrangements in more localized

settings), as opposed to conceiving the citizen as an abstract political subject and making judgments

based upon personal characteristics and performance (Kubow, 2007). In summary, a hybrid

curriculum in schools seems to accompany the hybrid sovereignty of the nation-state; that is, while

teaching pedagogy in Jordan is being democratized, there is the upholding of more traditional and

nationalistic features and a prescribed morality as manifested in the national civic curriculum in the

primary and secondary grades.


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Conclusion

The recent revolts in Arab countries, referred to as the “Arab Spring,” revolve around

citizens’ grievances about their rulers, their nations’ declining economies, rising unemployment,

and stagnant politics after long periods of mounting frustration and calls for political and economic

reforms (Lynch, 2012). In 2011, a wave of protests influenced by the Arab Spring movement in the

region began and are on-going in most of the Jordanian governorates. Led by trade unionists, leftist

parties, and the Muslim Brotherhood, the protests in Jordan have not been like the protests in

Tunisia and Egypt because the demonstrations in Jordan have not been against the monarchy.

Rather, public demonstrations have been constructed on the grounds of necessity for more political

freedom such as electoral law modification in favor of free and fair elections for a representative

government (Köprülü, 2012) and economic reforms (e.g., lowering food and fuel prices and

addressing the rising unemployment issue). Despite the establishment of a constitutional court and

an independent election commission, most Jordanians are not convinced of ‚the seriousness—and

the sustainability—of the reform process‛ (Muasher, 2013, p. 2). While Jordanians desire that

reform processes be led by the monarchy, they are also no longer willing to live without more say

and change in their country (Muasher, 2013).

Despite civic education reform efforts, a unified national identity has not been formed in Jordan.

The development of civic culture in Jordan has been largely unsuccessful, and Jordanians generally

perceive existing political parties to be weak and unrepresentative of most citizens’ needs and

interests. Although Jordanians are asserting their desire for an elected government and not one

appointed by the king, official school curriculum promotes a citizen identity and national narrative

based on specific historical events such as the Arab Revolt, its Bedouin desert roots, and the Arab

Islamic experience (Kubow, 2010). It seems unlikely, therefore, that ‚a new or reformed government

will emerge that shows a diminished reliance upon tribes, and equally unlikely that tribes will agree

to less representation and influence‛ (Philosophy and Polity, 2011, p. 5).

What seems to have emerged in Jordan is a hybridized citizen identity shaped by cultural markers

such as tribal and religious identity alongside liberalization and some rights-oriented discussion.

This study confirms what Jan Nederveen Pieterse (2004) suggests, namely that globalization as

hybridization counters the viewpoint that globalization necessarily homogenizes, modernizes, and

westernizes societies. A Western model of the liberal state is unlikely to emerge despite

governmental and international pressures for ERfKE to help build a modern society. Jordan, as an

artificially constructed and dependent nation, is entangled in nation-state survival, a pan-Arab

commitment, and security concerns. These global-local forces compete with nation-building efforts

and complicate the task of preparing students for citizenship in a knowledge economy.

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A Reflection on the Works of Paulo Freire and its Relevance to

Classroom Teaching

Sisimwo Joshua S

Rop Caren J

Osman A. Ahmed

Department of Curriculum, Instruction and Educational Media,

Moi University P.O Box 3900 Eldoret, Kenya

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Most of the social, economic and political problems of the third world countries are said to

have their roots in the problem of illiteracy, ‘banking education’ and lack of dialogue in

their education systems. These are some of the issues that the philosopher Paulo Freire has

addressed in most of his works. This paper therefore aims at presenting a reflection of the

works of Paulo Freire. While taking into account of a typical Kenyan classroom context, the

paper presents the relevance of Freire’s philosophy. It discusses Freire’s philosophy in the

areas of teaching–learning environment, comparing their philosophical ideas and their

relevance in modern times.

Key words

Praxis, Codification, Humanization, Conscientization, Banking Education

Introduction

Education imparted by schools helps an individual to live a balanced life. It is this education

that many believe contributes to the overall development of an individual. However, the

present educational system in Kenya is producing mechanical individuals who are engaged in

learning lessons by heart to pass their national exams rather than utilizing education in their

day to day life. The practice of following the curriculum solely by teachers for the purpose of

garnering good examination grades contributes to the nations’ education tendency which

encourages rote learning instead of critical thinking skills.

With the present condition of poverty, lack of adequate facilities and improper training of

teachers, a quality educational system remains a distant dream for most third world economies,

Kenya included. One of the prominent features of the country’s style of teaching lies in the

dominant use of textbooks. Besides this, the education given in schools is based on unilateral

approach where emphasis is on teachers teaching and not on students learning.

Present educational system is not providing opportunities for students to bring the best out of

themselves. Great emphasis is placed on narration and memorizing thus neglecting creative and



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critical thinking. The system is heavily loaded with subject units that are not related to the day today

experiences of the students. Thus the student can only attempt to master the material without

critically applying it to his life or to the needs of the society.

This methodology needs to be changed so that learning becomes a real cognitive activity

which leads to meaningful and purposeful transformative action. Accumulating knowledge is

not sufficient, but if practical application takes place the percentage of success in life would

be greater (Arora, 2007).

Freire’s Philosophy of Education

Aims of Education

Paulo Freire has often been cited as one of the most influential critical thinkers on the topic of

education during the late twentieth century. Freire’s philosophy begins from a deep respect and

humility for the oppressed people and respect for their understanding of the world they

inhabit.

Freire believed that oppressed could transform their situation in life by thinking critically

about reality and then taking action. The alleviation of oppression and human suffering is

possible through education (Freire, 1996). When oppressed people learn about their own culture,

history, religion, heritage, etc., the knowledge they get can have a transformative effect on their

lives and lead to their own empowerment. However, Freire believed that education itself is

suffering from narrative sickness and has played a central role in maintaining oppression and

thus it has to be reformed in order for things to change for the oppressed ( Deans, 1999).

Freire’s term for traditional education, the ‚banking education‛ focused on the stifling creative

and critical thought in mass education. He believes that banking education allows the

oppressors to maintain the system of oppression (Freire, 1988). In Freire’s view, students under

this system do not have the opportunity to question or critically evaluate the world in which they

live and thus have no opportunity to change their lives for the better (Freire, 1973). Freire says that

Education is not reducible to a mechanical method of instruction. He further adds that learning is

not a quantity of information to be memorized or a package of skills to be transferred to

students.

Freire’s Social Pedagogy defines Education where individual and society are constructed, a

social action which can either empower or domesticate students. He said that Education

should be such which leads to democratization of culture, a program which itself would be

an act of creation, capable of realizing other creative acts ( Deans, 1999). The empowering or

liberating education, Freire suggests, is not a new data bank or doctrine delivered to students,

it is instead a democratic and transformative relationship between students and teachers,

students and learning and students and society.

Curriculum and Pedagogy

Freire argues that whole activity of education is Political in nature (Kirkendall, 2001). Politics is

in the teacher student relationship, whether authoritarian or democratic. Politics is in the subjects

chosen for the syllabus and in those left out. It is also in the method of choosing course

content, whether it is a shared decision or only the teacher’s prerogative, whether there is a

negotiated curriculum in the classroom or one imposed unilaterally. Freire emphasizes that society


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is controlled by an elite which imposes its culture and values as the standard (Freire, 1994). In

schooling, this imposed standard is transferred through a traditional curriculum which

interferes with democratic and critical development of students.

While agreeing with Freire’s work, its my opinion that curriculum should directly come from the

people and must be prepared by them. Curriculum should be built around the themes and

conditions of people’s lives. For this, it is essential that educators should study their

students in their classrooms and in their community to discover the words, ideas, conditions

and habits central to their experience.

Freire emphasizes that curriculum should be based on the experience of the learners which

should enable the learner to interpret their existing situation, critically examine it and then

act upon it. Curriculum should be based on bottom up approach (Arora, 2007). He believes that

students should have a right to negotiate the curriculum and of evaluating it. The curriculum

should be balanced for every gender, class and race. After developing the curriculum, the

selection of subject content should be based on students thoughts and language. Freire

emphasizes that curriculum should not be presented as a jargon but rather as problem posed in

students’ experiences and speech, for them to work on.

Freire’s pedagogy includes the goal of critical consciousness. His pedagogical methods are student

centered which attempt to help students to become critically conscious of reality and to challenge

domination. These pedagogical methods are as follows:

Dialogue

Dialogue is a classic, old and proven method in education. Freire laid out many components of a

liberating education in pedagogy of the oppressed out of which dialogue is the central

component. Freire conceptualizes dialogue as a conversation among equals. Dialogue is the

encounter between men, mediated by the world, in order to name the world (Freire, 1988). Dialogue

cannot occur between those who want to name the world and those who do not want this naming;

between those who deny other people the right to speak their world and those who are right to

speak has been denied to them (Freire, 1988). Dialogue is the important process in which problems

are named and solutions are proposed. Dialogue is useful because it gives individuals the

opportunity to share their experiences in a supportive and constructive atmosphere. In this

situation, participants or students specifically identify what is oppressive and how one might take

steps to end that oppression.

This however must be done carefully. Freire argued that dialogue must include the following

traits: profound love for the world and for the people, humility, hope and mutual trust

(Freire, 1988). Freire does mention that dialogue will not help participants become more fully

human but can only be fruitful if it is coupled with critical thinking and in turn critical thinking

will lend itself to transformation.

At the centre of dialogue is the important and valuable process of critical thinking. Critical

thinking or what Freire called conscientization (Freire, 1973) which refers to learning to perceive

social, political and economic contradictions and to take action against the oppressive

elements of the reality. In order to confront oppression, it is essential that students first

become critical thinkers. It is only through problem posing education that students can become

critical thinkers who view the world not as a static reality but reality in process, in transformation.


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Praxis

Once students have become critical thinkers, they will be able to begin a process that could lead to

their humanization. Freire referred to this process as praxis (Freire, 1973). He defined this process as

reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it. This process would involve constant

reflection and evaluation. However, Freire believes that this process cannot be carried out in

authoritarian form of education such as banking education which inhibits the liberation and

freedom of the oppressed. He argued that change could come through a process of dialogue and

reflection leading on to change through action or intervention (Freire, 1988). Freire believed that

Praxis is at the heart of transforming the world and thus becoming fully human.

Generative Themes and Codifications

Freire believes that in order for an educational experience to be relevant and important, the teacher-

student and the student-teacher need to work together to identify the themes to create the program

content or educational units of study (Freire, 1978). These themes are known as generative themes.

These generative themes are presented in the form of codifications (visual representations).

Participants are able to step back from these visual representations of their ideas or history

and decode or explore them critically by regarding them objectively rather than simply

experiencing them. This makes it possible for the participants to intervene and initiate

change in society. In all the stages of decoding, people externalize their view of the world (Freire,

1988).

Once the decoding on the circles have been completed, the last stage of the investigation

begins. The investigators undertake a systematic study of their findings. Freire argued that the

starting point for organizing the program content of education must be the present, existential,

concrete situations reflecting the aspirations of the people ( Freire, 1988). It is important, Freire

mentions, that the people feel like masters of their thinking by discussing the thinking and

views of the world explicitly or implicitly manifest in their own suggestion and those of

their comrades (Freire, 1988).

Teaching – Learning Environment

For Freire, teaching and learning are human experiences with profound social consequences.

Classroom die as intellectual centers when they become delivery systems for lifeless bodies

of knowledge. Instead of transferring facts and skills from teacher to students, a Freirean

class invites students to think critically about subject matter, doctrines, the learning process

itself and their society (Freire, 1996). In the liberating classroom suggested by Freire’s ideas,

teachers pose problems derived from student life, social issues and academic subjects, in a

mutually created dialogue.

In a Freirean classroom, teachers reject the methods which make student passive and anti-

intellectual. They do not lecture students into silence. They do not prepare students for a life of

political alienation in society. Rather, Freirean education post critical problems to students, treat

them as complicated, substantial human beings and encourage curiosity and activism about

knowledge and the world. Freire insists on consistency between the democratic values of

critical pedagogy and the classroom practice. A liberating classroom teacher is not an

authority exercising force to maintain discipline rather liberating classroom emphasis on self

discipline and collaboration.


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According to Freire, teachers have to lead the class with a democratic learning process as well as

with critical ideas. Accordingly, teaching- learning environment should be based on the following

characteristics:

Participatory - The learning process should be interactive and cooperative so that students do a lot

of discussing and writing instead of listening to teacher talk.

Dialogic - The basic format of the class is dialogue around problem posed by teacher and

students. The teacher initiates this process and guides it into deeper phases. By frontloading

questions and back loading lectures, the teacher invites students to assert their ownership of

their education building the dialogue with their words.

Democratic - The classroom discourse is democratic in so far as it is constructed mutually by

students and teacher. Students have equal speaking rights in the dialogue as well as right to

negotiate the curriculum. They are asked to co-develop and evaluate the curriculum.

Activist - The classroom should be active and interactive based on problem posing,

cooperative learning and participatory formats.

Affective - The teaching learning environment should be critical and democratic leading to the

development of human feelings as well as development of social inquiry and conceptual

habits of mind.

Freire’s problem posing develops co-intentionality among students and teachers which make

teaching-learning collectively owned, not the teacher’s sole role. Co-intentionality begins when

the teacher presents a problem for inquiry related to a key aspect of student experience so

that students see their thought and language in the study. This mutuality helps students and

teachers overcome the alienation from each other developed in traditional banking classrooms.

Teacher – Student Relationship

Usually, teacher - student relationship at any level inside or outside the school is narrative in nature.

This relationship involves a narrating subject (teacher) and patient listening objects (students). This

makes education an act of narration known as banking concept of education where the

teacher teaches and students are taught (Freire, 1988). The teacher talks about reality as if it

were motionless, static, and predictable. His task is to fill the student with content of his

narration-contents which are detached from reality, disconnected from the totality that

engendered them. The students patiently receive, memorize and repeat the content. Education

thus become an act of depositing in which the students are the depositories and teacher is

the depositor. The teacher is the subject of the learning process while the pupils are mere objects.

A Freirean critical teacher is a problem poser who asks thought provoking questions and

encourages students to ask their own questions. A critical teacher must also be a democratic one.

Freirean problem posing education also invites the students to question the system they live in

and the knowledge being offered to them, to discuss what kind of future they want.

In problem posing education the teacher is always cognitive. She regards objects as reflecting

upon by students and herself and not as her private property. Students are no longer passive

listeners, but critical individuals. The role of the teacher is to create together with the students

the conditions under which true knowledge can be attained. The teacher should consider

himself or herself as students among students giving rise to a new term that is teacher-

student with students-teachers that is a teacher who learns and learner who teaches.


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Significance of Freire’s Philosophy of Education in Kenya Today

Freire’s emphasis on Critical educational theory or critical pedagogy encourages students to

question issues of power. Facilitating the development of critical literacy promotes the examination

and reform of social situations and exposes students to the biases and hidden agendas within texts.

Teachers can help to empower students by providing opportunities for them to find their voices.

