CollaborativeMastersPrograminScience,SocietyandPolicy

ISP5903–CapstonePracticum

LiteratureReview

Microbeads:“TipoftheToxicPlastic-berg”?Regulation,Alternatives,andFuture

Implications

SubmittedtotheUnitedStatesEmbassyofOttawaBroughttotheattentionofMs.RachelSo

Environment,WaterandFisheriesSpecialist

NicholasGirardSimonLester

AcaciaPaton-YoungDr.MarcSaner(Instructor)

April11,2016

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1–TableofContents

2–ExecutiveSummary..........................................................................................................................................3

3–Timeline.................................................................................................................................................................54–Glossary.................................................................................................................................................................65–Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................75.1Background..................................................................................................................................................75.2OurCharge....................................................................................................................................................9

6–Methods..............................................................................................................................................................106.1Process........................................................................................................................................................106.2Scope............................................................................................................................................................10

7–MicrobeadRegulationinCanadaandtheUnitedStates...............................................................127.1Multi-LevelRegulationofChemicalsinCanada........................................................................12

7.2Canada’sFederalLegislationforRegulatingChemicals........................................................127.3ProgressonBanningMicrobeadsintheUnitedStatesandCanada.................................147.4PolicyChallengesforMicrobeadRegulation..............................................................................17

8–MicrobeadAlternatives...............................................................................................................................198.1CurrentNaturalAlternatives.............................................................................................................198.2PotentialSyntheticAlternative.........................................................................................................22

9–Microbeads:Tipofthe“ToxicPlastic-berg”?......................................................................................249.1MicrobeadsintheContextofGlobalPlasticProduction.......................................................249.2Past,CurrentandFutureResearchDirectionsinPlasticPollutionResearch..............269.3PolicyChallengesforSecondaryMicroplasticsPollution.....................................................29

10–Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................3011–Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................3112–LiteratureCited............................................................................................................................................32

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2–ExecutiveSummary

ThisliteraturereviewwascarriedoutaspartofthegraduateCapstonePracticumoftheInstituteforScience,SocietyandPolicyattheUniversityofOttawa.Theseminarparticipantscollaborated in a literature review on issues associated with microbeads—small plasticparticlesusedasabrasivesorfillersincosmeticandpersonalcareproducts.

Theliteraturereviewcoversthreequestionsinthecontextofmicrobeads.(1)Whatisthecomparativestate-of-affairsofthecurrentandplannedfederalregulationsinCanadaandtheUnitedStates?(2)Whatcanweexpecttoseeintermsofreplacementproductsandarethereanysafetyconcernswiththose?(3)Howdoesthecurrentconcernovermicrobeadsinpersonal careproducts relate tomicro-plastics fromothersources, forexample fromthebreakdownoverlargerplasticproducts?Eachofthesequestionsisaddressedinoneofthemainchaptersinthisreport(chapters7-9).Weconcludewithabriefdiscussiononsomeofthepolicyimplicationsofthisbigpictureliteraturereview(chapter10).

Thetwonationsarequitewell-alignedwithrespecttopublicconcernandregulatoryactivities. Private industry and governments at all levels in North America are alreadymovingaheadtophaseoutmicrobeadsinpersonalcareproducts.In2014,Illinoisbecamethe first jurisdiction in theworld tobanproducts fromcontainingmicrobeads.ThissetaprecedenceforeightotherstatesandtheAmericanfederalgovernmenttoenactsimilarlaws,includingthestateofCaliforniawhichbecamethefirstjurisdictionintheworldtobantheuseofallmicrobeads, includingbiodegradablemicrobeads.At the federal level,PresidentObama signed into law the “Microbead-FreeWater’sAct of 2015” onDecember28, 2015,whichprohibitsthemanufactureandintroductionofrinse-offcosmeticscontainingplasticmicrobeadsasofJuly2017.

ConcernsovertheharmfulenvironmentalimpactsofmicrobeadsisalsopushingCanadatodevelopsimilarlaws.TheGovernmentofCanadahascommittedtoaddmicrobeadstothefederalToxicSubstancesListandEnvironmentandClimateChangeCanada(ECCC)isintheprocessofproposingaregulationthatwouldbanmicrobeadsasofDecember2017.Attheprovinciallevel,Ontarioisalsoproposingtoregulatemicrobeads,andcouldbecomethefirstjurisdictioninCanadatobanthem.

Concernsoverthelackofharmonizationinthedefinitionofmicrobeads,andalagtimebetweenimplementationoflegislationbetweenthetwofederaljurisdictions,hasledsomecommentators and environmental groups to state that Canada may “under-regulate”microbeads(and, thus,becomea“dumpingground”).However,both federal jurisdictionsareproposingtoincludebiodegradablemicrobeadsintheirban,whichisseenasameasurethat will strengthen the regulations and reduce the amount of microbeads entering theenvironment.

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Replacementproductsarealreadyavailable toproducersandconsumersofcosmeticandpersonalcareproducts.Examplesinclude:coffeegrounds,pumice,coconutshells,andsugar. These alternatives have not attracted much attention in the academic literature,thereforetheirenvironmentalimpactsandtheirsuitabilityformassmarketareunknown.Biodegradablepolymers(PHA),havebeendevelopedasapromisingalternative.However,it is unclear whether these products will be classified (and therefore banned) by thedefinition of ‘biodegradable’ in the new legislation. The impacts of these biodegradablemicrobeadsincosmeticsontheenvironmentarealsounknown.

Asa result, there is littleproof that replacementproductswillbe clearly superior intermsofrisks to theenvironmentorhumanhealth.Nevertheless, it isa fact thatplasticsremain virtually forever in the natural environment, while most candidate replacementproductsdonot.Onthebasisofpersistencyalone,itseemsdesirabletobanmicrobeadsand“hopeforthebest”whenitcomestothesubstancesthateventuallywilltaketheirplaceincosmeticandpersonalcareproducts.

Plastic waste enters the environment through mismanagement and are eventuallyfragmentedanddegradedinto“secondarymicroplastics.”Theprocessesthatcauseplasticsto degrade are well understood, but the rate at which plastic debris is degraded intomicroplastics is still uncertain.However, it is quite certain that theamountof secondarymicroplasticsintheoceansismuchlargerthantheamountof“primary”microplasticssuchas microbeads. It is also quite certain that the environmental effects of primary andsecondarymicroplasticsareidentical.Wecan,therefore,arguethatmicrobeadsarereallyjustthe“tipofatoxicplastic-berg.”Thelarger,lesserknownpartofthis“plastic-berg”willlikelyrequiresomepolicyattention in thenear futuresince thehealthof theoceansandfisheriesarenowagloballyrecognizedissue.

Policy measures proposed in the literature are focused on waste management andrecycling programs. It would be worth to also consider the innovation potential newtechnologies(suchasnanotechnologyandbiotechnology)andsocialinnovations.Finally,wehave to recognize that policy thinking will have to be global and involve stakeholdersassociatedwith theentire life-cycleofplastics.The coordinationof research through thedevelopment of clear concepts, definitions, typologies and methods alone is a majorchallenge.Thedevelopmentof internationallyharmonized regulations is anevengreaterchallenge.Finally,theimplementationofregulationsatthisscaleandinthisspace(theglobalcommons of the high seas) is daunting. Our literature review led us to believe that thisproblemisimportantandurgentenoughthatthesechallengesneedtobeaddressed.

