Middle Ages and Aquinas

Ann T. Orlando

March 28, 2007

Introduction

N.B. Augustine writes Confessions c. 400; Aquinas writes Summa c. 1265; therefore Aquinas is slightly closer to our time than to Augustine’s time Augustine is a man of the late Roman Empire Aquinas is a man of Western Medieval Europe

Very brief overview of Middle Ages Very brief overview of Western spiritual

developments What is virtue Structure of Summa How to read the Summa

So what happened between 400 and 1200 German barbarian invasions; Rome sacked in 410; last Roman

emperor in West abdicates in 476 (NB Roman Empire in East lasts until 1453)

Church authority in West only educated authority; becomes de facto civil authority

Rise Islam; Mohammed’s haj from Mecca to Medina in 622; Arab armies conquer all of southern Mediterranean and Spain by 700

Charlemagne’s grandfather, Charles Martel stops the Arabic army in southern France; Charlemagne creates ‘Europe;’ crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III 800

Invasions from the north: Vikings First Crusade called by Urban II in 1095 to combat the Seljuk

Turks and to regain the Holy Land What happened: Roman northwestern provinces become

Europe

Map of Roman Empire During Reign of Diocletian, 300 www.biblestudy.org/maps/romandio.html

5th Century Invasions

Rise of Islam 7th Cccat.sas.upenn.edu/~rs143/map2.jpg

Charlemagne’s Empire 9th C www.fsmitha.com/h3/map04chrls.htm

Extent of Viking Conquests, c. 900darkwing.uoregon.edu/%7Eatlas/europe/static/map16.html

Europe in 11th Cwww.fordham.edu/halsall/maps/1090map.htm

Catholic Medieval Faith

Importance of Incarnation; God in the world Importance of Mary and saints Importance of Jesus’ sacrifice on cross Importance of Mass as bloodless sacrifice Importance of making faith visible and

understandable to everyone The Medieval Catholic imagination would be

especially active two years ago when feast of Annunciation and Good Friday coincided

Monasticism: Cluny

Charter for Foundation of Cluny, 910 Return to Benedict’s Rule; especially reading of Divine

Office But encouraged prayer and study over physical work Established a series of daughter monasteries under

the direction of the abbot of Cluny While monks were poor, monasteries became wealthy Encouraged development of visual arts in service of

religion Abbot Suger: ‘Man rises to God through beauty’

Monasticism: Citeaux

Reform of Cluny: Cistercians Founded by Robert Molesme at Citeaux 1099 Return to strict adherence to Benedict’s Rule; work

equal with prayer and study Each monastery independent; that is, each had its

own abbot More severe artistic style Bernard of Clairvaux most famous Cistercian (1090-

1153) Modern day Trappists; Spencer, MA.

Spiritual Movements: New Orders Franciscans

Founded by St. Francis Mendicants Woman’s order; Poor Clares Order recognized by Pope Innocent III

Dominicans Founded by St. Dominic Order of Preachers Woman’s order founded before men’s Order commissioned by Innocent III

Universities

Locus for learning: Universities Grew out of Cathedral Schools Training of diocesan clergy and civil administrators Displaced monasteries as centers of learning Development of the academic professional

Most famous, Paris (Sorbonne); others include Oxford and Bologna

Very international Universities and the Church were very ‘democratic’; any man

with ability could rise very high Universities not independent of Church; rather universities

prestigious centers for theological research and teaching Aquinas and Bonaventure at Sorbonne at same time

Key Figures

St. Anselm, 1033 -1109; Archbishop of Canterbury (after Norman invasion)