Freire’s emphasis on dialogue enables educators to develop lessons based on the needs and interests

of the learners to invite them to take part in a larger community discourse that attempts to solve

problems and create alternatives to oppressive situations.

Paulo Freire’s critique of traditional education that suppress the oppressed and helps to keep

the oppressed in subjugation need to be applied to the Kenyan educational scenario. There is

too much emphasis for narration and memorizing in the country’s education system to the

complete neglect of creative or critical thinking. This methodology needs to be changed completely

so that learning becomes a real cognitive activity which leads to meaningful and purposeful

transformative action. Although, Freire has opened an avenue for liberating education, it has to be

reinvented according to one’s own situations and in one’s own words. Besides educational impacts,

in a country like Kenya there are many people who are oppressed- Many are not aware of

their rights.

Conclusion

According to Paulo Freire education has to be a liberating force for the oppressed wherein the

oppressed indulge in dialogue by raising questions and debating answers and this pedagogy in turn

supports critical thought. Therefore teachers need to be learners themselves who do not force their

views on pupils’. In other words education should be that which liberates to create and innovate.

References

Arora, A. (2007). On reading Paulo Freire. Contemporary Education Dialogue, 5, 123-126.

Deans, T. (1999). Service-learning in two keys: Paulo Freire’s Critical Pedagogy in relation to John

Dewey’s Pragmatism. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 6, 15-20.

Freire, P. (1973). Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: Seabury

Freire, P. (1978). Pedagogy in Process: The letters to Guinea Bissau. New York: Seabury

Freire, P. (1988). ‚The adult literacy process as cultural action for freedom and education and

conscientization.‛ In perspectives on literacy, ed. Eugene R Kintgen, Barry M. Kroll and Mike

Rose, pp 398-409. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press

Freire, P. (1994). Pedagogy of Hope. New York. Continuum.

Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York. Continuum.

Kirkendall, A.J. (2001). Paulo Freire and Cold War Politics of Literacy. Comparative Education

Review, 55, 647-649.


Year 2014

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Teachers’ Preferences for Selecting New Media Tools for

Education

Ahmet Baytak

Harran Universtiy

[email protected]

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to present teachers’ views on their choices of different media

types for an effective learning environment. To achieve this goal, quantitative research

method was implemented. The participants of the study were teachers at different age

group and majors. The data source of this study was teachers’ responses to the given

questionnaire. Teachers’ comments for an open-ended question were also analyzed to

support the findings. The results show that the participants’ ages, gender, usage of social

media sites and computer skill levels have affected their media selection preferences for

learning environments.

Keywords

Teachers, media selection, material development

Introduction

The history of media or materials usage in education is as old as the first time of teaching and

learning. The fist cave drawings which were believed to be 30 thousand years ago are accepted as

one of the first material for education. The time of Pythagoras (500 BC) is one of the first times the

status of teacher in education started. Hundred years later, paper was invented and used in China

for communication and education. The development of manuscript followed years later. The

printing technologies in 1450 opened new gates for education to use books. And, the starting from

1910, there was new era for technology and therefore education. At this time, audio materials were

produced for students. In the following years, radio, filmstrip projectors, overhead projectors, and

television became part of school materials.

Use of computers, in 1990s, by schools started a totally different era in education. Connecting

computers with each other globally, the Internet, change not only education systems but also

communication and transportation system as well. Interactive whiteboards, tablet computers, and

smart phones are the new developments in computer systems. At the same time, the Internet

technologies provide users to develop new web applications such as social media sites.

The statistics show that people regardless of region, gender, race or religion easily get used to these

new technologies. The estimate number of computer in the world is over two billion. The number of

accounts for Facebook, a most popular social media web site, already passed one billion. The users

of this site are sending hundred thousand messages to their friends making around a million

comments for status or message in one minute (The Guardian, 2014).


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While technology has grown over time the educators try to accommodate with the changes. There

were and there are insistences to not use technology for education but the number of people with

this behaviour shrinks day by day. In the last century, there were big discussions among educators

whether or not technology is effective for learning. The same discussion continued for computers

but ironically people started to make these discussions over the internet. Some did not recognize the

internet as a new learning platform while sharing ideas and purposing their ideas over the internet.

For some researchers, from a stone to engrave a cave wall to a smart phone every item used for

learning is educational material or technology. However, some researchers minimize this list and

categorize in four level; print, video, people, and interactive media. These materials or technologies

are called as media since it is believed that these tools transfer information like a vehicle (Clark,

2001). Some media types, mass media, used for entrainment are separated from instructional media

(Dorr & Seel, 1997). Instructional media is defined as physical means by which an instructional

message is communicated (Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1992). Some researchers divided instructional

media into three sections; presentational, representational and mechanical.

The media descriptions listed above are criticized since they do not separate new computer

technologies. Thus, Smith and Ragan distinguished computer technology from interactive media

(1999). Similarly, Romiszowski also separate computer medium from other visual media types such

as television and projectors (1988).

The more complicated questions raised accepting technology as part of education. Which

technological tool is best for my classroom? This and similar questions have been asked several

times at educational meetings and conferences. It was simple to make a choice when there were only

textbooks and blackboards. However, in today’s classrooms, teachers have accessibility to various

types of technological materials such as television, computer, social networks, and old style

equipments. Teachers should make a critical choice to establish a most effective learning

environment.

In order to get teachers to make a right decision on media for their courses, there is no specific

guidance or course for teachers to take at Turkish Universities. Media literacy course which

promotes understanding about media and their effects, at teacher education institution is rare. Only

few institutions offer to their student-teachers as an optional course. This course is also optional at

Turkish middle schools.

The selection process has been questioned for years at different cases (Baytak, 2010). According to

Bates, media selection is not an instant process; indeed, it is a complicated decision process if the

users look for a best effective material (1995). In some cases selection process is easier since

organizations or institutions make decision to force individuals to use these materials or

technologies. In some other cases, the individuals are given options to select their own media types

for their instructions (Bates, 1995).

The foundation of media selection for learning is based on few theories and some models. The

theories are Social Presence Theory which argues that the degree of social presence causes media’s

social effects and Media Richness Theory which focus on message to be delivered and the richness

of a medium (Timmerman, 2003). Since the models were found more practical, educators tend to use

model rather than theories.

One of the most applicable models purposed for media selection in education is ACTIONS model by

Bates (1995). In this model, each letter of word ACTIONS makes the criteria of media selection.

Letter A stands for accessibility and how accessible is a particular technology for learners? Letter C


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stands for cost and what is the unit cost per student? Letter T stands for teaching and learning and

what are the best technologies for supporting this teaching and learning? Letter I stands for

interaction and what kind of interaction does this technology enable? Letter O stands for

organization and what changes in the organization need to be made? Letter N stands novelty and

how new is this technology? Letter S stands for speed and how quickly can courses be adapted with

this technology?

In addition to Bates’s Model, Romiszowski has purposed some the following criteria for media

selection; effective communication for content and learners, reasonable cost for the tools, practical

use for time and facilities, and human factors for facilities and learners (1989). Another selection

criterion is listed as quality, time, flexibility, coverage, and cost (Sarkis, 2005). Differently, Barnes,

Mosgrove, and Rassouli see learning objectives, learners’ behaviors, and availability of the media,

government restrictions, and cost as criteria for a median type to be used in a learning environment

(1982).

Teachers’ Media Preferences

The literature mentioned above listed some criteria to select a type of media for the lessons. Physical

materials that learners can touch and see have seen the most effective material for an effective

instruction. According to Clements, physical materials make the case make learning concrete and

connect ideas to the real world (1999). Thus, teachers, especially, who teach to young students prefer

physical materials for their lessons since their students can touch, hold, and feel the material

(Clements, 1999). Meanwhile, the development in computer technology has improved digital

technologies which enable materials to be presented with interactivity. The further steps in digital

technologies were to design materials that hold the feature of a physical material.

Animating materials on computers raised questions of whether or not this new form of material

affects learning. There were discussions that animation should be overused interactive media

environments. Toth, for example, warned educators about animated instructional materials that

overuse of animations might distract learners and destroy their ability to focus on the content (2003).

However, it is recommended in another study that the effectiveness of animation on students’

learning was found inconsistent, even though animation with its ability to gain attention has been

accepted as a powerful method to deliver instruction (Ching, et al. 2005).

A comparison study conducted with elementary and early childhood pre-service teachers shows

interesting results about their preferences of material types. As it was expected the teachers see

digital materials more advantageous because of re-usability, time, space and cost efficiency, and

durability (Turel & Varol, 2012). However, this study also showed that elementary teachers

preferred electronic materials more than early childhood teachers. In another study, however, it was

found that teachers’ limited use of technology resulted from inadequate access to equipment,

inability to troubleshoot minor technology problems, and the absence of training in learning

activities (Davidson, Richardson & Jones, 2014).

There are several studies conducted on teachers’ technology use preferences (Baytak, 2012; Drent &

Meelissen, 2008). In his study, Baytak outlined the characteristics of technology used for course

material development by teachers (2012). In another study, Drent and Meelissen presented a

framework of factors that teachers use technology for education (2008). The results of their study

showed that teachers who use technology in their learning process are characterized by a specific

combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or competencies. This study also found that teachers


Year 2014

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who have self-motivation for improvement were more likely to integrate new technologies in their

lessons.

One of the cutting edge technologies for the classroom in the last decade was interactive

whiteboards. Hammond and colleagues study the reasons why some teachers use these boards but

some do not (2011). They found that some teachers use the interactive whiteboards because it was

already used by their mentors and was widely accessible (Hammond, Reynolds, & Ingram, 2011).

Nevertheless, there are numbers of studies focus on the barriers on technology integration in schools

(Orhan & Akkoyunlu, 2003). According to the study by Sugar, Crawley, and Fine, teachers’

technology adoption has such barriers; lack of training, students’ interest, lack of technical support,

lack of adequate equipment, and lack of administrative support (2004). In addition, they indicated

that the political cliché that ‚technology is good‛ is not a clear message for teachers and they need to

know how technology will affect their roles and how to effectively use technology in their classroom

(Sugar, Crawley, & Fine, 2004).

Similar to any other studies in human and behavioral science, variables such as gender, age or skill

differences can be a factor in the media selection in education field as well. Yau and Cheng, for

example, conducted a study on gender differences when using technology (2012). Their findings

showed that male students were more confident in using technology for learning than female were.

The researchers indicated that this gender differences is because of social construction of computing

not because of innate ability (Yau and Cheng, 2012).

Whether or not the participants’ ages makes differences for their technology adaptation or use is

also studied. Study conducted with workers showed that the attitudes of younger workers were

more influenced compared with older workers. However, older workers were interestingly more

strongly affected by perceived behavioral control compared with younger workers (Morris &

Venkatesh, 2000). Another study by Yau and Cheng also clear that older students were more

confident in using technology for learning than younger students were (2012).

Definition of the Problem

The problem that this study addressed is teacher preferences for media types for their lessons.

Considering the existing research, as well as the development of new technologies, there is a need to

conduct study on teachers’ views and preferences about media selection for their learning

environments. The primary aim of this study was to determine teachers’ views about using different

media tools for learning platforms. The study sought to answer the following questions:

RQ1: What are teachers’ preferable media types for their lessons?

RQ2: Is there any correlation between teachers’ ages and their media selection preferences?

RQ3: Is there any correlation between teachers’ computer use level and their media selection

preferences?

RQ4: Is there any gender differences among teachers about their media selection for their lessons?

Method

The Participants

The Participants of this current study were teachers from a southeastern city of Turkey. The

selection of the participants was based on availability of teachers who can voluntarily take the

questionnaires. The participants were asked to involve the study during an in-service day when


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they have free time to respond the questions. Among 150 teachers, there were 126 responses but two

of them were excluded because of incomplete responses.

According to the responses there were 61 female and 63 male teachers. The participants’ teaching

majors were as follows; 43 classroom, 17 science and technology, 7 mathematics, 2 music, 15 early

childhood education, 9 language, 4 sport, 12 social study, 10 English teachers, and 2 counselor.

The participants were at young age group; 82 of them were between 20 and 30, 39 of them were

between 31 and 40, 2 of them were between 41 and 50, and 1 of them was older than 51 years old.

Based on the categorization in the previous research, media types are the key variable of this study.

Participants’ gender, ages, their computer skill levels, and their frequency for use of social media

were also used as dependent variables.

The Data Collection and Analysis

The data were gathered through a paper–based questionnaire. The questions were prepared by the

researcher but derived from the relevant literature. In order to ensure the validity of the instrument,

one more educator reviewed the questionnaire. The instrument had two main sections;

demographic information and media selection instrument.

The demographic questions were about gender, age, teaching major, computer skill level (Do not at

all, know little, know some, know well), types of social media use, and the frequency of social media

(More than 5 times a day, 1-2 times a day, 1-2 times a week, rarely, and never). There were 18

questions for media selection for learning. The responses were at 5-point Likert scale (scale from

‘Disagree Strongly’ (Coded 1) to ‘Agree Strongly’ (Coded 5)).

The analyses of the data were based on quantitative perspectives. Descriptive statistics were used to

examine the demographic data using SPSS version 16.0. One-sample statics was used to give mean

scores and standard deviations of teachers’ responses for each question. Spearman’s correlation was

used to examine correlation between key variables since the variables were nonparametric values.

Results

Descriptive statistics

As it was partly presented at the method section of this paper, most of the participants are young

teachers (82 of them were between 20 and 30 years old). The gender distribution is almost equal

(Male 51% and female 49%). The majors of the participants are representative for such educational

populations. The percentages of the participants’ teaching majors were as follows; classroom teacher

36%, science and technology 14%, mathematics 6%, music 2%, early childhood education 12%,

language 7%, sport 3%, social study 9%, English teaching 8%, and counselor 2%.

The participants were asked about their computer skill levels. According to the responses their

computer usability levels were as follows; only 1% of the teachers indicated that they do not know

how to use computers. Among the teachers 10% said they know little and 75% said they know well

how to use computers. The teachers who think they are very good at the computer are 14%.

Social media websites such as Facebook become popular in Turkey. Thus, teachers were asked about

their usage of such websites. The responses show that 85% use Facebook, 35% use Twitter, 69% use

Youtube, 3% use LinkedIn, and only 1% use Google+ websites.


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Teachers’ Preferable Media Types for Their Lessons

Descriptive statistics for all the key variables are presented in Table 1. On average, teachers reported

that they wanted to use graphics and shapes for teaching and learning as the most effective way 4.58

(out of 5) (SD= .512). Studying from the books was seen the least desired way for teaching and

learning 2.35 (out of 5) (SD=1.04).

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for key variables

N Mean

Std.