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3–Timeline

Year Event1907 Firsttrulysyntheticpolymer,Bakelitedeveloped.1910-1950 Developmentofmodernplasticsexpands.15newsyntheticpolymersdeveloped,including

themostcommoncommodityplasticsinusetoday.1950's Large-scaleindustrialproductionofplasticsbegins.1960's Firstdocumentationofplasticdebrisimpactsonwildlife(GESAMPsummary).1960's FirstpatentsforpersonalcaremicrobeadsissuedasidentifiedbytheIJC.1970's Smallpiecesoffloatingplasticsreportedontheocean’ssurface(seeGESAMPsummary).1980's-1990's Observationsofplasticsinmarineenvironmentincreasesrapidly.1990's UseofmicrobeadsinpersonalcareproductsexpandsasidentifiedbyIJC.1990-2004 Useof"microplastics"appearsinliterature.Exactdateoffirstuseuncertain.2004 Firstmajorscientificpublicationdedicatedtomicroplastics(seeThompsonetal.,2004)2006 Canada'sChemicalsManagementPlanislaunched.2008 NationalOceanographicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)hostsfirstinternational

workshoponmicroplasticspollution2011 Global plastics industry issues declaration committing itself to contribute to solving the

globalmarinelitterproblem.2012 NorthSeaFoundationandPlasticSoupFoundationlaunchSmartphoneapplicationaspart

of"BeattheBead"Campaign.June2012 GlobalPartnershiponMarineLitter (GPML)establishedwith theobjectiveofprotecting

humanhealthandtheenvironment.December2012

Industrybeginstorespondtopressuretoremoveplasticmicrobeadsfrompersonalcareproducts.

Summer2013 UnitedNationEnvironmentalProgrambacksthe"BeattheBead"campaign.June8,2014 Illinois becomes the first state to ban the use of microbeads, restricted to rinse-off

cosmetics,allowsbiodegradablemicrobeads,excludingprescriptiondrugs.March–July2015

Maine,Colorado,NewJersey,Indiana,Maryland,andConnecticutbantheuseofmicrobeads,restrictedtorinse-offcosmetics,allowsforbiodegradablemicrobeads.

October8,2015

CaliforniabecomesthefirstjurisdictioninNorthAmericatobantheuseofbiodegradablemicrobeads.

March9,2015 LegislativeAssemblyofOntariodiscussesBill75-MicrobeadEliminationandMonitoringAct,2015

March24,2015

TheCanadianHouseofCommonsunanimouslyvotes for the federalgovernment to takeimmediatemeasuresandaddmicrobeadstotheToxicSubstancesList(section1.1).

June22-23,2015

TheCanadianCouncilofMinistersoftheEnvironmentvoicetheirsupportforEnvironmentCanada (EC: renamed as of 2016 toEnvironment andClimateChangeCanada, ECCC) toconductascientificreviewonmicrobeads(section2.3.1).

July30,2015 EC completes a scientific assessment of microbeads. The report recommends thatmicrobeadsshouldbeaddedtotheToxicSubstancesList.

August1,2015 Notice of Intent is published stating that EC is initiating the development of proposedregulationsunderCEPA1999toregulatemicrobeads.

December28,2015

PresidentObamasignsintolawtheMicrobead-FreeWatersActof2015,prohibitingsoaps,bodywashes,toothpaste,andotherpersonal-careproductsfromcontainingmicrobeadsasofJuly2017.

March10,2016

EnvironmentandClimateChangeCanada(ECCC)publicconsultationfollowedbya30-daycommentperiodclosingonMarch10,2016(section6.2).

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4–Glossary

WordorAcronym ExplanationorDefinitionBiodegradation Biologicalprocessoforganicmatter,whichiscompletelyorpartiallyconverted

towater,CO2,methaneandnewbiomassbymicroorganisms(bacteria&fungi).CanadianEnvironmentalProtectionAct,1999(CEPA)

Canada’smostcomprehensivefederallegislationtermsofpollutionprevention,protectinghumanhealthandtheenvironment.

ChemicalsManagementPlan(CMP)

Regulatory framework formonitoring, assessing, and regulating the effects ofchemicalsubstancesinCanada.

CommodityPlastic Widely used, most commonly produced plastics. Includes polyethylene (PE),polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane(PUR)amongothers.

Compostable Capable of being biodegraded at elevated temperatures in soils under specificconditionsandtimescales,usuallyonlyencounteredinanindustrialcomposter.

Degradationofpolymers Thepartialorcompletebreakdownofapolymerasaresultofe.g.UVradiation,oxidation,biologicalprocesses.Thismayincludethealterationoftheproperties,suchasdiscolouration,surfacecrackingandfragmentation.

DomesticSubstancesList(DSL)

Substances that were, between January 1, 1984, and December 31, 1986,manufacturedin,importedinto,orusedinCanadaonacommercialscale.

FisheriesAct Canadianfederalactthatincludesaprohibitionforthereleaseoftoxicorharmfulchemicalsintofishhabitats.

FoodandDrugsAct(FDA)

Canadianfederalactthatgovernsfoods,drugs,naturalhealthproducts,cosmeticsandmedicaldevicessoldinCanada.

GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine EnvironmentalProtection

GPML GlobalPartnershiponMarineLitterIJC InternationalJointCommission Macroplastic Generally refers to plastic particles that are large enough to be seenwith the

naked eye. Use of macroplastic ubiquitously refers to larger obviously visibleplastics.*Note:Definitionofmacroplasticsinnotinternationallyagreedupon.

Microplastic Generallyreferstoplasticparticleswithanuppersizelimitof5mmindiameter.Use of microplastics ubiquitously refers to 'small' pieces of plastic. *Note:Definitionofmicroplasticsisnotinternationallyagreedupon.

Mineralization Definedhere,inthecontextofpolymerdegradation,asthecompletebreakdownofapolymerasaresultofcombinedabioticandmicrobialprocesses, intoCO2water,methane,hydrogen,ammoniaandothersimpleinorganiccompounds.

Oxo-degradable Containingapro-oxidantthatinduceddegradationunderfavourableconditions.*Note:Completebreakdownofthepolymersandbiodegradationstillhavetobeproven.

PBiT Classificationofsubstancesbasedonpersistency,bioaccumulation,andinherenttoxicityasoutlinedintheCanadianEnvironmentalProtectionAct,1999.

PestControlProductsAct(PCPA)

Canadianfederallawthatregulatesproductsusedforthecontrolofpestsandtheorganicfunctionsofplantsandanimals.

Plastic In the contextofmicroplastics,plastic refers toa sub-setof the larger classofmaterialscalledpolymers.

PrimaryMicroplastic Microplastics originallymanufactured to be small in size. Example: Abrasives,cosmeticexfoliants,industrialprocesses,rawplasticpellet'feedstock'.

SecondaryMicroplastic Microplasticsresultingfromthemechanical,chemicalorphysicalfragmentationoflargerplasticobjects.

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5–Introduction

5.1Background

Microbeadsaresmallplasticparticlesusedasexfoliatesinconsumerandpersonalcareproductssuchasshampoos,soaps, lipgloss,andtoothpaste.Theyalsofindapplicationinabrasives,cleaningproducts,andmedicaldevices.Microbeadscanbedefinedassmallplasticparticles with a diameter between 0.1μm and 5 mm (Environment Canada, 2015a).Definitionsvaryamongjurisdictions,however(forexample,theUSdefinitionusesthesameupper size limit but does not specify any lower size limit;more on this below). Becausemicrobeadsaremanufacturedtobesmall,theyarereferredtoas“primarymicroplastics”.Thisisincontrasttoequallysmallparticlesfoundinnaturethataretheresultofthedecayoflargerplasticproductsandthatreferredtoas“secondarymicroplastics.”