St. Bernard, 1090-1153, Cistercian St. Dominic, 1170-1221, Dominican St. Francis, 1182-1226, Franciscan St. Bonaventure, 1221-1274, Franciscan St. Thomas Aquinas, 1225-1274, Dominican Note: all of these (except Francis) must deal

with Augustine

Thomas AquinasAngelic Doctor Developed systematic approach to theology using Aristotelian

methods (Aristotle as the Philosopher in the Summa) Relied on newly available Greek works from Jewish and Moslem

sources; Moses Maimonides, Averrhoes Very different from theological approach; Aristotelian rather than

neo-Platonic Emphasis on causes Emphasis on categories

Needed to show that his theological conclusions were consistent with Augustine; until he did so he was considered radical and suspect

Two great works: Summa Theologica (theological) or Theologiae (theology); Summa Contra Gentiles

But he also wrote beautiful songs, especially in praise of Eucharist (one of which we sing at Benediction, and another during Holy Thursday)

Example: Transubstantiation Relies on Aristotle’s The Categories

Philosophical idea of substance, accidents Substance: what things really are, their essence Accidents: how they appear to senses, properties that are incidental,

weight, color, taste Augustine has bad things to say about The Categories in

Confessions (IV.28-31) According to Aquinas (and Catholic Church doctrine as defined

at Lateran IV), Christ becomes fully present in the Eucharist when the material substance of bread and wine is transformed into His

own spiritual substance only the accidents (color, texture, taste) of the bread and wine

remain

Adoro Te Devoteby Thomas Aquinas

Godhead here in hiding, whom I do adoreMasked by these bare shadows, shape and nothing more,See, Lord, at thy service low lies here a heartLost, all lost in wonder at the God thou art.

Seeing, touching, tasting are in thee deceived;How says trusty hearing? that shall be believed;What God's Son has told me, take for truth I do; Truth himself speaks truly or there's nothing true.

From CCC translated by Gerard Manley Hopkins

Focus on Virtue

Recall: Virtue is a Greek (pagan) philosophical concept; Plato, Aristotle; Epicurus; Zeno

Virtue is NOT a Biblical concept What about the Wisdom of Solomon (for example, 8:7 and

the four cardinal virtues)? Whose Bible is it in?

Biblical ethics is following the way of God’s command Psalm 1:1; Do not follow the way of the wicked, odoj 1 Cor 12:31; I will show you a still more excellent way, odoj Acts 9:2; Earliest Christians called themselves followers of

the Way, odoj

Marriage of Virtue and Biblical Ethics One of the most important examples of philosophy as the handmaid

of theology Greek Jewish diaspora; Philo of Alexandria (1st C AD) Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria (2nd and 3rd C)

Note exception is Tertullian when he said “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem”

All great theologians of 4th and 5th C use virtue language Augustine’s definition of virtue (On Free Will, II.19) “Virtue is a good

quality of the mind, by which we live rightly, of which no one can make bad use, which God works in us without us.”

Compare to Aristotle’s Definition, (Nicomachean Ethics II.vi): Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices.

Reading Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas on Virtue in the First Part of the Second Part (Ia IIae Q55) and Love in the Second Part of the Second Part (IIa IIae Q23)

Summa Theologica highly structured Divided into Three Parts; the Second Part further divided

Part I and Part II Each Part divided into Questions Each Question divided into Articles Each Article included a Statement, Objections and Replies

Read the “on the contrary” and the “I answer that” section carefully; this starts the response to the Objections

Aquinas on Virtue and Love

Virtue is a good habit (Ia IIae Q 55 a1, a3) Definition of virtue; note especially, and especially

Reply to Objection 6 (Ia IIae Q 55 a3) Charity as friendship (IIa IIae Q23 a1) Charity as a movement of the soul toward God (IIa

IIae Q23 a2,3) The importance of charity (IIa IIae Q23 a6,7) Pay special attention to which Patristic auhtor he

quotes, what Scripture he uses

Also Read Ia Q1 a1

Very beginning of Summa Look carefully at Reply to Objection 2

You might notice that something that you have been taught, that everyone ‘knows’ is not true

Hint: think about Columbus (200 years after Aquinas)

But everyone knew ‘it’ long before Aquinas;