Deviati

on

Std. Error

Mean

Studying from books 123 2.35 1.040 .094

Learning from teacher 122 3.20 1.239 .112

Writing on boards 122 3.57 1.012 .092

Using audio for teaching 124 4.31 .642 .058

Using graphics and shapes 124 4.58 .512 .046

Using video 124 4.52 .577 .052

Doing group work 124 4.25 .833 .075

Encouraging for sharing information 124 4.03 .709 .064

Prior knowledge is important 124 4.44 .589 .053

Using computer for lessons 123 4.27 .780 .070

Using interactive boards 124 4.14 .905 .081

Using Facebook 124 2.50 1.165 .105

Using animations 123 4.37 .656 .059

Doing technical visits and observations 121 4.47 .684 .062

Doing experiences 121 4.54 .708 .064

Student can study by themselves by using

the Internet 121 2.60 1.201 .109

I like students to use social media for

learning 121 2.79 1.219 .111

The descriptive statistics listed on Table 1 shows that teachers mainly have positive views about

using most media types as part of learning and teaching. The mean scores for most of the questions

were over 4 points meaning that they agree on the statements. Such traditional median of teaching

as learning from teachers and writing on whiteboard has smaller means comparing with other

statements.

Nevertheless, the statement that students can study by themselves over the internet has mean lower

than 3 points. Similarly, the statement ‘I like students to use social media for learning’ also had

smaller mean score. The small mean scores show that there is negative perspective against doing

online education and using social media sites for learning.

RQ2: Is there any correlation between teachers’ ages and their media selection preferences?

Based on the rapid changes of technology in the last decades, there is a tendency that the differences

between teachers’ ages could affect their technology uses. The idea that purposed by Prensky (2001)

also purposed a digital divide which means that there is a gap of technology uses among


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generations. Since the data was non-parametric, Spearman’s correlation was used. In data table,

teachers social media use frequency was 5 for the highest usage and 1 for the lowest usage. The

statistical analysis of Spearman’s correlation is presented on Table 2.

Table 2. Correlations between teachers’ social media use frequency and their views about student

studying lessons on the internet and students use social media for their learning.

S

Media

Freq Age

Studying on

Internet

Social

Media for

learning

Spea

rma

n's

rho

S Media

Freq

Correlation

Coefficient 1.000 -.281** .303** .328**

Sig. (2-tailed) . .002 .001 .000

N 124 124 121 121

Age Correlation

Coefficient -.281** 1.000 -.236** -.214*

Sig. (2-tailed) .002 . .009 .018

N 124 124 121 121

Studyin

g on

Internet

Correlation

Coefficient .303** -.236** 1.000 .597**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .009 . .000

N 121 121 121 121

Social

Media

for

learning

Correlation

Coefficient .328** -.214* .597** 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .018 .000 .

N 121 121 121 121

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-

tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-

tailed).

A Spearman's correlation was run to determine the relationship between teachers’ ages and their

social media use frequency. There was a negative correlation between teachers computer skill levels

and their social media use frequency, but this correlation was not strong (rs= -.28, n = 124, p < .01).

Teachers’ social media frequencies and their preferences for studying over the internet were also

analyzed (Table 2). Based on a Spearman's correlation analysis, there was a positive correlation

between teachers’ social media usage frequency and their views about study over the internet (rs=

.30, n = 124, p < .01).

Similarly, teachers’ social media use frequencies and their views for using social media sites for

learning were also analyzed (Table 2). A Spearman's correlation was run to determine this

relationship. There was a positive, but weak, correlation between teachers’ social media use

frequency and their views for using social media sites for learning (rs= .32, n = 121, p < .01).

On the other hand, the relationship between teachers’ ages and their views about using the internet

and social media sites for their learning environments had reversed results (Table 2). According to

the analysis run with a Spearman's correlation, the correlation between teachers’ age and their views

using the internet for lessons was negative (rs= -.23, n = 121, p < .01) and the correlation between


Year 2014

34

teachers’ age and their views using social media for their lessons was also negative (rs= -.21, n = 121,

p < .01). Both of these correlations, however, were found weak.

RQ3: Is there any correlation between teachers’ computer use level and their media selection

preferences?

Teachers’ preferences for using the Internet and social media as a learning environment were

analyzed. The results show that there is no significant correlation between teachers’ computer levels

and their preferences to use internet and social media sites as learning environment (Table 3).

Table 3. Correlation between teachers computer levels and their preferences for studying

over the internet and social media sites

Comp_le

vel

Study

over

Internet

Social

Media

for

learning

Spearman's

rho

Comp_le

vel

Correlation

Coefficient 1.000 .143 .052

Sig. (2-tailed) . .118 .569

N 124 121 121

Study

over

Internet

Correlation

Coefficient .143 1.000 .597**

Sig. (2-tailed) .118 . .000

N 121 121 121

Social

Media

for

learning

Correlation

Coefficient .052 .597** 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) .569 .000 .

N 121 121 121

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Interactive boards were been widely installed in most Turkish schools to improve education quality.

Teachers who have these boards in their classrooms were trained. Thus, in this study, teachers were

asked if they see these boards useful for their lessons. A Spearman's correlation was run to

determine the relationship between teachers’ computer levels and their views on usefulness of

interactive boards in for their lessons (Table 4).

Table 4. The Correlation between teachers’ computer levels and their views about

interactive boards.

Comp

Level

Seeing

Interactiv

e Boards

useful

Spearman's

rho

Comp

Level

Correlation

Coefficient 1.000 .285**

Sig. (2-tailed) . .001

N 124 124


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35

Seeing

Interactiv

e Boards

useful

Correlation

Coefficient .285** 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) 0b .

N 124 124

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

b. Footnote

The results are presented on table 4. The results show that there is positive correlation was found

between teachers’ computer levels and their views on usefulness of interactive boards in for their

lessons. This correlation, however, was weak (rs= .28, n = 124, p < .01).Other than that, there was no

significant correlation between teacher age and their preferences for another media tools for their

learning environment.

RQ4: Is there any gender differences among teachers about their media selection for their

lessons?

It is common for studies on technology usage to investigate if there is a gender difference among

their media preferences for their lessons. Statistical analysis was conducted for all media types but

significant results were found only with teachers’ whiteboard usages.

Table 5. Group statistics for gender differences using white boards

Gend

er N Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

Using

white

boards

Male 62 3.81 .865 .110

Fema

le 58 3.34 1.101 .145

Table 6. Independent samples test for gender differences using white boards

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Lower Upper

Using White

Boards

Equal variances

assumed

12.490 .001 2.562 118 .012 .462 .180 .105 .818


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Table 6. Independent samples test for gender differences using white boards

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t Df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Lower Upper

Using White

Boards

Equal variances

assumed

12.490 .001 2.562 118 .012 .462 .180 .105 .818

Equal variances not

assumed

2.542 108.158 .012 .462 .182 .102 .822

The results show that male teachers had statistically significantly higher usage of whiteboards when

teaching (3.81 ± 0.81 ) at compared female teachers (3.34 ± 1.1), t(118) = 2.562, p = 0.012 (Table 5,

Table 6). Among other media preferences white boards was seen as traditional style for teaching and

learning.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine teachers’ views on their media preferences for learning

environments. As part of this study, teachers’ majors, age, gender, social media use and computer

skills were analyzed with their preferences for different media tools. The results are presented after

proper statistical analysis.

The descriptive statistics showed that the participants were from various background and majors.

Their genders and major areas were almost equally represented. Teachers’ computer levels and

social media use were also representative since the findings are parallel with statistics of Turkey

(TUIK, 2013).

The findings showed that teachers’ were open to most media types for their lessons. New media

types such as interactive white boards were more preferable compared with white boards.

However, using online systems and social media sites were also less preferable by the teachers for

their lessons. This could be negative representation of social website could lead teachers to not used

such tools for education. In addition, online education and distance education are still seen as a

secondary option for getting education.

Prensky’s proposal that there is a gap between generations for using technology has upraised in this

study as well. The study examined if teachers’ age has any correlation with other variables. The

findings showed that the use frequency of social media sites decrease when teachers’ age increases.

Similarly, there was also a negative correlation between teachers’ ages and their preference for using

internet and social media sites for learning environments. This finding supports the study by Morris

and Venkatesh (2000).


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At the other hand, teachers’ social media use was also analyzed as new trend in education. The

incredible grow of social media usage is similar among the participant of this study as well. The

study showed that teachers who use more social media sites are more likely to prefer internet based

education and learning over social media websites. These findings gives us clue that teachers who

get involve in social media networks are more likely to see educational benefits of this platforms as

learning environment.

Nevertheless, as it was found in this study, teachers’ computer levels were not seen as an effect of

preferences of new media type for learning environments. Teachers who have think that they are

good at computer are more likely to use interactive whiteboards compared to other teachers. These

same teachers, however, did not favor for using internet or social media sites for learning platforms.

There could be several causes of this findings but possible reason is that teachers who get a well

training on interactive white broads could feel better on computer skill but these same participants

may not see other media types as useful as interactive white boards because of training.

Gender differences for teachers’ preferences did not widely appear in this study. The differences

found were not significant for any media type except white board. In other words, both males and

females have similar preferences for media types but males were more like to use white boards for

their lessons. The preferences of this traditional media equipment could because of the teachers’

traditional teaching strategies. As Turel and Varol suggested in their studies what teachers teach

also lead them to select a media types for their lessons, therefore, female teachers who are dominant

at elementary schools may prefer more technological media types to present animated graphics and

images (2012).

Even though it was not the main goal of this paper, it is worth to note that teachers who wrote

comments for the open-ended question mainly stated that they need more training on the use of the

technology materials for their lessons. These findings are parallel to what Hammond, Reynolds, and

Ingram (2011), suggest training, mentoring and support as key factors to use technology for

education. However, as it was suggested above, the training should be out of formal lesson where

instructions do not more from abstract information to concrete knowledge.

No research study is without limitations. The following are the limitations of the study which could

not be prevailed over. First of all, the sample of the study was small. An upcoming study with more

participants could project better results. Secondly, ages of teachers were not equally representing the

teacher population of Turkey since mainly young teachers are appointed to this school area. In

addition, observation and checklist that count what actually teachers use at their lessons could

improve the validity of this study.

Conclusion

Teachers want to use new media types of for their lessons but social media sites and online

education are still seen as less preferable. The study shows that teachers are at the bridge level

where they do not want to use traditional teaching methods and media types for their teaching but

have fear of using new media types over the internet. The findings of this study also guide

educators on the perspective that teachers who interact with new media types are more likely to

explore educational benefits of these tools as a learning environment. Other teachers should be

trained but not as formal boring training but a free time and activity based training that teachers can

explore the benefits of these new media platforms.


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Similar findings were observed the computer skill variable that teachers with higher computer skill

were more favor of using interactive white boards for their lessons. These teachers may found the

benefit of these media types after their technology trainings. It is also possible to make a conclusion

from this finding that teachers who started to use such new media types have confidence to indicate

that they are good at computer skills.

As a conclusion of this study, it is important to suggest that teachers need hands on training to be

able to overcome troubles of actual classroom cases. In addition, As Bai and Ertmer suggest teachers

should be trained when they are at university and therefore university faculty need these trainings

first (2008). These trainings should not be limited to basic technology instruction but should be

about using technology and other media types as tool or platform to enhance learning and improve

interaction based the characteristics of learners, content and pedagogy method .

Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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Academics Development: Aspirations vs. Realities at Haramaya

University

Yilfashewa Seyoum

Assistant Professor of Curriculum Design and Development

College of Education and Behavioral Sciences,

Haramaya University

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This study purports to investigate the gap between anticipations of professional

development programs and the actual implementation practices at Haramaya University. It

also aimed at discovering the effect of various professional development endeavors on

academic staff capacity and the difference it brought on the processes of university training

and education as whole. A case study that constitutes qualitative and quantitative methods,

a mixed research approach was employed. In an attempt to achieve the objectives of the

study, evidences were collected from staff members, professional development program

coordinators and management bodies. The tools for obtaining relevant information were

questionnaires, interview, and document analysis. The result obtained shown that the

existing system of professional development was a top-down approach, which was

dominantly characterized by donor driven than demand driven. The place of teacher to

develop, and fully participate in preparation of materials and institutionalization of the

professional development program was less regarded or totally non-existent. Moreover, the

study strongly underpinned that since there was no a system for need analysis, all the

beneficiaries was not at the same level of satisfying position. Apparently, as there was no

established practices to make a tracer study in making a follow-up of those participants

who had been involved in a professional development training, it seems very difficult if not

impossible to know the magnitude and intensity of differences brought on teachers

behaviour. In general, it is concluded that in the present system of professional

development initiative, there is a visible gap between dreams and real practices.

Key Terms/Phrases

Academics Development and Professional Development



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Introduction

Background of the Study

Presently, academic development has become a common interest of educational policy makers,

researchers and practitioners. Various reasons can be attributed to this escalating concern on

teachers’ professional development. Guskey(2002) identified three major factors. These are the

growing pressure and accountability on educational institutions, the growth of knowledge in the

field of teaching and a constant inherent desire to improve teaching so as to realize each student’s

potential and academic attainment. Researchers argue that success in the implementation of

professional development programs is a decisive input for promoting teachers professional

competencies and enhancing quality in education and training (Gordon, 2004). In the era

globalization, the profession of teaching sets the contractual context for professional review and

development. Acordingly, teachers must have a continuous review of their development needs and

the institution must take the responsibility to promote professional development activity: practice,

reflection, theory and action, these are the essential parts of professional development (Sultana et al,

2010).

Studies in the field of professional development pinpointed out that academic development has

been considered as a long term process that includes regular opportunities and experiences planned

systematically to promote growth and development in the profession. This shift has been so

dramatic that many have referred to it as a ‘new image’ of teacher learning, a ‘new model’ of teacher

education, a ‘revolution’ in education, and even a ‘new paradigm’ of professional development

(Cochran Smith and Lytle, 2001). To this effect, academics have to specify whether they want to

develop or not, the extent of development they need and what can be done on their part and others.

The organizations, at the same time should acknowledge the importance of professional

development and should put in place a development plan for its staff member (Visscher and Coe,

2002; Farkota, 2005).

In Ethiopian context, as a major initiative to address problems related to access, equity, and quality

of educational provision, the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) introduced the Education

and Training Policy (ETP) in 1994. The ETP emphasized the principle of decentralized educational

authority to the regional states and called for new paradigms of education based on relevant, active,

and student-centered teaching and learning. The ETP established the foundations for all subsequent

strategies, guidelines and programs. In the series of the Education Sector Development Programs

(ESDP), ESDP I, II and III which were developed in 1997, 2002 and 2005 respectively, for creating

trained and skilled human power at all levels, the need for professional development has been

highly stressed. More importantly, while all policy documents claim the importance of teachers’

effort for promoting learning, the emphasis on improving teachers’ quality has boldly been stated in

the 2005 Education Sector Development Program (MoE, 2005). The Ministry of Education has given

priority for continuous professional development (CPD) assuming that it is the right of teachers as

well as of a great value for institutional and national development(MoE, 2009).