Asinglecosmeticproductcancontain5000to95,000microbeads(Napperetal.,2015).Sincemostmicrobeadsaretiny,mostwatertreatmentfacilitiesareunabletoprocesstheseparticles before they are discharged into the environment. Recent scientific evidencesuggeststhatmicroplastics,suchasmicrobeadscanbeconsideredtoxicsubstances,andaseriousenvironmentalconcernforaquatichabitatsandwildlifeandhavethepotentialtocontaminatefoodchains(Thompsonetal.,2009a;Coleetal.,2011;STAP,2011;Eriksenetal.,2013;Wright,Thompson,&Galloway,2013;Gall&Thompson2015;Greenetal.,2016).

Consumer and advocacy groups have urged industry to remove products containingmicrobeads and replace them with alternatives (Plastic Soup Foundation, 2016). Inresponse, thesupermarketchainLoblawsandcompaniessuchas Johnson&JohnsonandL’Oréalhavecommittedtophaseoutmicrobeadsfromtheirproducts(Copeland,2015).

IntheUS,PresidentObamasignedintolawthe“Microbead-FreeWater’sActof2015”onDecember28,2015,whichprohibitsthemanufactureandintroductionofrinse-offcosmeticscontaining plastic microbeads (Microbead-FreeWaters Act of 2015). Other jurisdictionsincluding Canada, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Sweden are alsocallingforabanofmicrobeadsinpersonalcareproducts(Perschbacher,2016).OnMarch24,2015,theCanadianHouseofCommonsvotedunanimouslyforthegovernmenttotakeimmediatemeasures toaddmicrobeads to theListofToxicSubstances,whichwouldbantheirmanufacture, import,andsaleon themarketandcouldcome intoeffectasearlyasDecember2017(ECCC,2016).

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The interconnections and collaborations between US and Canadian interests are, ofcourse,manifold.Thetwocountriesarethelargesttradingpartnersintheworld.Initiativestoharmonize(or“align”)regulationsexistatthehighestlevelofgovernmentsthroughtheRegulatoryCooperationCouncil (RCC).Finally, through the International JointCommission(IJC),CanadaandtheUnitedStatesregulatesharedwatersandcollaboratetoresolveandmanagetransboundaryenvironmentalandwaterissues,includingthemicrobeadfile(IJC,2016b). It is, therefore, of interest to compare the state of regulation between the twocountriesandalsochartanticipatedfutureissuesforthemicrobeadsfile.

Looking forward, it should alsobeof interest to evaluate the state-of-affairswhen itcomestoreplacingmicrobeadsinpersonalcareproducts. It iscertainlyofpublic interestthatproductswillbecomesafer forhumansandtheenvironment, rather thancontainingless-safealternativeabrasivesinthefuture.

Taking an even broader lens, the consideration of secondarymicroplastics puts thecosmeticmicrobeadissueintoamuchbroaderpollutioncontext.Globalplasticproductionhasincreasedsix-foldsince1975andwasestimatedtobealmost300millionmetrictonnesin2015(PlasticsEurope2015a).Macroscopicplasticwastecangeneratedifferenttypesofplasticintheenvironment.Thewastemayremainmacroscopicintheformofplasticbottlesandbags,orbreakdowntosecondarymicroplastics(EnvironmentCanada,2015a).Coleetal.(2011)estimatedthat10%ofglobalplasticswillentertheoceans.Duetowaveenergyand other factors, physical breakdown of these plastic to secondary microplastics iscommon. Since global plastic production is still increasing, and since most plastics arechemically highly persistent, the problems associated with both macroplastics andmicroplasticswillcontinuetoaccumulateovertime.Evenfromthenarrowperspectiveofeconomics(thatisoftenunabletofullyaccountforenvironmental,healthandsocialcostsandthatwillexcludenon-economic“costs”suchasthesufferingofwildlife),UNEP(2014a)“conservatively”estimatedthatplasticwastealreadycausesfinancialdamageof$13Billion(US) to marine ecosystems annually. Considering that there is no reason for why theenvironmentaleffectofprimaryandsecondarymicroplasticsshouldbeanydifferent,itismeaningful to look at this broader context that may become of interest once the newcosmeticmicrobeadlegislationsarefullydesignedandimplemented.Aremicrobeadsjustthe“tipofthetoxicplastic-berg”?

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5.2OurCharge

InJanuary2016,theEmbassyoftheUnitedStates(Ottawa)commissionedthegraduatestudents enrolled in the Capstone Practicum of the University of Ottawa’s Institute forScience,SocietyandPolicytoconductthisliteraturereviewonregulation,alternatives,andfutureimplicationsconcerningmicrobeads.

Perourproposal,datedFebruary16,2016,wehaveagreedthatthe literaturereviewshouldencompassthefollowingthreethemes:

• RegulatoryframeworksinplacetomanagechemicalsubstancesinCanadaandtheUSandprogressonregulatingmicrobeadsinCanada;

• Industryalternativesandconcernswiththereplacementproducts;and

• Possibleimplicationsforthefutureregulationofsimilarproductsinbothcountries.

We also agreed to keep the scope of this literature review policy- rather than science-orientedwiththeaimtobeinformativeforseniormanagementanddecision-makersandanapproximatelengthof30pages.

Accordingly, our literature review proceeds in Section 6 with a description of themethods used. Section 7 presents an overview of chemicalmanagement andmicrobeadregulation in Canada and the United States, and follows with a discussion on policychallenges with microbead regulation. Section 8 discusses industry alternatives tomicrobeads,andSection9 framesplasticpollution in theglobalcontext. Italsospeakstocurrent and future research directions, and identifies policy challenges for microplasticpollution. Section 10 will summarize the state-of-knowledge and explicitly compare the“known”andthe“unknown”forthethreecontexts(regulations,alternatives,andbeyondmicrobeads).

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6–Methods6.1Process

Thisliteraturereviewhasbeencompletedaspartofthegraduatecourse“ISP5903,”acapstonepracticumrequiredbytheUniversityofOttawa’sInstituteforScience,SocietyandPolicytoobtainthedesignationof“specializationinscience,societyandpolicy”foreligiblemasters’ programs. The research team consulted with the collaborative United StatesEmbassyinOttawa,onFebruary3,2016.Thismeetingresultedinthecommissioningofaliterature review that focused on the regulation, alternatives, and future implications ofmicrobeads. To plan, discuss and complete this literature review, weekly classroommeetingswereheld(3hperweek).TheclientwassentaresearchproposalandanannotatedtableoncontentsonMarch3.Communicationswiththeembassywerecarriedoutthroughe-mailanda30-minutetelephoneconversationonMarch17,2016,wherecommentsandfeedbackwereprovided.OnMarch31,2016,adraftcopyofthecompletedliteraturereviewwassentforcomments.ResultswillbepresentedtotheUnitedStatesEmbassyonApril14,2016.

6.2Scope

Wegatheredliteraturefromacademicand“gray”literature,aswellasthemedia,andwebsources.Aseriesofkeyterms(Table1,below),wereusedtosearchacademicarticles,articlesinpress,reports,andothersourcesofgreyliteratureinfivedigitaldatabases:GoogleScholar,JSTOR,PoliticalScience,ScienceDirect,andCABI.Additionally,greyliteraturesuchasindustryreportsandnon-governmentalorganization(NGO)documentsandnewsarticleswereincludedinoursearch.Thereviewfocusedonliteraturepublishedfrom2009to2016andwas limited to publications in English. A total number of over 100documentswerecollectedandconsultedintheprocessofproducingthisliteraturereview.