Context of Haramaya University

Up to 1985 Addis Ababa University was the only university in the country. Afterward, it was

upgraded to university status in 1985 with three decades of functioning as Alemaya Agricultural

College (Rayner & Ashcroft, 2011). At the moment, in Haramaya University, several units have been

in operation to strengthen the deliberation of professional development programs very

enthusiastically. One of the practical evidences for this can be the effort rendered by Ministry of


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Education to launch different professional development programs. The ADRC, one of the PDPs in

the university, has been offering courses such as instructional skills, ICT in education, course and

program design and review as well as assessment and quality issues in higher education for more

than 200 staff members between the academic years 2006/07 and 2009/10. The HDP has also been

another important PDP established for offering of training to those academic staff members in the

teacher education colleges. Presently, the PGDHET has also been making effort to resume the

previous professional development training programs with strong passion.

This study was relied on Haramaya University (HU) owing to the interest and the logistical

predilection of the investigator. In essence, the study focuses on Haramaya University due to

considering the experience and the location of the researcher. The researcher has been working as

academic staff member in the College of Education and as the coordinator of ADRC at Haramaya

University for more than a decade.

Statement of the Problem

The researcher relied on the area of study considering his experience as instructor in the offering of

various professional courses and the opportunity that he had been the coordinator of the

Department of Pedagogical Sciences and Academic Development and Resource Center (ADRC) at

Haramaya University. Moreover, the opportunity the researcher had got being a candidate of

Higher Diploma Program (HDP) helped him to scrutinize the problem gravely and profoundly.

Meanwhile the endeavor of some agencies/centers (e.g. HERQA, HESC) under MoE to sustain

quality through Teachers’ Development Program (TDP) was another momentous prospect that

inspires and encourages him to focus on the topic under consideration.

Since teachers are the most valuable resource available to higher education institutions in the

realization of academic programs and institutional goal, an investment in teacher quality and

ongoing professionalism is imperative. This mission can only be realized by ensuring that teachers

are equipped with subject matter knowledge and an evidence- and standards-based repertoire of

pedagogical skills that are demonstrably effective in meeting the developmental and learning needs

of all students for whom they have responsibility—regardless of students’ backgrounds and intake

characteristics, and whether or not they experience learning difficulties (Darling-Hammond &

Bransford, 2005; Westwood, 2006; Wheldall, 2006).

Nevertheless, studies in relation to quality education signify that among the factors affecting quality

of teaching in Ethiopian higher education institutions was the fact that pedagogical training has not

been considered or less regarded (Abyot, 2001). At the moment although, there are certain initiatives

in teachers’ professional development, the effect was not encouraging. Moreover, Minale (2006) after

studying the condition of Addis Ababa University found that the level of organizational support to

the professional training and mainly the implementation appears to be not so much valued by

participants.

Continuous staff development programs should be organized to effectively and efficiently address

varied needs that help to meet the mission and changes or reforms introduced in an institution.

Unless an extensive effort is exerted to continuously develop the academics, the implications to

make an institution competitive nationally and internationally as judged by the knowledge they

produce using current teaching and learning contents and approaches, as well as educational

technology gadgets seems to be questionable (Aytaged, 2012).

Literature in the field of professional development disclosed that few efforts have been made to

assess the policy and the outcome of professional development beyond the brief responses


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requested at the conclusion of workshops that solely depend on participant reaction. For example, in

a meta-analysis of the results of professional development, Wade (1995) concludes that few accounts

present concrete evidence of professional development effects on teachers and students. Likewise,

Loucks and Melle (1992) further put that most staff development reports are simply statements of

participant satisfaction. Also, the researcher’s felt that there was no detailed and in-depth analysis of

the status of academics professional development programs at Haramaya University. To this end,

this professional development study was designed to begin to fill this gap. The study was directed

to explore and analyze the problem under the title ‚Academic Staff Development: Aspirations vs.

Realities at Haramaya University‛. And, in order to carry this out, the following leading questions

were formulated:

To what extent does the implementation of academic development materialized?

To what extent do the provision of facilities and resources facilitate the implementation

of professional development programs?

To what extent do faculty members satisfied with the existing professional

development initiatives?

What contributions to the professional competencies of faculty members and

institutional culture were made as a result of professional development

opportunities?

To this effect, the researcher was involved in the description of events, exploration of facts and

assessment of the present direction of staff development programs in Ethiopian Higher Education

Institutions in general and Haramaya university in particular.

Significance of the Study

This study would have significant contribution to give direction for program planners and

developers to endorse and integrate the current professional development frameworks in the

process of academic program implementation. In more specific terms, the study can serve as

foundation for policy maker in the sector of higher education in general and to the field of

professional development in particular. Also, this study can be steppingstone to design appropriate

staff development scheme in Ethiopian higher education institutions.

While the contributions focus on the experience of universities, the principles and proposals for

future directions could also be true for all higher education institutions in Ethiopia. Last but not

least, the study could serve as a starting point for initiating other researchers in a wider scale on the

same issue or related to this as an input for improving the quality of education in the system of

higher education.

Research Methodology

Research Design

This investigation was a case study design and planned to make an in-depth scrutiny of mode of

PDP, implementation and the status of the professional development at Haramaya University. Case

studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their

relationships explored through the use of one or more cases within a setting or context (Yin, 2009).

To provide in-depth understanding and allow for use of multiple data sources, both quantitative


Year 2014

44

and qualitative data, mixed methods, were used. A mixed methods research combines or associates

both qualitative and quantitative forms (Creswell, 2009) and is useful when the strengths of both

quantitative and qualitative research can provide the best understanding. Yin (2009) describes

qualitative methods as studies that generate words to describe people’s action, behaviors, and

interactions. Creswell, (2009) put it that quantitative studies generate numbers derived from

questionnaires, tests, and experiments. Often both approaches are combined in a single study

resulting in greater depth and breadth.

Population and Sample

As it was briefly enunciated in the above, Haramaya University as study center was taken into

account. As a result, the respondents for the given study were the group containing all university

instructors, department heads, college deans and management bodies who have been involved in

developing, receiving, organizing and/or monitoring the professional development programs in the

study site under consideration. Moreover, individuals who were/have been directly or indirectly

involved in policy formulation (people who took part in preparation of policies, guidelines,

frameworks, blue prints, etc) and decision makers at all levels were also part and parcel of the study.

With regard to the sampling procedures, simple random, and stratified sampling methods were

employed to select representative sample from academic staff members. Likewise, using mixed

purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002) specifically, criterion sampling (cases that meet some criterion),

ten senior instructors and PDP coordinators, and 12 academic program leaders were incorporated as

core informant of the given study. Likewise, using simple and stratified random sampling

techniques, 122 academic staff members were included as a sample of the study. See the following

table to have better understanding on how the sampling among the academic staff members was

materialized.

Table 1: Sampling

Population Sample

Male Female Male Female

669 68 135(102) 23(20)

*Figures in the bracket shows the actual/exact number of sample included in this study

Data Collecting Instruments

The tools designed to collect data were closed and open-ended type of questionnaire (academic staff

members), interview guide (for senior instructors, coordinators, and academic leaders) and

document analysis (policy/strategic documents and progress reports). Accordingly, the primary

sources of the data were instructors, training facilitators and program leaders who in one way or

another involved in planning and running the professional development programs. Similarly,

secondary sources of the data were information secured from policy and strategic documents, as

well as other published and unpublished document of Haramaya University.


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Data Collecting Procedures

Information was collected from the respondents through distributing questionnaires in their own

place and at their own conveniences. Moreover, some qualitative data also secured through direct

contact in a face to face interview. In this way, the researcher created the opportunity to meet and

talk with respondents, and was able to avoid unnecessary skepticisms and haziness. It was the belief

of the inquirer that such procedures for collecting information could increase the credibility and the

validity of the data procured.

Method of Data Analysis

The way data analysis employed could be seen from two major dimensions: qualitative and

quantitative data analysis methods. In quantitative data analysis (information procured through

questionnaires), parametric test like Analysis of Variance was taken into consideration. Moreover,

considering its appropriateness, the Chi-square statistical test for checking the significance

difference between observed and expected frequencies was employed. Similarly, in qualitative

analysis, identification of thematic areas, in depth explanations, narrations and interpretations were

employed.

Results and Discussion

The result of this study is organized around four thematic areas. Namely:

Conditions of the academic staff professional development programs

Implementation of the professional development programs

Academic staff satisfaction as a result of professional development programs

Contribution of professional development programs to practices

Conditions of the Academic Staff Professional Development Programs

Professional development policy

In Haramaya University, except the ETP and other related documents (guideline for continuous

professional development; A Blue Print for Ethiopian Teachers Development Program, and a new

Framework for Continuous Professional Development of Teachers, School Leaders and Educators in

Ethiopia), there were no well stated policy that are specifically related to the staff development

programs in Haramaya University. In the context of the university, the senate legislation

emphasizes the importance of staff development initiatives. The document stressed on the effort to

build-up staff development plan and organizes short and long term training programs (Haramaya

University, 2013). Thus, it is possible to infer that there were initiatives on the establishment

professional development guidelines. However, as all the documents were prepared centrally, these

lack specificity (not context related). In connection to this, studies revealed that a coherent

professional development policy must be devised, which is related to the universities vision and

mission. A policy is instrumental in the attainment of its aims and objectives, when it is supported

by an appropriate budget provision (Bolton, 2001, Rothwell & Arnold, 2006).

Training modules included in the professional development program


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In Haramaya University, the current professional development training coordinating center is

designated as Post Graduate Diploma in Higher Education Teaching (PGDHET). The center is

responsible to organize and/or give support in training. In a document study, it is found that the

following professional training modules were included.

Table 2: Professional development training modules

Module Title Hour

Module 1 Reflective

instructors

22

Module 2 Teaching with

ALMS

24

Module 3 Program designing 18

Module 4 Assessment 20

Module 5 Special needs 8

Module 6 IT 8

Total 100

In the course of continuous teachers professional development practices, although it is a recent

phenomenon to establish centers/divisions/coordinating offices in Ethiopian universities there were

formal/informal discussion among instructors/professors on academic matters, curriculum

development and research practices. More importantly, through the control of the academic vice

president office, one can assure that there were short-term trainings offered to the academic staff

members organized at international, national and institutional levels.

On the other hand, according to the national document of TESO, more formalized and relatively

well structured professional development training was started in the academic year 2003/04 with the

title of Higher Diploma Program (HDP) (MOE, 2003). HDP is a one year on-the-job training of

teacher educators, mainly on such themes like active learning, reflective practice, continuous

assessment, and action research (Temesgen, 2006, Minale 2006). Furthermore, in response to the

demand to professionalism and the concern to quality education, starting from the academic year

2005/06 through special funding assistance from Nuffic of the government of the Netherlands, the

establishment of staff professional development programs at nine universities had been actualized

(where Haramaya university is part of these). This staff development program was named as

Academic Development and Resource Center (ADRC) and one of the main roles of this center was

continuous professional training (Cantrell, 2009). Hence, the idea and practice of formalized

professional development training was a recent initiative.


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From the above fact, what has been understood and practiced by the universities as an element of

PDP is INSET. This has usually been organized and offered by centers like HDP, ADRC and

PGDHET. As one respondent reflect it:

On my part, I have benefited a lot from HDP and other professional development practices. I have

effectively employed some of the insights in the professional development activities to organize my

teaching and to promote the culture of discussion. Professional development practices are helpful in

managing differences and resolving misunderstandings, I guess (ED: March, 2011).

On the other hand, another respondent contrasting the above idea provide it:

There was Higher Diploma Program I took part, but I quitted because it was memorization of facts

than exploration into new horizons. If training is ‚ticking‛ to inventories-as is it the case in this

program, it is so boring, nonsense, masticating of what PD means. PD has to involve, rather,

challenging and changing the policy and educational system- practice vis-a vis new theoretical

insight. This is impossible under current Ethiopian condition. In other words, freedom, freedom of

consciousness and action are all inexistent and hence PD never realizes where these are suppressed

in Ethiopia and the university (D. D, March, 2011)

It means the dominant approach to PD has been staff training and this was strongly criticized by

scholars like Guskey (2000) to consider it as a sole means of teachers’ professional development. On

top of this, although some respondents feel that the training was essential to their profession, other

asserted that the provision of INSET was redundant and boring. Consequently, respondents

expressed their view that they did not get what is expected from the current INSET under operation.

Budget and trainees of the professional development programs

In Haramaya University, the budget assigned for the purpose of professional development

programs was not known and it was not also regular. Recently, however, the university started to

allocate constant budget for the academic professional training programs. In view of that, the

university has allotted Ethiopian Birr equal to 500,000 from university budget and 565, 784 from

project fund (in 2012/13 academic year) for the purpose of payment to trainers’ honorarium,

trainees’ allowance and arrangement of refreshment during training (Haramaya University, 2013).

As the current professional development program coordinator clearly put, the money budgeted for

the purpose of academic staff professional development training is sufficient. As he articulated:

In terms of budget allocation, we did not face problem. Our problem lies on accessing well

experienced and trained facilitators. Since experienced and trained facilitators are leaving the

university for various reasons (e.g. long- term training, transfer to other university), we encountered

quite a lot of problems to involve as many candidates as possible (Kk: March, 2013).

Regarding the number of trainees, only 107 academic staff members had participated in the recent

training programs organized by PGDHET. As, the coordinator stated, there is no recorded data on

the number of enrolments and the rate of dropout of the training programs. As a result, it is found

challenging to judge the effectiveness and efficiency of the professional development training under

operation. Overall, the number of trainees involved in the recent professional development program

was very small as compared to the existing faculty members in the university.

Implementation of PDP at Haramaya University

Conditions created for the implementation of professional development

In order to examine the conditions in the implementation of professional development programs, a

questionnaire was prepared and employed as a tool for gathering important evidence. In general,

the questionnaire consists of four dimensions: appropriateness of professional development


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programs to the day-to-day practice of faculty members; accessibility of the necessary

resources/facilities; support from colleagues and program leaders; and consideration of time for

professional development practices.

Availability of the professional development event was established by the respondents ‘yes’

response. And the non-availability of the professional development event was designated by the

respondents ‘no’ response. Overall, the frequencies of faculty members response under ‘yes’ and

‘no’ categories were used in each dimension for calculating the Chi-square and checking hypothesis

of equal probability. Let us examine Table 4:

Table 3: The significance difference between observed and expected frequencies

Yes No Chi square Remark

Relevance Observed 69(56) 53(44) 2.10 Not significant

Expected 61 61

Resources Observed 49(40) 73(60) 4.72 Significant(.05)

Expected 61 61

Support Observed 20(16) 102(84) 55.12 Significant(.01)

Expected 61 61

Time Observed 34(28) 88(72) 23.90 Significant(.01)

Expected 61 61

*Numbers in the brackets are percentages

In table 3, it can be observed that the activities of professional development training have relevance

to the actual classroom practice as coined by 56 percent of the respondents. And the remaining 44

percents of the respondents found PDPs as unrelated to their upcoming professional duties.

However, the existence of facilities, collegial support and adequate time in the implementation of

professional development programs were identified by below the average percentage of the

respondents. This is because, as the data evidenced only 40 percent of respondents for resource, 16

percent of the respondents for support, and 28 percent of the respondents for time indicated the

availability or fulfillment of conditions in the implementation of professional development

programs. Accordingly, the necessary conditions for implementation of professional development

initiatives were not provided up to the expected level as shown by the majority of the research

participants.

Moreover, Table 3 clearly demonstrated that the obtained values of Chi-square for facilities, support

and time (4.7, 55.1, and 23.9 respectively) were significant at 0.05 and 0.01 levels with degree of

freedom equal to 1. This means that there was a significant gap between the plan and the actual

practices in the implementation of the professional development programs in Haramaya University.

Consequently, the need to devise strategies to enhance the transferability of faculty members

professional development to experiences, resources allocation, time consideration and support to

the implementation of professional development need be to be considered as the most urgent and

opportune conditions. Zinn and Caffarela(1999) pinpointed that professional development,

whatever its form and model can be aided or impeded by a variety of factors. These factors can be

classified into four domains within which these support or impede the influence of professional

development (1) people and interpersonal relationships, (2) institutional structures, (3) personal

considerations and commitments, and (4) intellectual and psychosocial characteristics. Zinn, and


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Caffarela, further clarified that these four domains are useful when thinking through supports and

barriers to professional development programs and career success for higher education institutions.

Similarly, Loucks-Horsley (1998) examined different contextual factors that influence professional

development events. As a result, students, faculty members, classroom practices (curriculum,

instruction, assessment and the learning environment), policies; resources, organizational structures

and culture, time, and history of professional development are factors to affect the implementation

of professional development.

Faculty members assessment of the professional development programs

In an endeavor to have clear understanding about faculty members’ assessment, a questionnaire

was used to measure the views of respondents on the existing professional development programs.

Accordingly, items on rating scales (alternatives that include ‘Not at all’, ‘Rarely’, ‘Often’, and

‘Always’) in which the participants were asked to demonstrate their assessment of the phenomenon

with the relevant statement from four for ‘always’ to one for ‘Not at all’ was developed. Look at

Table 4, to see how this was organized in quantitative terms.

Table 4: Faculty members’ assessment of the professional development programs

N Mean SD

Needs identified have been met through professional development(PD) 122 2.10 1.07

PD generally meets the needs of the institution than me personally 122 2.48 1.17

I feel that I have a part in setting the agenda for PD trainings 122 1.95 1.11

I feel that too many training days are driven by university PDPs 122 2.08 1.06

PD providers think of it mainly as a commercial activity 122 1.95 1.06

PD provides me the opportunity to improve my teaching & skills 122 2.70 1.24

*Minimum point is 0 & Maximum point is 4

Table 4 shows that professional development programs provide faculty members the opportunity to

improve their teaching awareness and skills have attained highest mean value. From this finding,

one can understand that although respondents’ identified the contribution of professional

development endeavors to improve their teaching awareness and skills, other important

professional needs were not considered. The reason for this could be the absence of need assessment

practices and the inclination to consider only the national/institutional need than individual needs.

On the other hand, faculty members’ involvement in setting agenda for professional development

practices was given least score. This refers to involvement of faculty members in planning the

upcoming activities were not taken seriously into account. Faculty members’ prioritization of the

professional development plan to meet the need of the institution rather than individuals was in the

second place. Meaning, faculty members’ needs and interests were not primarily considered in the

deliberation of PDP. Overall, it can be deduced that faculty members’ involvement in planning and

enacting the PD initiatives seems less regarded.


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Meanwhile, in an interview conducted with selected staff members and data secured in

open ended responses, it can be inferred that absence of practical applications was the

major cause for irritation of the participants. Poor presentation or delivery of pedagogy

and weak planning coming close behind were some of the uncomfortable situation that

debilitate the implementation of professional development programs. Some of the

participants’ reflection in an open ended item looks like this: ‘Silly games or irrelevant

topics that do nothing for me in the classroom’. As one informant in an interview

mentioned it:

Professional development means spending a lot of time on government initiatives and slavish

following of government videos. I noted that the delivery of content did contain some variation;

much was made of repetition. Activities which rely mainly on us were the trainees’ ideas and there

were no news. It was dominantly repetition of the same kind of INSET (GH: March, 2011).

The other category contained mixed feelings, positive and negative comments. ‘All INSET days have

been superb’. More responses touched on matters such as ‘overload’ and ‘absence of follow up’.

‘Just giving us more work to do when we have no time’. From the reflections, therefore, it is possible

to infer that faculty members’ assessment and ways of looking at the professional development

activities were assorted and are of mixing nature with favorable and unfavorable feeling to the

implementation of the professional development programs in Haramaya University.

Table 5: Summary of ANOVA-Mean differences of faculty members’ assessment

Respondents

attributes

Source of variations Sum of

Squares

Df Mean

Square

F Sig.

Sex Between Groups 2.545 17 .150 1.099 .365

Within Groups 14.176 104 .136

Total 16.721 121

Academic Rank Between Groups 17.061 17 1.004 1.104 .360


Total 111.574 121

College Between Groups 193.693 17 11.394 1.448 .130

Within Groups 818.602 104 7.871

Total 1012.295 121

Teaching

Experience

Between Groups 1211.809 17 71.283 1.270 .226

Within Groups 5835.732 104 56.113

Total 7047.541 121


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Table 5 demonstrated that the mean differences in faculty members assessment across variables as

sex, academic rank, and experience in teaching. The result revealed that there was no significant

mean difference in the assessment of faculty members at 0.05 level of significance. Moreover, it was

found that assessment of faculty members on the implementation of PDP is consistent across the

existing colleges. Meaning, although it is fact that faculty members vary in some demographic and

professional characteristics, they have uniform judgments on the general condition of professional

development programs in Haramaya University.

Appropriateness of the professional development programs

Regarding the relevance of the various professional development initiatives, interview discourses

were carried out with respondents and they have drawn out the following arguments. We can see

how the succeeding respondent in interviews sessions expressed negatively about the

appropriateness of PDPs in place:

Was the training useful in developing your instructional practice? Meaningful learning does occur

inside-out! The externally imposed HDP cannot improve my instructional practice because it was

born sick-designed outside-in, top-down. Moreover, it is a campaign. Learning is never campaign-

like professional development must be consistent and always on-the-process (DT: March, 2011).

On the other hand, in an archival study where trainees were asked to reflect their feeling about the

existing PD training, the following respondent put it like this:

Now, I feel that I am a better practitioner than I used to be. I have acquired immense practical

knowledge and skills to deal with my lecture dominant teaching methods presented in training

module. I suggest that the time allotted for some module be increased in relation to other modules.

The module on ICT is really fascinating. I wish I could put into practice what I have gained from

module (GG: March, 2011).

Views on the usefulness of professional development programs for faculty members are numerous

and they are also different. Some see it as everything that a learning experience should not be. It is

worthless and rarely sustained, deficit oriented, radically under-resourced and politically imposed

rather than professionally based, lacking in intellectual rigor or coherence and treated as an add-on

rather than as an inherent part of a natural growth process. In short, it is an ill-designed,

pedagogically naive and demeaning exercise that often makes participants more cynical than

making them become more knowledgeable, or committed.

On the other hand, some other respondents acknowledged the contributions of professional

development training programs to their classroom practice. And, as trainees put it in their formal

reflections, the contributions of professional development experiences were immense, unique and

have extremely affected their approach in teaching. To mention few, the professional development

training helped them to identify and manage the complexity of classroom environment and the way

they assess the learning performance of their students. Expressing the importance of training in

acquainting the various assessment methods, another discussant added that:

I can now safely say that I feel that I am a professional in managing my students in classroom

practices. I am very well introduced to the available classroom presentation methods. I am very

grateful. Surprisingly, I did not think that I should deal with some students that need to be treated

differently. I presumed that all students are the same. Thanks to the training module special needs

and inclusive education. Now, I know that I should take into consideration individual differences


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while dealing with students at every stage including during delivery and assessment of classroom

instruction (YM: March, 2011).

Moreover, a key finding in open ended responses was that faculty members viewed professional

development programs as effective when it was relevant and also when they could apply their

training to classroom situations. This held constant across all fields and colleges. Not surprisingly,

the issue of tailoring professional development efforts or programs to specific needs was more

important for faculty members in various colleges. Similarly, beneficiaries’ involvement in

designing and enacting professional development programs was less regarded or totally ignored.

Younger faculty members have better perceptions than experienced and were more concerned that

the content and delivery of INSET was of a high standard and most faculty members disliked INSET

where they felt they were the main contributors. Faculty members expressed the need for new

information and being treated as a professional. Newly qualified academic staff members in

particular were looking for insights into improving their classroom skills and so were keen that the

delivery and content of INSET was appropriate. Venue and timing appeared to be of little concern

although some academic staff members have difficulties with venues which were merely

concentrated to the main campus. Meanwhile, the investigation pointed out to some issues in the

university academic programs regarding tension between departmental and whole institution

agenda. Meaning, the professional development initiatives were in trouble to choose between the

need of individual and the institution demands.

Academic staff satisfaction on the PDP of Haramaya University

The respondents were asked how much satisfied they had been with their professional development

experience over the last 5 years. They were required to tick a box on a rating scale which ranged

from 1 = a very little extent to 5 = a very great extent.

Table 6: Faculty members’ satisfaction with professional development

N Mean SD

On professional development 122 2.63 1.48

On promotion prospects 122 2.23 1.59

On teaching skills 122 2.95 1.47

On self-confidence/self-esteem 122 3.09 1.59

On the desire to learn more 122 3.21 1.62

On student learning outcomes 122 2.87 1.50

On leadership skills 122 2.71 1.51

Aggregate mean 2.86

One can observe from Table 6 that the overall score, 2.86 indicating that most faculty members were

satisfied than dissatisfied with their professional development experience. The table further reveals


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that although other sectors seem higher than the average value with regard to their promotion

prospects, respondents seem relatively dissatisfied. Moreover, faculty member’s improvement in

developing leadership skills was not carried out as other dimensions of the professional

development plan were enacted. In open-ended responses, faculty members enunciated that

although they are unhappy at the beginning of the planned professional development training, once

they involved, they develop interest through time in the activities and the contents of professional

development trainings.

A similar study conducted by Department of Education and Skills by Manchester Metropolitan

University and Education Data Surveys revealed that most faculty members were satisfied with

their professional development programs over the last 10 years. The study further identified that

unfavorable feelings were linked with ‘one size fits all’ standardized professional development

provision, which did not consider faculty members existing knowledge, experience and needs

(Gray, 2006).

Table 7: Summary of ANOVA-Mean differences of faculty members’ satisfaction

Respondents

attributes

Source of

variations

Sum of

Squares

Df Mean

Square

F Sig.

Sex Between Groups 2.053 19 .108 .751 .757


Total 16.721 121

Academic Rank Between Groups 15.056 19 .792 .837 .658


Total 111.574 121

Colleges Between Groups 149.080 19 7.846 .927 .552

Within Groups 863.215 102 8.463

Total 1012.295 121

Teaching

Experience

Between Groups 837.479 19 44.078 .724 .787

Within Groups 6210.062 102 60.883

Total 7047.541 121

Faculty members’ level of satisfaction on the existing professional development endeavor was

encouraging. Along with this finding respondents’ satisfaction level across variables sex, academic

rank, and experience in teaching was also investigated. The result uncovers the fact that there was

no significant difference in faculty members’ satisfaction at 0.05 level of significance. Moreover,


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respondents’ satisfaction on the implementation of PDP was consistent across academic colleges.

This refers to the satisfaction level of faculty members was almost identical in Haramaya University

when college was considered as variable.

More importantly, the findings in Table 7 affirmed that although the college of agriculture has

relatively long experience in teaching, research and extension services than other colleges, this has

not bring difference in the responses of faculty members. Similarly, although it is assumed that

respondents in the college of education and behavioral sciences have more acquaintance of the

professional development practices than other colleges in the university; this did not bring

difference on the level faculty members’ satisfaction.

In relation to the above findings, Mosha(2006) substantiated that faculty members’ satisfaction is the

most important of all factors that affect practitioners’ endeavor and commitment for academics

development activities. Faculty members’ intrinsic drive towards self improvement cannot be

matched with any amount of pressure from the educational managers. To this end, for real

development to take place, the academic herself/himself has to perceive it positively. Briefly, the

academic has to recognize the need to grow professionally. In other words, PD is an inherent

process and is strongly connected to the practitioners’ desire for growth and change. An imposed or

top down PD effort cannot bring contentment and may be a failure if the practitioner has not

naturally a positive emotion for it (Payne, 2010).

Contributions of Professional Development to Practice

Professional development influence on the standards of education

Table 8: Professional development influence on the standards of education

To what extent over the last 5 years PDPs have improved standards of educational activities

N Mean SD

The standard of teaching in your college 122 2.93 1.40

The standard of student learning in your college 122 2.82 1.32

The level of commitment to the teaching profession 122 2.84 1.31

The Level of skills and knowledge amongst academics 122 3.12 1.36

Learning improvement generally 122 3.03 1.45

*Minimum point is 1 & Maximum point is 5

As clearly put it in Table 8, faculty members felt that professional development had significantly

increased the standard of teaching in their colleges and the standard of students learning, but had

least impact on commitment to academic development generally. In open ended items, respondents

articulated that professional development had given them increased confidence and particularly

cherished the opportunity to exchange ideas with each other. Moreover, respondents’ perceptions

on the implementation of existing professional development to improve the standard of educational


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activities were encouraging. This indicates how faculty members’ level of motivation raised as a

result of the professional development training in their respective institutions.

A parallel study conducted by Lessing & Marike (2007) found that the workshop had had personal

value for practitioners and it helped them to improve their work, provided knowledge, developed

excellence and efficiency, and contributed to a change in existing teaching habits. Faculty members

indicated that the workshop had enhanced their critical thinking about their teaching methods,

developed competence and made them aware of whole institutional development. Faculty members

agreed with the significance of professional development and felt that the commitments they had

made were worthwhile.

Table 9: Summary of ANOVA-Mean differences of faculty members’ perceptions

Respondents

attributes

Source of

variations

Sum of

Squares

Df Mean

Square

F Sig.



Total 16.721 121

Academic Rank Between Groups 31.044 26 1.194 1.409 .118


Total 111.574 121

College Between Groups 239.892 26 9.227 1.135 .320

Within Groups 772.404 95 8.131

Total 1012.295 121

Teaching

Experience

Between Groups 1504.628 26 57.870 .992 .487

Within Groups 5542.913 95 58.346

Total 7047.541 121

In general, faculty members’ perceptions of PDPs to augment the level of educational activities were

positive. The perceptions of respondents across variables sex, academic rank, and teaching

experience was also examined. The result indicated that there was no significant difference in the

perceptions of respondents at 0.05 level of significance. Moreover, it is found that the perceptions of

respondents to augment the level of educational activities were consistent across academic colleges

in Haramaya University.


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Students perceptions of faculty members ’s classroom practice

In order to look at the level of students’ satisfaction on faculty members who participated in

professional development training, students’ questionnaire that constitutes alternative responses

that range from ‚Very good‛ to ‚Very poor‛ were adapted. In this instrument, appropriate

statement on five-point scale from five for ‘very good’ to one for ‘very poor’ was constructed.