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Table1–Samplekeywordsusedinourliteraturesearches

Themethodologicalapproachvariedslightlyamongdifferentsections:

Section 7 focuses on the review of various federal governmental websites such asEnvironment and Climate Change Canada, Health Canada, Natural Resources Canada,FisheriesandOceansCanada,DepartmentofJustice,EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,andtheFoodandDrugAdministration.Weconsultedthesesourcestogainabettersenseoftheregulatory landscape of chemical management in Canada and the United States.Environmental NGO groups such as Sierra Club, Environmental Defence, CanadianEnvironmentalLawAssociation,andEcojusticeCanadaprovidedliteraturethatcommentsonthesepolicies.

Section8placesagreateremphasisongrey literatureandmedia sources includingblogs,newspaperarticles,organic/naturalinformationwebsites,andmagazines.Thesearchstrategyforthissectionledtofewacademicpaperscoveringthistopic.ThegreyliteratureandmediasourceswerefoundusingGoogleasasearchengine,whileacademicsourcesusedstemmedfromJSTOR,CADI,GoogleScholarandScienceDirect.

Section 9 on 'big picture' issues and future implications ofmicrobeads regulationsemphasizesacademicliterature,howeverrelevantgreyliteratureandmediaarticleswereincluded.ArticlesforthisresearchwerefoundusingthedatabaseGoogleScholar,andmediaarticles were located using a Google news alerts with the keywords "microplastic" and"microbeads".

Itshouldbenotedthattheinclusionof"microplastic"asakeywordvastlyincreasedthe quantity of information obtained, as microplastics have attracted much researchattention. Comparatively, our efforts to acquire relevant information on alternatives tomicrobeads ledto fewresults, indicatinga lackofresearchandattentiononreplacementproducts.

MajorKeywords

Source AND AND AND

Microbeads CanadianandUnitedStateslegislation

Alternatives Futureimplications

OR Primarymicroplastics

Chemicalmanagement Commercial Impact

OR Secondarymicroplastics

Chemicalregulation Production Health

OR Plasticwaste Managementframework Natural EnvironmentOR Pollution Regulatoryprocess Replacement PolicyOR Debris Regulatoryframework Substitute Life-Cycle

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7–MicrobeadRegulationinCanadaandtheUnitedStates(LeadAuthor:NicholasGirard)

7.1Multi-LevelRegulationofChemicalsinCanada

InCanada,every levelofgovernmentplaysrole inprotectingthepublicagainstrisksfrom chemical substances: municipalities, the provinces and territories, and the federalgovernment.Municipalgovernmentsareresponsibleforestablishing,collection,recycling,andwastedisposalprograms,includingmanagingmunicipalwatersupplies(EnvironmentCanada, 2010b). Provincial governments enforce laws that govern the emission,transportation, use, and disposal of substances that may harm the environment(PollutionWatch,2005)anddevelopandenforcealllegislationpertainingtomunicipalandpublicwatersupplies(CWWA,2012).Finally,thefederalgovernmentleadsinconductingscientificresearchonhumanandhealthissues,developsnation-widelegislationonchemicaland environmental protection (Government of Canada, 2012b), and cooperateswith theUnitedStatesonjointchemicalsmanagementthroughinitiativessuchastheCanada-UnitedStates Regulatory Cooperation Council on ChemicalManagement (Government of Canada,2011).

7.2Canada’sFederalLegislationforRegulatingChemicals

There are over 25 different laws covering the environment for which the federalgovernmentisresponsible.Inthepresentcontext,the13lawsshowninTable2,below,arethemostpertinent.

Table 2 – Major federal laws covering environment and environmental health issues(adaptedfromGovernmentofCanada,2007).

Products Emissions&Effluents HabitatProtection,LandUse&NaturalResourceManagement

CanadianEnvironmentalProtectionAct,1999 SpeciesatRiskAct

PestControlProductsAct CanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentAct,2012

FoodandDrugsAct ArcticWatersPollutionPreventionAct CanadaWaterAct

TransportationofDangerousGoodsAct,1992 FisheriesAct InternationalBoundaryWatersTreatyAct

CanadaConsumerProductsAct CanadaShippingAct OceansAct

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ThreekeyfederallawsthatregulatetheuseofchemicalsubstancesinCanadaincludethe(1)CanadianEnvironmentalProtectionAct,(CEPA)1999,(2)PestControlProductsAct(PCPA),and(3)FisheriesAct.

CEPA1999 isoneofCanada’smost important laws in termsofpollutionprevention,protectinghumanhealthandtheenvironment(EnvironmentCanada,2010a).CEPA1999establishestheregulatoryframeworkforthecontroloftoxicsubstances.TheActaddressesthemanufacture, import, and use of toxic substances and is administered jointly by theMinistersofEnvironmentandHealth(CEPA,1999).FollowingRoyalAssentofCEPA1999inMarch 2000, Ministers of Environment Canada and Health Canada were tasked withcategorizing23,000substancesontheDomesticSubstancesList(DSL)bySeptember2006todetermine if theymet the definition of “toxic” under CEPA1999 (Department of Justice,1999).TheDSLaresubstancesthatwere,betweenJanuary1,1984,andDecember31,1986,manufactured in, imported into, or used in Canada on a commercial scale beforecomprehensive environmental laws were in place to assess their harm (Government ofCanada2007;2010).TheprocessofcategorizingtheDSLidentifiedover4,000substances:500 of which were considered high priorities, 2,600 medium priorities, and 1,200 lowprioritysubstancesbasedonpersistency,bioaccumulation,andinherentlytoxicity(PBiT),orpresentasignificanthumanhealthexposurerisk(Eaton,2008;Lewis&Scott,2014).TheChemicalsManagementPlan(CMP)istheframeworkbehindthisinitiative.

7.2.1ChemicalsManagementPlan

The CMP is a Government of Canada initiative aimed atmonitoring, assessing, andregulatingtheeffectsofchemicalsubstancesbybringingallexistingfederalprogramsunderonecomprehensivestrategy.TherewereanumberoffactorsthatpromptedtheGovernmentof Canada to develop the CMP. Therewas an obligation from the federal government toaddresssubstancesontheDSL(DepartmentofJustice,1999)andrisingpublicconcernonthe potential harmful health effects of toxic chemicals and consumer product safety(EnvironmentalDefense,2011).WhiletheCMPismadeofvariousinitiativesincludingthosefocusedonmonitoring,research,assessment,regulationandenforcement(GovernmentofCanada, 2010b), one of the main CMP initiatives is to address the 500 high-prioritysubstances.TheobjectiveoftheCMPistoassessthe23,000chemicalsontheDSLby2020.According to theCMP's latestprogressreport (fall2015), roughly2,740substanceshavebeenassessedand363havebeenclassifiedastoxic(EnvironmentCanada,2015b).

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7.3ProgressonBanningMicrobeadsintheUnitedStatesandCanada7.3.1UnitedStates

In2014,sevenstatesreviewedlegislationonmicrobeadsandonJune8,2014,Illinoisbecame the first jurisdiction in the world to impose a ban on microbeads in rinse-offcosmetics (Sierra Club, 2015; Perschbacher, 2016). The following year, 47 bills wereintroduced in 25 states ofwhich ninewere signed into law (Farquhar, 2015).Figure 1,below,showsthecurrentstateofaffairsregardingStatemicrobeadlegislation.

Figure1:USStatebansonmicrobeadsasofOctober2015(Farquhar,2015).Theninestatescolouredindarkbluehavebannedmicrobeads.The16statescolouredinlightbluehaveintroducedbillsintolegislature.