Table 10: Students perceptions of faculty members’ classroom practices

Dimension Mean SD Remark

Lesson preparations 4.01 1.192

Lesson presentations 4.16 1.205

Classroom management 3.89 1.314

Assessment /evaluation 3.73 1.416

Overall 3.94 1.115

*Minimum and maximum points of the measurement scale are 1 and 5 respectively

Table 10 clearly designated that overall the average point assigned for faculty members was 3.94 out

of the maximum (5 point). This means, the average perceptions score of students regarding faculty

members’ competencies was very good. Moreover, the table value (SD= 1.1) again, tells us how

much respondents vary among each other in their perceptions. It tells us the respondents’ variation

in terms of perceptions of faculty members’ classroom practice was very small or negligible. Overall,

students’ perceptions pertaining to the faculty members’ ability to deliver classroom session was up

to the expectation. Hence, it can be concluded that faculty members who in one way or another

involved in professional development trainings were perceived as very good which also indicates

that the training was well-situated to classroom practices.

Moreover, the result in Table 10 also shows that faculty members’ professional competencies as

perceived by their students in the areas of lesson preparations (4.01) and lesson presentations (4.16)

were better than classroom management (3.89) and assessment techniques (3.71). Specifically, the

mean value of faculty members’ competency in the area of student assessment was lower than the

mean values of the three dimensions of teaching competencies specified in Table 10. Accordingly,

the result obtained can be taken as indicator for future emphasis of the professional development

training endeavors. Meaning, although faculty members who are involved in professional

development training demonstrated better result in professional competencies, they need area

specific training like techniques of students’ assessment as an essential dimension of classroom

instruction.


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Table 11: Summary of ANOVA-Mean differences of students perceptions

Respondents

attributes

Source of

variations

Sum

of Squares

Df Mean

Square

Sig.



Total 11.012 84

Year/grade level Between Groups 14.610 41 .356 1.370 .113


Total 25.776 84

CGPA Between Groups 19.853 41 .484 .861 .685


Total 44.047 84

The result in table 11 specifies that F values were not significant for any of respondent variable

considered. Meaning, all students, irrespective of their year/grade level, sex and scholastic

achievement rated consistently the teaching competencies of faculty members in Haramaya

University.

Contributions of professional development to individuals

Regarding the contribution of professional development to the faculty members and the institution,

respondents were asked by means of interview guides. To this end, discourses with purposefully

selected individuals at the research sites were conducted. Along with this, one discussant explained

about the contribution of professional development:

In this regard there is some optimism. A number of higher officials including the university’s top

managements have recently taken the initiatives to participate in training through PGDHET. The fact

that these officials are from the non-teaching background may promote the idea and importance

being certified faculty members. This would definitely improve individual performance, faculty

members practice and contribute a lot in providing quality education (MH: March, 2011).

Another respondent in similar way emphasized that:


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At the idea level, the trainings through these programs were very helpful. However, in practice I am

skeptical whether these professional trainings brought some difference on faculty members’

competencies, institutional improvement and on the way of students learning. It is my experience to

discern that many faculty members still using the traditional types of teaching and learning

including those who had participated in professional development training(YA: March, 2011).

From the above interview outcomes, one can learn that different individuals could reflect their

satisfaction level differently in the range of professional development trainings. Essentially, the

training is for adult; and adults vary in their motivation and feeling since they have diverse

experiences (Glickman et al., 2007).

For Griffin (1983), cited in Guskey (1986), the main aim of professional development program is to

alter the professional practices, beliefs and understanding of institutional personnel toward an

articulated end, and the ultimate result of that should be improvement of student learning (Louks-

Horsley, 1998). At this junction, an interviewee in a face-to-face discussion substantiated the above

argument by making the following assertions:

Professional development informs faculty members. Informed faculty members know how to do

things even in changing situations effectively. They know their own limitations, the limitations of

their working contexts and what they can do within these limitations. Through professional

development, faculty members learn how to become professional practitioners. They stop (reduce)

doing things by impulse and prefer to do things in a professionally plausible or sensible manner. On

the whole, professional development fosters academics understanding and practice and my

experience in this regard reveals the same (GR: March, 2011).

As opposed to the above idea, another respondent commented:

The current professional development impact on my ability to manage institution’s performance and

the classroom learning is inconsequential. This is because there are quite a number of innovations at

a time. We are always in trouble to prioritize the most useful one. If things happen in the future in

this way, it is really a waste of time rather than using our time considerately (MA: March, 2011).

Overall, from the above responses, it is quite obvious that one respondent out of two rejected and/or

deny the contribution of professional development experiences for institutional development. The

experience of some respondents, however, asserts the positive contributions of the current practices

toward the improvement of the institution as well as individual professional competencies. This

could arise from the respondents varied experiences in their schools or departments settings.

A similar study conducted by Riding (2001) identify the following constraints of professional

development trainings: ‘traditional’-fragmented, unproductive, inefficient, unregulated ... and

lacking in intensity and follow-up. As a result, the quality of professional development courses can

be extremely variable, regardless of cost, a fact that is heavily criticized by faculty members.

Substantiating these comments, one interviewee expressed his views in the following way:

The training was all very posh. We had little notepads and pencils, and bottles of water on the tables.

But I could have delivered a better course myself. It did not tell me anything I did not know already

(BK: March, 2011).

Overall, from the discourses labeled in the above, respondents feeling regarding to the contributions

of the professional development trainings in Haramaya University could be seen from two

conflicting directions. Some reacted favorably and others felt negatively on the contributions of the

professional development programs in place. Of course, comments may arise from the mismatch

between the trainee’s previous background and his/her contemporary expectations in the

professional development training.


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Conclusions

It has been pinpointed out that the purpose of this study was to analyze the existing teachers’

professional development practices at Haramaya University. Specifically, it was targeted to seek

answers to the following basic questions:

To what extent does the implementation of academic development materialized?

To what extent do the provision of facilities and resources facilitate the implementation

of professional development programs?

To what extent do faculty members satisfied with the existing professional

development initiatives?

What contributions to the professional competencies of faculty members and

institutional culture were made as a result of professional development

opportunities?

To this end, on the basis of these leading questions and the information procured from research

audiences, the following findings were secured.

Regarding to the condition of PDP in HU

Briefly, the findings in relation to the implementation of PDPs in Haramaya University affirmed that

there was no context specific institutional policy except guideline developed at national level.

Moreover, it was found that there were attempts to develop professional development training

modules in the university. However, except little efforts in the case of PGDHET, the professional

development trainings manual were attributed by generic than field specific. The university started

to allocate constant budget for the purpose of faculty members’ professional development

programs. As the current PDP coordinator clearly put, the money budgeted for the purpose of

faculty members PD training is sufficient. However, only 107 academic staff members had

participated in the recent training programs organized by PGDHET. Overall, the number of trainees

involved in the recent PDP was very small as compared to the existing academic staff members in

place.

On the actual implementation of the professional development program

Although respondents recognized the contributions of professional development endeavors to

improve their teaching awareness and skills, other important professional needs were not included

due to lack of need assessment. Moreover, pertaining to the appropriateness of professional

development programs, respondents have mixed feelings: some have favorable feelings and other

felt unfavorably. This difference could arise due to the variability of respondents’ school/college

settings. The findings in relation to this study showed that there was a considerable gap between

the plan and implementation practices of the professional development programs in place. As

result, it is suggested that there should be an urgent measure from the concerned bodies in the

allocation of necessary resources, provision of enough time and arrangement of necessary

professional support to the implementation of professional development programs.


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How does the present PDP relevant or appropriate to need of the staff members?

The result shows that most respondents were satisfied with their professional development

experience. On the other hand, although some faculty members recognized the importance of

keeping on top of new development through professional development programs, they adversely

felt that professional development programs had least impact on their promotion prospects and

leadership development practices. From the reflections on the professional development training

conducted at HU, the trainees felt positively about the PDP. In the discussions conducted with some

of the trainees, they need more time to assimilate initiatives and implement new theories into their

classroom practices and to share good practices with colleagues. Suggestions for improving PD

focused on the necessity to prioritize individual needs, and improving quality of the training

modules. More importantly, time to reflect, follow up on the outcome of the training and resources

for implementation of the PD trainings found in short supply and in need of systematic attention.

Contributions of the professional development initiatives to practices

From the findings, it can also be traced that faculty members feeling regarding to the contributions

of the PD trainings in Haramaya University has two incompatible observations. Some reacted

favorably and others felt negatively on the benefits of the various PD trainings. The above

difference in faculty members’ feeling may arise from the mismatch between the trainee’s previous

background and his/her contemporary expectations in the PD training milieu. Comments could also

emanate in the discrepancy of the demands between individuals interest and an institution

demands.

Students indicated that the existing professional development has contributed to improve faculty

members’ competencies in the areas of lesson preparations and lesson presentations. However,

PDPs contributions in the dimension of classroom management and assessment techniques were not

good enough as compared to the dimensions of lesson preparations and lesson presentations.

Consequently, the result obtained can be taken as an indicator that although faculty members who

are involved in professional development training demonstrated difference in overall professional

competencies, they need area specific training like techniques of students’ assessment as the

component of teaching learning.

To conclude, the subjects of the study in an extended type of response stated that the existing system

of professional development was a top-down approach, which was dominantly characterized by

donor driven than demand driven. The place of faculty members to develop, and fully participate in

preparation of materials and institutionalization of the professional development program was

totally non-existent. Hence, from the expressions of the audience of the study, it is not difficult to

infer that there was a gap between what is expected from PDPs and what was actualized in

practices. Most faculty members disliked INSET where they felt they were the main contributors. To

sum up, respondents expressed their concern on the lack of certain prerequisites in the practices of

professional development (facilities, enough time allocation, and leaders and colleagues support)

perhaps, the most important element to widen the gap between aspiration and reality in the

implementation of the existing professional development.

Suggestions for Future Practices

Overall, from the findings traced and the conclusions drawn from this investigation, one can

suggest an alternative, appropriate and agreed model that fit to the present Ethiopian Universities


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PDP. The respondents in this study commented that the present PDPs didn’t have a system to know

the need of the customers, thus, a need assessment practice has to be in place. Respondents also

repeatedly stated that there has to be system to make a follow up to have adequate and reliable

knowledge on the effect of the professional development initiatives. Moreover, respondents

enthusiastically forwarded that one problem associated to the present system of academic

professional development was the lack of common vision. Thus the need to have PD policy is a

prerequisite.

Academics need considerably more access to professional development if they are to contribute to

noteworthy improvements in student achievement and institutional advancement, especially

because they come into the field without adequate and formal training in teaching. The research is

unequivocal that professional development is more effective in changing faculty members ’s

practice when it is of longer duration, variety, allows for the collective participation, and includes

opportunities for follow-up activities that make a strong connection between what is learned and its

application to the faculty members own perspectives.

This means that the field needs well-resourced systems at institution and programs level to provide

professional development opportunities with these features, and those faculty members should be

recognized and accredited for their attendance in PDP for longer periods of time. Meanwhile, the

scope of knowledge and skills that higher education educators need, for example, a wide range of

professional development offerings with well-institutionalized programs made accessible to

academic staff throughout their lives as practitioners as a means to their career improvement.

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Analysis of Emphatic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking

Disposition of Philosophy Teacher Candidates According to a

Number of Variables

Mehmet Ali DOMBAYCI

Assistant Prof. Dr., Gazi Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Related Sciences Education Department, Gazi

University Ankara

E-mail: [email protected]

Zeynep BAŞERER

PhD Student, Gazi Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Related Sciences Education Department, Gazi University

Ankara


Dilek BAŞERER

PhD Student, Gazi Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Related Sciences Education Department, Gazi University

Ankara


Abstract

In this study, the empathetic thinking tendency and critical thinking disposition of teacher

candidates studying at the department of philosophy teaching is analysed according to a

number of variables. The study was carried out using ‚Empathetic Tendency Scale‛ and

‚California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory‛ and in the frame of its screening

model, students of the department of philosophy teaching of Gazi University in their 1st

and 5th years constituted the sampling group. SPSS-17 package software was used to

analyse the data and the findings regarding Pearson Moment Correlation Coefficient test,

independent t test, Kruskal Wallıs H test, and Mann Whintey U test, where relevant, have

been shared. According to the results of the study, no difference has been identified

between the empathetic tendency and grade of teacher candidates and the family income;

however, there is a significant difference in the relationship between their sex and their self-

perception/assessment in terms of social relationships. Similarly, there is no difference

between the critical thinking disposition of teacher candidates and their sex, grade and

social relationships, yet there is a significant difference in terms of family income.


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Keywords

Teaching of philosophy, empathetic thinking, critical thinking, philosophy teacher

candidate

Introduction

One of the most important skills teacher candidates must have is to raise generations who are able to

understand and make sense of what is happening around them. It could be asserted that empathetic

thinking and critical thinking are important factors affecting one’s understanding and

interpretation. Specific characteristics of philosophical thinking such as philosophical view,

philosophical inquiry, philosophical attitudes, hilosophical approaches and so on are different

appearances of the effort to understand and interpret.

Empathy is a concept that emerged thanks to Carl Rogers and his work on the subject. Empathy

means ‚putting oneself in someone else’s shoes and understanding his feelings and thoughts

correctly" (Dökmen, 2009, p. 157). In other words, empathy is to wander the world in others’ shoes

(Gavin, 2000, p. 105). These two seemingly simple definitions also harbor many complex theoretical

elements. Rogers, having laid the foundation of this concept, defines empathy as the process in

which a person puts himself in another person’s place and perceives the happenings from that

person’s perspective, understands and feels his thoughts and feelings respectively in a correct way,

and communicates this process to that person (Ekinci, 2009, p. 16). From this perspective, it can be

said that "understanding" is the basic mental action for empathy. According to White (1997) such a

mental action comprises four stages. The first one is to have an inclination to understand the feelings

and thoughts of the other person, the second is to establish communication so as to understand his

feelings and thoughts, the third one is to understand his feelings and thoughts, and the fourth one is

to provide verbal feedback of this understanding.

Empathic thinking provide people with a number of advantages. These can be listed as follows

(Pala, 2008, p. 14):

Empathy is an important skill for cognitive and moral development, as well as

psychological health.

Empathy is the expression of the relationship and openness among people.

Empathy helps relationships, and communication increase and conflicts to be solved.

Empathy increases the chances to be successful in personal and professional life.

Communication is the process of transmitting information from a sender to a receiver in an

environment where the information is understood both by the sender and the receiver. Sharing of

information, relationships and communication are subject to change. This change affects the trust,

respect, empathy and tolerance within the group in a positive way. At the same time, it makes it

easier for a person to make himself understood by other people as well as his tendency to

understand others (Hammond, 2006, p. 2). Therefore, it should be recognized that empathetic

thinking evolves in an environment of interpersonal communication. Another important

determining factor of interpersonal environments is communication. Communication is the mutual

transmission and reception of the message to be given. After this point, the interpersonal

environment focuses on the message. Message is sometimes shaped based on knowledge, ideas,

values, attitudes, perspectives, reviews, comments, beliefs, and so on. Then the person makes sense


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of such message through critical thinking. There has been no common definition of critical thinking.