Ninestates,Colorado,Connecticut,Illinois,Indiana,Maine,Maryland,NewJersey,andWisconsin,havebannedtheuseofmicrobeadinrinse-offcosmeticproducts.OnOctober8,2015,Californiabecamethefirstjurisdictiontobantheuseofbiodegradablemicrobeadsasa substitute product (Sierra Club, 2015). All state bans onmanufacture of personal careproducts will be effective as of January 1, 2018, and sale of over-the-counter drugs(including,butnotlimitedto:fluorideandwhiteningtoothpaste,acnescrubs,andwrinklecreams)thatcontainmicrobeadswillcomeintoforceasofJanuary1,2020.

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AFederalbill(H.R.1321)entitled“TheMicrobead-FreeWatersActof2015”wassignedinto lawbyPresidentObamaonDecember28,2015,whichbansrinse-offcosmetics thatcontain intentionally-added microbeads beginning on July 1, 2018, and will ban themanufactureof theseproductsbeginningonJuly1,2017(WhiteHouse,2015).WhiletheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasauthorityundertheCleanWaterActtoregulatemicrobeads from industry wastewater discharge, that authority does not extend tomicrobeadsthatarereleasedfromhouseholds(Copeland,2015).Instead,theFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)undertheFederalFood,Drugs,andCosmeticActistheregulatorybodyresponsible for enforcing the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015. This is noteworthybecauseinCanada,thesisterorganizationoftheEPA,EnvironmentCanada(ratherthanthesisterorganizationoftheFDA,HealthCanada)istheleadagency.

7.3.2Canada

OnMarch24,2015,theHouseofCommonsunanimouslyvotedforthegovernmenttotakeimmediateactiontoaddmicrobeadstotheListofToxicSubstancesunderCEPA1999.ThisresultedinthefederalgovernmentexpeditingthereviewofmicrobeadsundertheCMPprocess(ECCC,2016).AccordingtoCEPA1999,“asubstanceistoxicifitisenteringormayentertheenvironmentinaquantityorconcentrationorunderconditionsthat:

1. have or may have an immediate or long-term effect on the environment or itsbiologicaldiversity;

2. constituteormayconstituteadangertotheenvironmentonwhichlifedependsor;3. constitute or may constitute a danger in Canada to human life or health.”

(DepartmentofJustice,1999).”

Whenasubstancemeets thesecriteria, it is thenreferredas“CEPAtoxic”(asopposedto“toxic”inamorecolloquialsense).

AttheJune22-23,2015meetingoftheCanadianCouncilofMinistersoftheEnvironment,ministers voiced their support for Environment Canada to conduct a scientific reviewofmicrobeads(ECCC,2016).ThescientificreviewcarriedoutbyECCC(ECatthetime)inJuly2015,assessedthestateofknowledgeonmicrobeadsandconcludedthatthepersistencyandcontinualreleaseofmicrobeadsintheenvironmentmightresultinlong-termeffectsonbiologicaldiversityandecosystems,thusadheringtothedefinitionof“toxic”outlinedaboveinCEPA1999(EnvironmentCanada,2015a).ItrecommendedaddingmicrobeadstotheListofToxicSubstancesunderCEPA1999.Onthisbasis,thiswouldprohibitthemanufacture,import,andsaleofmicrobeadsinallproducts(EnvironmentalDefense,2015).Twobills(C-680andC-684)weretabledduringthe41stsessionofparliamenttoamendtheFoodandDrugs Act and Part 7 of CEPA 1999, but they did not proceed prior to dissolution ofParliament and were subsequently dropped and replaced with what ECCC is currentlyproposing(ECCC,2016).

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OnAugust1,2015,aproposedordertolistmicrobeadsintheListofToxicSubstanceswaspublishedinCanadaGazette,Part1,fora60-daypubliccommentperiod.ANoticeofIntentwasalsopublishedstatingtheGovernmentofCanada’splantoproposeregulationsunderCEPA1999tobanmicrobeadsinpersonalcareproductsusedtoexfoliateorcleanse(GovernmentofCanada,2015).Twenty-fiveindustryassociationsandtenotherstakeholdergroupsaswellasover200individualscommentedontheproposedregulationonavarietyoftopicsincludingthedefinitionofmicrobeads,harmonizationwiththeU.S.Microbead-FreeWatersActof2015,biodegradation,andalternatives(ECCC,2016).Thepublicconsultationprocesswasfollowedbya30-daycommentperiodclosingonMarch10,2015.Commentsreceived during this period will be taken under consideration while ECCC drafts theproposed regulations. According to ECCC’s proposed regulation (2016), the federal banwouldbeimplementedonthefollowingdates:

• “December 31, 2017, prohibiting the manufacture and import of microbead-containingpersonalcareproducts,includingcosmetics,thatareusedtoexfoliateorcleanse,excludingnon-prescriptiondrugsandnaturalhealthproducts;

• December31, 2018, prohibiting the sale or offer for sale ofmicrobead-containingpersonal care products, including cosmetics, that are used to exfoliate or cleanse,excludingnon-prescriptiondrugsandnaturalhealthproducts;

• December 31, 2018, prohibiting the manufacture and import of a microbead-containingnon-prescriptiondrugornaturalhealthproductthatisusedtoexfoliateorcleanse;and

• December31,2019,prohibitingthesaleorofferforsaleofamicrobead-containingnon-prescriptiondrugornaturalhealthproductthatisusedtoexfoliateorcleanse”.

Attheprovinciallevel,OntarioiscurrentlytheonlyjurisdictioninCanadaproposingabanonmicrobeads.OnMarch9,2015,aprivatememberintroducedBill75–MicrobeadEliminationandMonitoringActtotheLegislativeAssemblyofOntario.ThebillpasseditssecondreadingandhasbeenreferredtotheStandingCommitteeonFinanceandEconomicAffairs.Ifthebillpassesconsideration,itwillcomeintoeffectwithintwoyearsandOntariowillbecomethefirstjurisdictioninCanada(includingthefederalgovernment)tobanmicrobeads(LegislationAssemblyofOntario,2015).

As indicated in the introduction,Loblawsandcompaniessuchas Johnson& JohnsonandL’Oréalhavecommitted tophaseoutmicrobeads from theirproducts.These commercialself-regulatoryactivitiesareexpectedtocontinueeveniftheCanadianbanshouldnotcometopass.

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7.4PolicyChallengesforMicrobeadRegulation7.4.1DefiningMicrobeads

WhenmicrobeadswereproposedforadditiontoSchedule1ofCEPAinAugust2015,theyweredefinedas“syntheticpolymersthat,atthetimeoftheirmanufacture,aregreaterthan0.1μmandlessthanorequalto5mminsize”(EnvironmentCanada,2015a).Followingconsultations, the definition was narrowed to plastic microbeads between 0.5 μm indiameterto2mminsize(ECCC,2016)overconcernsvoicedbyindustrythattheexistingdefinitioncoveredabroadscopeofplasticsusedasrawmaterialsforconsumerproducts(e.g.plasticsbottles)bytheplasticsindustry(ECCC,2016).

According to some stakeholders, the proposed definition ofmicrobeads creates aloopholethatwouldallowforpersonalcareproductscontainingplasticstobesoldthatareover 2 mm in diameter or under 0.5 μm in diameter (i.e. nanoplastics) (Terry, 2015,ChemicalWatch,2016;OttawaWaterkeeperetal.,2016).Thiswillrequirefutureattention,since nanoplastics possess similar qualities thatmake themharmful to the environment(UNEP,2015b).