The reasons for this are; the problematic of trying to define the concept of thinking from ancient

Greece to the present; perception of the concept of critical as a negative thinking process, and

researchers’ tendency to take various disciplines (such as philosophy, psychology, education, etc.) as

a basis when trying to define critical thinking (Demir, Bacanlı, Tarhan & Dombayci, 2012, p. 547).

Critical thinking should not be confused with the concept of intelligence. Emphasising on this point,

Walsh and Poulin (1988) considered critical thinking as a skills that can be developed. Ennis (1985),

on the other hand, dealing more with the teaching dimension of critical thinking and drew attention

to the act of reasonable and contemplative thinking in decisions regarding what the individual does

or believes. Rudinov and Bary (2004, p. 9-32), who consider critical thinking as a process in which

the individual performs a complex mental activity, dealt with this process as a form of objective

reasoning. Haskins (2006, 2-3) focused on the difference of critical thinking from other ways of

thinking. Accordingly, critical thinking is a higher level of thinking when compared to logical

thinking and analytical thinking. That includes being rational and objective. There is an important

distinction here. Although, logic and analysis fall within the scope of psychology and sociology,

they are indeed the basic concepts of philosophy and mathematics. In this context, Haskins (2006, 2)

lists the characteristics of an individual who performs critical thinking as follows:

Step 1: Adopt the attitude of a critical thinker

Step 2: Recognize and avoid critical thinking hindrances

Step 3: Identify and characterize arguments

Step 4: Evaluate information sources

Step 5: Evaluate arguments.

Lipman (2006, p. 212), known for his work on Philosophy for Children and has a number of studies

to teach philosophical thinking to students discusses critical thinking in a philosophical context.

Accordingly, critical thinking (1) facilitates judgment because it (2) relies on criteria, (3) is self-

corrective, and (4) is sensitive to context. The importance of these features in relation to teaching of

philosophy is not disputable. The main features of philosophical thinking such as standard criteria,

consistency, validity, judgment and assessment essentially involve a similar process to critical

thinking,

In recent years, the concepts of empathy and critical thinking has been the subject of much research.

Healthy interpersonal communication is closely related with the realization of these two concepts. It

is evident that a person with empathetic and critical thinking skills is more advantageous than those

who lack such skills. Both of these are skills that could be improved through training. However, first

of all educators who will help individuals develop these traits should possess these skills. Especially

it is a must for philosophy teacher candidates to be equipped with these skills as their focal point is

thinking and questioning in terms of teaching of philosophy. In order to improve philosophy

teacher candidates’ skills related to empathetic and critical thinking, first of all this tendency and

disposition must be identified. This in turn will constitute a sound basis for the recommendations

later on and will shed light on the training to be provided.

The variables affecting the study of empathetic and critical thinking in general could be listed as sex,

family income, grade level and social relations. These variables are considered to be important for

both critical and empathetic thinking. Sex, which is a critical variable in many studies, also plays an

important role in critical and empathetic thinking. Structural differences between men and women


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are extremely effective on the act of thinking. The family income which is also reflected in Maslow's

hierarchy of needs is closely related to a person’s feeling safe and secure. Whether the basic needs

are met or not is extremely effective on the training provided. On the other hand, the grade gives an

idea as to whether a longitudinal development has emerged and to what extend this training

influence philosophy teacher candidates. Social relationships that individuals develop when they

enter the university and in later years is usually associated with the college life, its content and

environment. In this regard, the influence of the education, content and level on the course of these

relationships should be analysed.

In some international studies, the impact of both sexes on the tendency to think was examined and

different conclusions have been reached. Garaigordobil, owner of such a study (2009), stressed that

the relationship between sex differences and social, emotional variables and empathy is higher in

women. Arnocky and Strom Link (2010), on the other hand, in their study analysing the relationship

between the impact of sex differences on environmental interests and behaviour and empathy,

found out that similarly women have a higher emotional empathy potential when compared to men.

Ouzo and Nakakis (2012), set out to make research to explore the variables that influence the

empathetic thinking skills of nursing students and in that study also women were found to have

higher levels of empathy than men. Similarly, Hasan and others (2013), in a study conducted among

medical students in Kuwait University, concluded that female students have higher levels of

empathy. Accordingly, it can be said that studies indicating that women are more inclined to

empathetic thinking are more in number. When we look at the relationship between sex and critical

thinking; King, Wood and Mines (1990), found out in their work ‚Critical thinking among college

and graduate students‛ that men’s critical thinking skills were higher than those of women, while

Babalhavaej and Ghia (2011), concluded the opposite in their study called ‘Critical Thinking, Sex

and Education: LIS Research Articles 1997-2007 Analysis’. However, Chen (1996), conducting a

study on the critical thinking skills of adult students', found a difference between the fact that men

are more successful than women and the relationship between sex and critical thinking. That is,

men’s critical thinking skills are higher than women. Although some research yield different results,

men seem to be more skilled in critical thinking than women.

When studies on the relationship between family income and empathetic thinking, in their study

Hasan et al (2013) found out that individuals who have low family income tend to have lower levels

of empathy.

There are many studies on empathetic and critical thinking in terms of grade level variables. Among

these studies, Garaigordobil (2009) dealt with the relationship between empathetic thinking and

grade level and analysed the empathy capacity of children between the ages 10 to 14. His study

indicated that there was no increase in their capacity for empathy between these ages. On the other

hand, Hasan et al (2013), Kuwait University, found out in their research assessing the level of

empathy among medical students, that there is an increase in their level of empathy at the end of a

four-year academy.

When studies indicating the relationship between critical thinking and grade levels are examined;

King, Wood and Mines (1990) established that a substantial change could be observed in the

perspective on critical thinking of college students and graduate students. In other words, there is a

difference between levels of critical thinking with regard to the grade of the student. In this study,

the ability to think critically about structured problems, either well or badly designed, increased

with the grade.


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When the bulk of research on whether empathetic and critical thinking have any impact on social

relationships is considered, in his study Garaigordobil (2009) established that compared to men,

women of all ages have significantly higher ratings of the skills needed for the cognitive analysis of

prosocial behavior and negative emotions, and found a positive relationship between empathy and

prosocial behavior. However, Kouroshni and Latifiye (2012) conducted a research on the

relationship between the mediation dimension of the communication patterns of parents and

teachers, cultural values, and students' critical thinking disposition. In conclusion, when students'

critical thinking disposition is compared with family communication patterns and teacher

communication patterns, family communication proved to be more influential on critical thinking. It

was also concluded students with high critical thinking skills are self-confident.

When these variables are considered in terms of educational content, it is anticipated that there is no

difference among philosophy teacher candidates according to sex, and that they have rather high

levels of empathetic and critical thinking. It is also expected that the higher the grades of philosophy

teacher candidates having studied for a total of 5 years, the greater capacity they will have for

empathetic and critical thinking, and their education will contribute to these skills. In a sense these

expectations will give an idea about the quality of education. Similarly, where philosophy teacher

candidates position themselves socially is closely related to their critical and empathetic thinking

skills. Social relationships in a way contribute to the development of self-confidence. It is evident

that philosophy teacher candidates with a powerful set of social relations tend to be more

inquisitive. The high tendency of teacher candidates who also have a potential to increase such a

tendency among their students is directly proportional to the strength of social relationships. The

main determinant of teacher candidates' socio-economic status is family income. The common

outcome of the studies on this subject shows that the higher the family income, the greater tendency

for empathetic and the greater disposition for critical thinking.

When empathetic thinking tendency and critical thinking disposition is considered together with the

variables above, it can be stated that the purpose of this research is to analyse the empathetic

thinking tendencies and critical thinking dispositions of teacher candidates based on a number of

variables. It is a crucial question to what extent the improvement in the skills of philosophy teacher

candidates whose focus of education is thinking and inquiry is related to their education.

In line with this overall aim, answers to the following questions are sought for;

1. Is there a significant relatiionship between the empathic tendency and critical thinking

disposition levels of philosophy teacher candidates?


disposition levels of philosophy teacher candidates based on their sex?


disposition levels of philosophy teacher candidates based on their grade?


disposition levels of philosophy teacher candidates based on their household income?


disposition levels of philosophy teacher candidates based on their social

relationships?


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Methodology

In this study, a correlation model of descriptive survey method was used. Research was conducted

through a study group. The group comprised the first-grade and fifth grade students attending

Philosophy and Related Science Education Department of Gazi University in the 2012- 2013 fall

semester. The purpose of such a group is to determine whether empathetic thinking tendency and

critical thinking disposition depends on the level of education and other variables. The grades and

sex distribution of the teacher candidates are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Distribution of Teacher Candidates According to their Grades and Sex

Sex

Grade Female (n) Male (n) Total

1st grade 13 17 30

5th grade 35 25 50

As it can be seen in Table 1, the study was carried out with 80 students of which 30 were from grade

1 and 50 from grade 1.

Data Collection Instruments

Empathic Tendency Scale (ETS): This scale was developed by Dökmen (1988) in order to measure

the emotional components of empathy and individuals’ potential to develop empathy. It is a 5 point

Likert-type scale, and comprises 20 items. There are 5 types of answers as ‚totally disagree‛

‚disagree‛, ‚not certain‛, ‚agree‛, and ‚totally agree‛. ‚Each option is of value from 1 to 5. A

favorable sentence for empathy ranks from 5-1. For a negative sentence of empathy scores are

reverse-coded and ranks from 1-5 "(Pala, 2008, p. 17). Eight items of the Empathic Tendency Scale

consist of negative sentences to counterbalance the subjects’ tendency to mark "yes". "The minimum

score of the scale is 20, while the maximum is 100. The total score represents the subjects’ empathetic

tendencies. Higher scores indicate a high level of empathetic tendencies, while low scores

demonstrate low empathetic tendency "(Ekinci, 2009, p. 47).

The reliability study for the Empathic Tendency Scale was developed by Dökmen (1988) and the

draft scale was administered to a group 70 university students twice with an interval of three weeks.

A correlation was found between the scores obtained from both tests, the retest reliability coefficient

was .82, and the correlation between the scores obtained from the odd and even numbered items of

the scale was found to be .68. The validity study of the Empathic Tendency Scale validity was also

carried out by Dökmen in 1988. "It was found that in the group of 24 subjects, the validity of similar

scales was .68 regarding the scores they obtained from the ETS and from the 'Understanding

Emotions' section of Edwards Personal Preference Inventory. For the research group of the scale, the

reliability coefficient, calculated by Cronbach's Alpha, was found as .72" (Genç and Kalafat, 2008, p.

215).


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California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI): California Critical Thinking

Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) is the outcome of the Delphi Project organised by the American

Philosophical Association in 1990. "The scale has 7 sub-scales and 75 articles which were

theoretically identified and went through psychometric testing" (Kökdemir, 2003, p. 68).

The adaptation study of this scale was conducted by Kökdemir (2003) and it was administered to

913 students aged between 17 and 28 studying at Başkent University, Faculty of Economics and

Business Administration. As a result of Kökdemir’s (2003) adaptation, the scale was redesigned to 6

factors and 51 items. According to Kökdemir (2003), when the factors comprising the redesigned

CCTDI with a total of 51 items and their structure are analysed, it is clear that they are not much

different from those of the original scale. However, it was observed that some articles shifted from

one factor to another one and two of the factors (open-mindedness and maturity) were combined

(Aybek, 2006, p. 104).

The internal consistency coefficient (Alpha) of the scale was found to be .88 while the internal

coefficient (Alpha) of the sub dimensions of the new scale developed as Likert type 6 with a total of

6 dimensions and 51 items range between .61 and .78. The total variance of the scale was calculated

to be 36.13% (Kökdemir, 2003, p. 82). As fort pense he adapted scale to Turkish the respective

subscales are; Being Analytical subscale α = .75, Open Mindedness subscale α = .75, Curiosity

subscale α = .78, Self-confidence subscale α = .77, Searching for the Truth subscale α = .61 for the

subscales, and Being Systematic subscale α = .63.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. The data of the study group are sorted out based

on sex, grade level, household income and social relationship status. A distribution availability test

was conducted prior to the testing a set of data for normal distribution. The relationship between

empathetic thinking tendency and critical thinking disposition was examined using Pearson Product

Moment Correlation Analysis. In the absence of normal distribution, and in cases where there are

more than two variables, the Kruskal-Wallis H test was used for comparison. If the Kruskal-Wallis

H test yields different data Mann Whintey tests were employed. Independent Samples t-test was

used to determine whether there is significant difference according to the sex or grade of teacher

candidates. In all tests the level of significance was determined as 0.05.

Findings

In this section, the findings obtained as a result of the analysis of research data are given. Research

findings consist of the findings obtained from the personal information form developed for research

based on Empathy Thinking Tendency and California Critical Thinking Disposition I. The findings

corresponding the sub-problems in the frame of the main problematic of the research are discussed

below.

Comparison of Philosophy Teacher Candidates’ Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical

Thinking Disposition

The relationship between the empathetic thinking tendency and critical thinking disposition levels

of philosophy teacher candidates is compared below based on Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Analysis. The Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient results obtained from the relationship

between the empathetic and critical thinking tendency of philosophy teacher candidates are

presented in Table 2.


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Table 2: Comparison of the Relationship between the Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking

Disposition Levels of Philosophy Teacher Candidates by Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis

A. B. C. Empathic

Thinking Tendency

D. Critical

Thinking Disposition

E. Empathic Thinking

Tendency

F. G. ___ H. .313**

İ. J. n K. 80 L.

M. Critical Thinking

Disposition

N. O.

P. .313**

Q.

R. ___

S. T. n U. 80 V.

** P < 0.01

As a result of the analysis, a positive and close to moderately low (r = 0.313) relationship was found

between the two variables. Statistically, this relationship at the level of 0.01 is significant. It could be

said that when empathetic tendency of teacher candidates increase, their critical thinking disposition

also increases to a certain level, or similarly, when their critical thinking disposition decreases, a

decline is also observed in their empathetic thinking tendency.

Sex-based Comparison of Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking Disposition

Levels of Philosophy Teacher Candidates

Independent samples t-Test was used to determine whether there is a significant difference in the

empathy thinking tendency and critical thinking disposition level of teacher candidates based on

their sex. Before applying the independent samples t-test various assumptions, such as whether

there is a normal distribution of the analysis and the number of samples in each group, were

examined. The findings obtained as a result of the analysis are given in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Sex-based Comparison of Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking Dispositions Levels of

Philosophy Teacher Candidates using Independent Samples t-Test

Variable Sex n X SD df t p

Empathic

Thinking

Tendency

Female

Male

52

28

70,19

65,82

7,71

7,11

78

2,484 ,015

Critical

Thinking

Disposition

Female

Male

52

28

214,90

209,71

17,04

22,48

78

1,159 ,250


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As shown in Table 3, there is a significant difference in the empathetic tendency of teacher

candidates based on their sex [t(78) =2,484, p<,05], while there is no significant difference in their

critical thinking disposition levels [t(78) =1,159, p>,05].

When the average scores of the empathetic thinking tendency level of teacher candidates is

examined based on sex, it can be observed that for female candidates the average is 70.19, while the

average for male candidates is 65.82. Accordingly, although empathetic thinking tendency level of

female teachers is higher than male teachers, it can be said that empathetic thinking tendency level

of both sexes is close to medium-good based on the five-point Likert scale. This shows that the

empathetic thinking tendency level of teacher candidates in the philosophy teaching department is

affected by sex.

As for the critical thinking disposition level, the average score for female teacher candidates is

214.90, while it is 209.71 is for male candidates. It can be said that the average scores are quite close.

It can also be concluded that teacher candidates have similar levels of critical thinking disposition

and they are not affected by their sex. When the average scores are considered for both groups, it

can be said that they are moderate.

Comparison of Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking Disposition Levels of

Philosophy Teacher Candidates Based on Their Grades

Independent samples t-test was applied to determine whether empathetic and critical thinking

disposition of teacher candidates’ show any significant difference according to their grade. The

results of the independent samples t-test concerning the empathetic thinking disposition of

philosophy teacher candidates according to their grade is presented in Table 5, while the results of

the independent samples t-test regarding their critical thinking disposition are presented in Table 6.

Table 4: Comparison of Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking Disposition Levels of Teacher

Candidates based on their Grade using Independent Samples t-Test

Variable Grade n X SD df t p

Empathic

Thinking

Tendency

1

5

52

28

68,30

68,88

9,22

6,80

78

-,322 ,748

Critical

Thinking

Disposition

1

5

30

50

215,90

211,40

21,62

17,50

78

1,018 ,312

As seen in Table 4 empathetic thinking tendency of teacher candidates do not differ significantly

according to the grade. [t (78) = -, 322, p> .05]. While the average score for the empathetic thinking

tendency of grade 1 teachers is 68.30, the average score for grade 5 teachers is 68.88. This indicates

that their grades has an impact on their level of empathetic thinking tendency. On the other hand,

when the level of teacher candidates' critical thinking disposition is examined, there is no

statistically significant difference [t (78) = 1.018, p> .05] in their disposition according to their grades.

Here, the results are rather surprising in that the level of critical thinking disposition of the fifth

grade teachers were expected to be higher than that of the first grade teachers, but it is noteworthy


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that they were relatively lower. For both grades the level of critical thinking disposition was found

to be in the middle, which is below expectations.


Philosophy Teacher Candidates based on their Monthly Household Income

Kruskal Wallis H Test was used to determine whether there is a significant difference between the

philosophy teacher candidates’ empathy thinking tendency and critical thinking dispositions levels

based on their monthly household income. Since the analysis results comprise at least 3 groups and

the sample size is N <19 and normal distribution does not apply Kruskal Wallis H Test was

preferred. The analysis results are given in Table 5 and Table 6.

Table 5: Kruskal Wallis H Test Results of the Comparison of Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking

Disposition Levels of Teacher Candidates based on their Monthly Household Income

Variable Household

Income

n Mean

Rank

df χ² p Significant

Difference

Empathic

Thinking

Tendency

700 TL- 999 TL 17 33,76 3 6, 769 ,080

1000 TL- 1499TL 33 43,12

1500 TL- 1999 TL 16 32,69

2000TL and over 14 51,43

Critical

Thinking

Disposition

700 TL- 999 TL 17 29,24 3 7,853 ,049 1-2

1000 TL- 1499TL 33 41,61 1-4

1500 TL- 1999 TL 16 39,66

2000TL and over 14 52,54

The results show no statistically significant difference between the empathy tendency of teacher

candidates participating in the study and their household income *χ² (3) = 6.769 p> 0.05+. However,

when we look at the average scores of teacher candidates, we can say that those whose household

income is more than 2000 have relatively higher tendency. It can be said that empathetic tendency of

teacher candidates is not affected by their household income.

On the other hand, when the teacher candidates' critical thinking disposition is compared with their

household income, no statistically significant difference was detected *χ² (3) = 7.853, p <, 05+. When

we look at the average scores of teacher candidates, it is possible to say that those whose household

income is more than 2000 TL have relatively higher disposition than others on average. Mann-

Whitney U test was used to determine where this difference comes from. As a result, there is

significant difference between the levels of critical thinking disposition of those who have an


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average household income of 700 TL-999 and those who have -1000 – 1499 TL and more than

2000TL.


Teacher Candidates based on their Perception of their Social Relationships

Due to the reasons mentioned before, Kruskal-Wallis H Test was used to determine whether there is

any significant difference between the empathetic thinking tendencies of philosophy teacher

candidates in relation with their social relationships. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis H Test on

whether there is any significant difference between the empathetic thinking tendencies of

philosophy teacher candidates in relation with their social relationships is presented below in Table

6.

Table 6: Kruskal Wallis H Test Results of the Comparison of Empathic Thinking Tendency and Critical Thinking

Disposition Levels of Teacher Candidates based on their Perception of their Social Relationships

Variable Social Relationship n Mean

Rank

df χ² p Significant

Difference

Empathic

Thinking

Tendency

I am too timid and I am not

successful

8 17,50 3 14,89 ,002 1-2

I don’t think I am active and

successful

10 38,75 1-4

I do not have a clear opinion, I

don’t know

19 33,11 3-4

I think I am active and successful 43 48,45

Critical

Thinking

Disposition

I am too timid and I am not

successful

8 39,94 3 4,543 ,209

I don’t think I am active and

successful

10 35,55

I do not have a clear opinion, I

don’t know

19 32,50

I think I am active and successful 43 45,29

When Table 6 is analysed, while there is no statistically significant difference in terms of the critical

thinking disposition of teacher candidates *χ² (3) = 14.89, p <, 05+, there is a statistically significant

difference in their empathetic thinking tendency. In this case, we can say that teachers' perceptions

of their social relations does not affect the level of critical thinking disposition, whereas their level of

empathetic tendency is affected statistically. Mann-Whitney U test was utilised to determine


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whether the teacher candidates’ empathetic level shows a significant difference according to the

groups.

It has also been detected that teacher candidates who define their social relationships as active and

successful have significantly different results when compared with those who does not have a clear

opinion or who do not find themselves active or successful. At the same time the empathetic

thinking tendency of these candidates seems to be higher. Moreover, the empathetic thinking

tendency levels of those who do not consider themselves as active and successful and who rather

say that they are too timid and not successful show significant differences.

Discussion and Conclusion

As empathetic people can put themselves in the shoes of other people, they are expected to evaluate

events objectively. Empathic thinking and critical thinking are kinds of thinking. Therefore, it is

expected that these two modes of thinking interact with each other. When it is considered that

critical thinking is rather cognitive, while empathetic thinking is mostly related to the affective

sphere, it is important for the individual to develop in both in a balanced manner. As a result of this

study, this expectation is somehow met to a certain extent and within the relationship between

empathy and critical thinking, there is a positive moderate correlation with (r = 0.313). It shows that

as the empathetic thinking tendency of teachers increase, their critical thinking disposition also goes

up and similarly when there is a decline in their critical thinking disposition, their empathetic

thinking tendency also decreases.

In general, the results of this research are consistent with the results mentioned in the research based

international literature. However, given that critical thinking and empathetic thinking are in a way

sociological, anthropological and cultural ways of thinking, the importance of local research gain

importance. In this sense, the research findings are consistent with the findings of Ekinci’s (2009)

study. In his study, Ekinci (2009) found significant positive correlation between the two variables.

In terms of the variable of sex, when empathetic thinking tendency of philosophy teachers are

considered a significant difference in favor of women becomes apparent. These results are similar to

the results of the studies of Ekinci (2009), Atli (2008) and Rehber and Atıcı (2009). Ekinci (2009) also

found a significant difference in favor of women in his study analysing the empathetic and critical

thinking disposition of teacher candidates. Atli (2008), on the other hand, examined the empathetic

thinking tendencies of employees working in kindergartens and orphanages depending on a

number of variables and established that the female staff's empathetic thinking tendency is higher

than those of male staff. Rehber and Atıcı (2009) also produced similar results their study examining

the conflict solving behaviors of second grade primary school students’ and their empathetic

tendencies, and concluded that empathetic level of women is higher than that of men. On the other

hand, Pala (2008) did not find any significant difference between the empathetic thinking tendency

of male and female students in his study focusing on the level of empathy among teacher

candidates. In addition, Genç and Kalafat (2008), studied the democratic attitude and empathetic

skills of teachers’ candidates and their study did not yield any difference between the empathetic

abilities of women and men. In his research on the existence of a relationship between the level of

empathetic skills and masculinity or femininity, Atilla (2007) concluded that there is not significant

relationship between the masculinity or femininity score and empathetic ability. It could be

concluded that in this study the difference the empathetic thinking tendency of philosophy teacher

candidates in favor of women might be the result of the fact that female students are more emotional


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and are raised as more fragile beings than male students. But still, it is not possible to generalize

this idea.

Another result of the study is that critical thinking disposition of philosophy teacher candidates

does not differ from one another based on sex. This is an expected outcome for philosophy teacher

candidates because their department focuses on thinking and seeing that there is no difference in

terms of their critical thinking disposition, we can say that their education appeals to both sexes

equally. However, there are mainly two groups of findings of the studies focusing on the teachers’

and teacher candidates' views on critical thinking in terms of sex. In their research, Özdemir (2005)

and Ekinci (2009) stated that there is no variable that leads to a significant difference in critical

thinking disposition based on sex. Zayif (2008) and Cetinkaya (2011), on the other hand, concluded

that there is a significant difference in critical thinking disposition in terms of sex and stated that

women expressed a more positive opinion than men. These differences can be attributed to the

differences in research patterns.

In the analysis results concerning whether there is significant difference among philosophy teacher

candidates’ empathetic tendencies according to grade, no correlation was established between the

grades and their empathetic tendency. This result is consistent with the findings of Atli (2008) Çelik

and Çağdaş (2010). However, the results of the study by Ekinci (2009) and Mete and Gerçek (2005)

are different from these findings. Ekinci (2009) found that teacher candidates from the 4th grade

have a higher empathetic tendency than the 1st grade students. Mete and Gerçek (2005) examined

the empathetic thinking tendency and skills of nursing students and concluded that the higher their

grade, the higher scores for empathetic skills. The content and the methodology of philosophy

teaching might be the reason why no such difference is observed in philosophy teacher candidates.

Similarly, no significant difference was found between the grades and critical thinking disposition of

philosophy teacher candidates. In Ekinci’s (2009) study, an increase in the level of critical thinking

disposition was observed as the grade gets higher, however, no difference was detected between the

two variables. However, Gülveren (2007), in his research on prospective teachers, concluded that the

grade of students does not have any impact on their critical thinking disposition. Under normal

conditions, it might be expected that the higher the grade is, the higher empathy and critical

thinking disposition gets. However this is not the case for philosophy teacher candidates and this

could be explained by the fact that there are not any subjects in their education to increase their

tendency and disposition towards empathy and critical thinking.

In the study, there was no significant difference between the empathetic thinking disposition of

philosophy teacher candidates and their household income. In contrast, in his research Pala (2008)

found that there is significant difference between the students' economic status and their ability to

empathise, he even concluded that students with best economic conditions has the highest capacity

for empathy, while impoverished students have the lowest empathy skills. This situation can be

interpreted as such; those who have less economic suffering can understand others more easily and

they can spend time with them. Ekinci (2009) also obtained similar results in his study. In this study,

students who qualify as high socio-economic level have higher empathy skills than others. Brown,

Sauthier and Litvay (2007), in their study, found that students with better economic situation have

higher levels of empathy "(Pala, 2008, p. 21). In this research, the fact that there is no significant

difference between household income and empathetic thinking tendency might mean that the lack

of empathy tend to think of philosophy teachers in the group's financial situation may mean that

financial situation does not have an impact on the empathetic thinking tendency of philosophy

teacher candidates.


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In the study, there is significant difference between the critical thinking disposition of philosophy

teacher candidates and their household income. This result is consistent with the results of other

research. Indeed, in his research called ‚Levels of Critical Thinking and Factors Affecting Critical

Thinking among Prospective Nurses‛, Özturk (2006) found that the higher economic status students

have, the higher disposition for critical thinking they develop. As Ekinci (2009) quotes, the study of

Cheung et al (2001) also reached a similar conclusion. In the research they conducted in the

University of Hong Kong with 557 students, they established that students with high and medium

income families have significantly higher levels of critical thinking tendency than students from

low-income families.

Another result that was obtained from the working group was that social relations of philosophy

teacher candidates have a number of different effects on increasing their empathetic thinking

tendency. Thus, teacher candidates who are active and successful in their social relationships have

significantly different levels of empathetic thinking tendency. This indicates that teacher candidates

with self-esteem have higher levels of empathetic thinking.

Kemp et al (2007) also reached similar results and concluded, in their study of the relationship

between adolescents’ empathetic thinking tendency, family support and antisocial behavior, that

individual with high levels of empathetic thinking tendency are also good at personal and social

cohesion (Atli, 2008, p .30).

Another result of the research is that there is no difference between the critical thinking disposition

of philosophy teacher candidates and their social self-evaluation.

Both empathetic thinking and critical thinking can be trained, and therefore they are skills that could

be improved. Hence, these skills should be further developed and integrated with effective

educational content. To understand and make sense of the world around are the fundamental

features of philosophy. Empathic understanding and critical thinking, respectively are a great

contribution to understanding and making sense. Therefore, philosophy teachers are expected to

have greater skills when compared with other subject teachers. The relationship between

understanding and reasoning, and hence between empathetic and critical thinking disposition and

cognitive and affective structures is quite strong. It is believed that the differences between the level

of empathetic thinking tendency and critical thinking disposition of male and female teacher

candidates may be attributed to the differences in their cognitive and affective structure. Dealing

with the content of philosophy teaching department keeping in mind the equilibrium between

cognitive and affective aspects, and utilising their empathetic and critical thinking skills in the

transfer of this content will surely improve the quality of teachers.

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About MAJER

Middle Eastern & African Journal of Educational Research (MAJER) is a scholarly international

journal focusing on theory, research, and developments in the field of educational sciences. MAJER

welcomes original and not-published-elsewhere works on educational sciences. The scope of the

journal is broad and the journal is open to all researchers. Though, contributions regarding and from

Middle Eastern and African countries will be given priority. Manuscripts to be submitted must be in

English (articles written in Turkish, Arabic or French may be published upon editor’s decision) and

conform to the standards put forward in the Publication Manual of American Psychological

Association. All submissions must be sent online. No hard copy submission papers will be accepted.

The submissions should be written in Word 6.0 or in a later version.

Types of contributions are original theoretical works, research reports, literature reviews, software

and book reviews. Because this is an electronic journal, the length of papers may vary. The length of

your paper should be appropriate to the topic and focus.

All submissions will be first reviewed and assessed by the Editorial Board in terms of subject matter,

contents, suitable presentation and accordance with spelling rules. The manuscripts which are

found suitable and acceptable by the mentioned boards will be submitted for scientific assessment

to referees. Authors are responsible for opinions expressed in the articles.

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