AsMicrobead-FreeWatersActof2015definesmicrobeadsmorebroadlyas“anysolidplasticparticlethatislessthanfivemillimetresinsizeandisintendedtobeusedtoexfoliateorcleanse thehumanbodyoranypart thereof” (WhiteHouse,2015).TheSierraClubofCanada (2016) expressed a concern that Canada could become a dumping ground formicrobead-containingproductsbannedintheUnitedStates.

7.4.2LaginImplementationTimelines

Timelines set out in the proposed Canadian regulation are six months behindtimelinessetoutintheAmericanfederalactandotherstatejurisdictionsforcosmeticandnon-prescriptiondrugs(Willis,2016).Theproposedtimelinewouldresultinproductsbeingbanned in Canada six months after they are banned in the United States. From animplementationperspective,OttawaWaterKeeperetal.(2016)arguesthisisproblematicsinceitcouldmakeCanadaadumpingground(re:issuesabove)forproductsthatcannolongerbesoldintheUnitedStatesbutthatremainlegalinCanada.TheAmericanfederallawwouldalsopre-emptstatelawsthathaveputforwardmoreaggressivetimelinestophaseoutmicrobeadsfromcosmeticandpersonalcareproducts.

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7.4.3Biodegradability

Anotherchallengewithseveralstateandprovincialmicrobeadbillsandlawshastodowithbiodegradability.Certainexistingbillsatthestateandprovincialleveldoeither(1)not clearly define the term “biodegradable” or (2) permit the use of biodegradablemicrobeads.Ontario, forexample,definesmicrobeadsas“non-biodegradablesolidplasticparticlesmeasuringlessthanonemillimeterindiameterthatareusedincosmetics,soapsorsimilarproductsascleansingorexfoliatingagents”initsBill75.Suchdefinitionsappearto allow manufacturers to replace synthetic plastic microbeads with another plastic“biodegradable”alternative(Perschbacher,2016).Thisisachallenge,sincestudiessuggestthat biodegradable microplastics pose the same risks to aquatic life as conventionalmicrobeads(Greenetal.,2016).

Theterm“biodegradability”isalsonotappliedinastandardizedmanner.AccordingtoTerry(2015), incertainbills,theterm"biodegradable"isnotdefined(e.g.Illinois)andothers are defined such that amicrobeadhas to decompose in an industrial compostingfacility,ofteninhightemperaturesandcontrolledpHlevelsanddonotmeetthestandardofbiodegrading in an aquatic environment. On the other hand, Maryland has definedbiodegradableassomethingthatdecomposesinamarineenvironment.Somecommentatorshavenotedthistobethebiggestloopholeinmicrobeadlegislations.

Both the U.S. Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015 and the proposed Canadianregulationwillremovethisconflictoverbiodegradability.TheU.S.Actdefinesmicrobeadsas“anysolidplasticthatislessthan5mminlength”(WhiteHouse,2015)whichremovesthebiodegradable loophole.AsimilarprohibitionofbiodegradableplasticsasalternativeproductsisalsocoveredintheproposedCanadianregulationtomatchtheU.S.law(ECCC,2016).Accordingto5Gyres(2015b),theU.S.federalactwillsupersedestatebillsthatincludethe“biodegradableloophole”,resultinginastrongerbanofmicrobeads.AssumingthattheCanadianregulationwillcometopassasplanned,theloopholewillalsobefullyclosedinCanadabytheendof2019.

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8–MicrobeadAlternatives (LeadAuthor:AcaciaPaton-Young)

8.1CurrentNaturalAlternatives

The purpose ofmicrobeads in various cleansers is to provide exfoliation. The smallbeadsphysicallyruboffdeadskinorfacilitatethecleaningofsurfaces.Consideringthenewregulationsformicrobeads,somecompanieswillneedtouseotheringredientstoprovideconsumerswithproductsthathavethesameexfoliationeffects.However,cosmeticproductsthatachievesimilarexfoliationeffectswithouttheuseofmicrobeadsarealreadyavailableonthemarket.

Before discussing the currently available alternatives, it is worth noting what somemajorrelevantcompaniesaredoing.Agoodsourceofinternationalcompanyinformationisthe Beat the Microbead Initiative (www.beatthemicrobead.org) lead by the Dutch non-government organization Plastic Soup Foundation. The industry section on the Beat theMicrobeadwebsiteshowcasesactionsofaselectionof internationalcompanies thathavereleased statements in support of banning microbeads. The companies that were listedgenerallyfitintothreecategories:

• Companiesthatneverusedmicrobeadsintheirproducts.• Companiesthatwillphaseoutmicrobeads.• Companiesthatalreadyswitchedtoreplacements.

Accordingly,theapproachesusedbythevariouscompaniestoaddressconsumerconcernsareverydiverse,asthefollowingexamplesillustrate:

UnileverwasthefirstcompanyreleasedapublicstatementinDecember2012agreeingtophasemicrobeadsoutoftheirproducts.Theirtargetdatewas2015which,accordingtotheUnileverwebsite,hasbeenmet.AllUnileverproductsarenowfreeofmicrobeads.Thealternativesusedbythiscompanyareapricotkernels,cornmeal,groundpumice,silica,andwalnutshells(Unilever,n.d.).

L’Oréal acknowledged in2014 thedifficultiesassociatedwithphasingout ingredientslikemicrobeads.However, theyare looking for suitablenatural alternatives suchas fruitseedsandminerals(L’Oréal,2014).

Avon provided public statements agreeing to phase out microbeads (Plastic SoupFoundation,2016).However,thedirectioninwhichtheyaregoingislessclear.Accordingtotheirwebsite, theywillphasemicrobeadsoutof theirproductsonce theyhave lookedatsuitablealternatives(Avon,n.d.).

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Johnson&Johnsonhasfoundmicrobeadalternatives,buttheirstatementonmicrobeadsdidnotincludewhatthealternativeswere(Johnson&Johnson,2016).However,accordingtoanarticleby5Gyresonecowatch.com,Johnson&Johnsonwerelobbyingstatestoalterthedefinitionofbiodegradable(5Gyres,2015a).

Notonlydo company strategiesdiffer, alternativeproducts canachieveexfoliation invarietyofcompletelydifferentways.UsingthecategoriesdescribedbytheblogEminence,therearefourcategoriesofalternativesthatcanbedistinguished(Pike,2015):

• Physicalexfoliants:physicallyscruboffdeadskin.Likealmondshells,etc.• Enzymeexfoliants:helpdissolvethedeadskinonthesurface• Chemicalexfoliants:useacidslikeBHAandAHAtoremovedeadskinatadeeperlevel• Creamexfoliants:mixtureofphysicalandnaturalacidstoexfoliate

Whileitisnotpossibletosummarizethemostimportantalternativeproductswithanymeasure of certainty—becausemuch of the relevant information remains undisclosed—thereareexamplestoillustratethebreathofdiversity.Table3,below,providesexamplesfromthefourcategoriesbasedontheinformationavailableontwoblogssites.

Table3–SamplealternativeexfoliantsaccordingtotheblogsTotalBeautyandAllure.

ProductName AlternativeIngredients ExfoliantCategory Source

Bioré Syntheticandmicrocrystallinewaxbeads. Physical

ProductslistedinapostonTotalBeauty(McCarthy,2014)

Elemis Jojobaesters PhysicalMicrodeliverypeel Lacticandsalicylicacid SkinMedica Alphaandbetahydroxylacids ChemicalMuradAgeReform,AHA/BHAExfoliatingCleanser

Glycolicacid Chemical

JanMarini Papayaenzyme EnzymeArconacranberrygomageexfoliant

Volcanicminerals Physical

Algenisttripleactionmicropolish

Alguronicacid,glycolicacid Chemical

St.IvesevenandBrightPinkLemonandMandarin

Apricotpits,walnutshells,kernelmeal Physical

ProductlistedinapostonAllure

(Colameo,2014).

YestoCoconutpolishingbodyscrub

Coconuthuskpowder Physical

FrankCacaoCoffeeScrub Cacao,coffeebeans,brownsugar,seasalt,walnutshells Physical

ForbiddenRiceBodyScrub BlackRice,LotusLeaf,beans PhysicalKoraorganicsexfoliatingcream Oatflourandbamboo Cream

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Eachoftheseproducts,arguably,wouldrequireariskassessmenttofullyunderstandthepotentialconsequencesoftheseproductsinaqueousenvironments.Despitesignificantresearchusingmultiplekeywordcombinationsandsources,noacademicliteratureonthepotentialrisksofthesemicrobeadalternativeswasfound.

Media sources provide some limited commentary on the potential risks of naturalalternatives.CosmeticsDesign(Yeomans,2014)interviewedGregBoyerwhoisChairofthechemistrydepartmentatSUNYCollegeofEnvironmentalScienceandForestry.Hisconcernswerethatthenaturalexfoliantscouldpresentproblemsthataredifferentfrommicrobeads.Specifically, he talked about bacteria degrading sugars for energy. In stratified watercolumns,theremaynotbeenoughoxygentosupportthedegradationprocess,andfishandothermarine-lifecoulddieasaresultbecausetherewouldnotbeenoughoxygentosustainthem.

StivWilson,AssociateDirectorofthenon-governmentorganization5Gyres,providedamore optimistic view in an interviewwith the British newspaper The Guardian. Wilsonstated that the biodegradability iswhatmakes these alternatives better as long as thesealternativesaresourcedsustainably.Therelative impactofsustainablyproducednaturalbiodegradablealternativeswillberelativelylowerthanthatofmicrobeads(DuFault,2014).

Building on concerns of potential new and different problems associated withmicrobeads,TheGuardianalsointerviewedVictoriaFantauzzi—theco-founderofLaBellaFiguraBeauty.Fantuzzi’sconcernswerefocusedonapotentiallyproblematicsupplychain.SheusedtheexampleofMexicowherefamilieslosttheirfarmsbecausetheirproductswereoutsourcedtodifferent,cheapergrowers(DuFault,2014).TheMexicanfarmerswereunabletocompetewithcompaniesthatcameinandproduced‘cheapcropsusingcheaplaborandGMOseeds,’(DuFault,2014).

Adaptingtomicrobead-freeproductswillbeeasierforconsumersthanforbusinessesbecausethecurrentlyavailablealternativesareofhighquality,accordingtotheHuffingtonPost(Adams,2014).Accordingtothearticle,consumerslikemicrobeadsbecausetheyareinert exfoliants that do not cause adverse skin reactions and companies approve ofmicrobeadsbecausetheyareeasierandcheapertoproduce(Adams,2014).AccordingtoNew York based dermatologist Dr. Buka, the alternatives that are available are just aseffectiveasmicrobeads.Thereadyavailabilityofalternativesinthemarketwillmaketheswitch easier for consumers, according to Dr. Jailman. Dr. Jailman is a New York baseddermatologistandauthorofSkinRules:TradeSecretsfromaTopNewYorkDermatologist.However,accordingtoDr.Buka,companieswillhavetousemoreexpensiveingredientsandmay have a harder time adjusting (Adams, 2014).However, asmentioned above, not allcompanieshavetoadjusttheirproductsbecausenotallproductscontainmicrobeads.

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8.2PotentialSyntheticAlternative

Polyhydroxyalkanoate(PHA)isalinearpolyesterdevelopedbyafermentationprocessusingbacteria.CompaniesbelievethebiodegradablepropertiesofPHAmakeitasuitablealternative for microbeads in cosmetics. PHAs are biodegradable in both aerobic andanaerobicenvironments.PHAtransformsintomostlycarbondioxideandwater(inaerobicenvironments where oxygen is available) or water and methane (in anaerobicenvironments)withinareasonabletimeframe(Voinova,Gladyshev,&Tatiana,2008).

Some suppliers are ready to provide PHA microbeads to cosmetic companies. Anexample of a company involved in the development of PHAmicrobeads is TerraVerdaeBioworks.Thiscompanyhasdevelopedandpromotedtheirproductasbiodegradable,non-GMO,andnon-toxicalternativetoplasticmicrobeads(BusinessWire,2015).TerraVerdaeBioworkshasfacilitiesinCanadaandtheUKandamission“totransformtheglobalplasticsindustrybyprovidingsustainablyproduced,biodegradablealternativestopetroleum-basedmaterials.”WilliamBardosh,itsCEOandfounder,statesthattheirproductrapidlybreaksdowntocarbondioxideandwaterinmarineenvironments,leavingnoharmfulsolids—thattheproductis“intrinsicallybiodegradable”(BusinessWire,2015).Forinstance,theproductmeetstheAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterialsIndustryStandardsforBiodegradationin a Marine Environment (BusinessWire, 2015). Bardosh raised concerns that the newmicrobeadlegislationwouldprohibitPHA(becauseofthebroaddefinitionof“microbead”)despitethepotentialforittoactasanenvironmentallyfriendlyalternativetocurrentnon-biodegradablemicrobeads(Forman,2016).ItisworthnotingthatthebiodegradableplasticsdevelopedbyTerraVerdaeBioworkshas applications inother fields (not cosmetics) andmarkets. Bardosh believes TerraVerdae’s PHA-basedmicrobeadwill have a place in themarketsinEuropeandAsia,andPHAswillbeusedinapplicationssuchascleanerstoremovegreaseand3Dprinting(Forman,2016).

AnothersupplierofPHAmicrospherescomesfromanalliancebetweenMetabolixInc(anadvancedbiomaterialcompany)andthecosmeticsbranchofHoneywell.TheirproductisabiodegradablemicrobeadcalledMirelMicropowder(Laird,2015).According to theirwebsite,theyarecurrentlyworkingonPHAtechnologytoreplacemicrobeads.Theirproductdegrades naturally and quickly in both salt water and fresh water environments.Additionally,MirelMicropowderwilldegradeinwastewatertreatmentsystems(Metabolix,n.d.).

Aside from the promotional information provided by cosmetic companies, data onPHAs in cosmetics isminimal. PHAdoesnot showup as an ingredient in the cosmeticssurveyed for this literature search. One student presentation at an UndergraduateEngineering Conference at the University of Pittsburgh concludes that PHA is a suitablealternative and its biodegradable propertiesmake it the best option (Celmo & Addison,2015).Itisnotclearhowwellfoundedthisjudgmentis.

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Concerns about the potential for biodegradable microbeads to be harmful ledCaliforniatobanthem.Asindicatedabove,theMicrobead-FreeWater’sActof2015alsobansrinse-offcosmeticsthatcontainintentionally-addedmicrobeads—includingbiodegradableplasticmicrobeads.Accordingtoanarticle inTheGuardian (O’Connor) it isunclear if thebiodegradable alternativeswill introduceharmful chemicals into thewaterwaysbecausetheymaystillabsorbtoxinsinthewaterandintroducethemintothefoodchain(O’Connor,2015).Additionally,thearticlediscussedconcernsaboutthelackofstandards.Forexample,companies are able to label something as biodegradable without a relevant certificate(O’Connor,2015).

Abanonall“biodegradable”plasticsmaybeoverlysweepingbecausethemeaningofthetermisveryambiguous.Itappearsthatsomeplasticslabelledasbiodegradablewillnottransform in marine environments (they require the high temperatures provided bycommercial composting facilities) while other do transform in marine environments.Persistence is amajor component of an environmental risk assessment and itwould beinterestingtospeculateontheconsequencesofthearguablysweepingprohibitionwithinthenewUSregulationandtheproposedCanadianlawthatlimitincentivestoinnovationofnew“intrinsically”biodegradableplastics(ofanytype,notjustmicrobeads).

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9–Microbeads:Tipofthe“ToxicPlastic-berg”?(LeadAuthor:SimonLester)

9.1MicrobeadsintheContextofGlobalPlasticProduction

Plasticshavemanydesirablepropertiesthatmakethemextremelyversatilematerials.Inexpensive,durableandlightweight,theyhaverevolutionizedthemodernworld(Andrady&Neal,2009).Plasticsareusedforastaggeringvarietyofproductsanditischallengingtoimagineaworldwithoutthem(Andrady&Neal,2009).Duetothisversatility,annualglobalplasticproductionhas grown from roughly5 tonnes in the1950's (Bergmann,Gutow,&Klages,2015)to300milliontonnesglobally(PlasticsEurope,2015b).Plasticsareusedinnearly every consumer product, and forecasts indicate that production of plastics willcontinuetoincreasebyabout1percentayear(PlasticsEurope,2015a).Allplasticshavethepotential to transform into “secondary”microplastics over time, however, the time spanrequireddependsonthenatureoftheplasticandtheenvironmentalconditions.

“Primary”microplasticsintheformofmicrobeadswereintroducedinthe1960'sandtheir use in consumer products increased significantly in the 1990's (IJC, 2016a). Theseplasticsareconsidered"primary"microplasticsbecausetheyaremanufacturedtobesmallin size; they function as abrasives in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.While nospecificestimateofthequantityofmicrobeadsproducedhasbeenfound,averyconservativeestimatefortotalmicrobeadproduction,assumingthattheglobalpopulationusesasmanymicrobeadsastheaverageAmericancitizen(unlikely),indicatesmicrobeadstoaccountforlessthan1/10,000ofglobalplasticsproduction.

Nevertheless, the scale ofmicrobead production is not trivial. In the United Statesalone,anestimated263tonnesofprimarymicroplasticaredischargedperyear(Napperetal.2015).Thiswould fill approximately3000bathtubs,andcouldcontainasmanyas18trillionmicrobeads.

FivemajorgyresarepresentonEarth, two in thePacificOcean, two in theAtlanticOceanandoneintheIndianOcean.Theseoceangyreshavehighconcentrationsofmarinedebris, much of which is plastic (Thompson et al. 2004). Microplastics account forapproximately25percentofthetotalmassofplasticdebrisestimatedtobepresentintheNorth Atlantic subtropical gyre (Gouin et al. 2011). The appropriately named "5Gyers"organizationdrawsmediaattentiontotheplasticspollutionproblemintheseareas.Whilethegyreshavebeenpopularizedwithsensationalnamessuchasthe'GreatPacificGarbagePatch'(Kaiser,2010), thesenamesaremisleading.Theyimplyan imageofa largematoffloatingplasticdebrisintheoceans,whileinrealitytheseareasareprimarilycontaminatedwithbarelyvisiblemicroplastics;notthelargematoffloatingplasticdebristwicethesizeofTexas,asisfrequentlyimplied(Kaiser,2010).

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Thompson’s(2004)publication,"LostatSea:Whereisalltheplastic?"drewattentiontotheneedtoresearchthelife-cycleoftheplasticproductionindustry,asplasticdebrishasbecomeoneofthemostabundantandobservablepollutionsglobally.It isnowestimatedthat10percentofallplasticsglobally,eitherthroughmismanagementorlittering,endupinthe environment (Cole et al. 2011). To help illustrate the scale of the microbeads vs.macroplastics issue, it is noted that the amount ofmismanagedmacroplastics, primarilyfromlandbasedsourcesintheUnitedStatesis1000timeslargerthantheestimatedquantityofdischargedmicrobeads,atanestimated280,000tonnes(Jambecketal.,2015).Wehavetoremember,however,thatthesemismanagedplasticsremainmostlyintheirmacroscopicstateafterenteringtheenvironment,butonceintheoceans,plasticseventuallyfragmentinto small pieces, known as secondarymicroplastic (Andrady, 2011; Barnes et al., 2009;Thompsonetal.,2004).Microplasticsofbothtypesarenowthoughttobefoundinallmarineenvironments,fromdeepoceansediments(Woodalletal.,2014)toiceinthepoles(Barnesetal.,2009).

Thedurablenatureofplasticscausesplastictoaccumulateintheenvironmentoverlongperiodsoftime(Ryanetal.,2009).Exemplifyingthisidea,Barnesetal.(2009)claimthat every bit of plastic ever manufactured, with the exception of that which has beenincinerated, still exists. A recent discovery puts a twist on this statement, however.Researchershavefoundthatsomemicrobesarecapableofmetabolizingplastics,openinganentirely new field of study and potentialmechanism for decomposition of plastic debris(Yangetal.2014;Yoshidaetal.,2016).

While plastics play an increasingly important role inmodern societies (Andrady&Neal, 2009), the environmental consequence resulting from plastics entering theenvironment isaseriouschallengerequiring immediateresponseaccordingtoRoy,etal.(2011).

Accordingly,oceansresearchershavemadeanarrayofrecommendationsregardingplastic waste. These recommendations are focused on improved management of wastethrough infrastructure upgrades (IEEP, 2013; UNEP, 2014b) and improved recyclingprograms (Hopewell, Dvorak, & Kosior, 2009), as well as by changes in consumer andproducerbehaviours (Bergmann,Gutow,&Klages,2015). Jurisdictionsaround theworldhave imposed bans on some plastic products, such as shopping bags (IEEP, 2013), anddebates are beginning to focus on plastic bottle bans (Banerjee, 2016). In one case,researchershavecalledforallplasticwastetobedefinedashazardoustoencouragebettermanagementpractices(Browne,2013).

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9.2Past,CurrentandFutureResearchDirectionsinPlasticPollutionResearch9.2.1Wildlife

Plastic pollution research initially focused on wildlife mortalities resulting fromentanglementinlostfishinggear,plasticbagsandpackaging,oringestionoffloatingplasticdebris(Laist,1987).Thenegativeeffects,includingmortalitiesfromlargeplasticparts,arewelldocumented(Browne,2013;GESAMP,2015;IEEP,2013;Laist,1987;Thompsonetal.,2011b; UNEP, 2014b). The persistence of plastic debris has been clearly "illustrated byaccountsthatplasticswallowedbyanalbatrosshadoriginatedfromaplaneshotdown60years previously, some 9600km away" (Barnes et al., 2009, p. 1986). There is a lot ofconsensusamongexpertsonthedirectnegativeimpactsoflargerplasticsintheoceanwhichhasledtotheneedtostudytheircompletelife-cycle.

Research on the impacts of microplastics on wildlife is relatively new. Theunderstandingofriskremainsinthehazardcharacterizationstageofevaluation(GESAMP,2015).Ithasbeendocumentedthatwildlifeofallsizesintheenvironmentencounterandingestmicroplasticdebris(Gall&Thompson,2015),buttheeffectofthisingestionremainsuncertain.Microplasticscanbecontaminatedwithharmfulchemicals,eitherabsorbedfromtheenvironmentorincorporatedatthetimeofmanufactureandarecapableofdesorbingintomarineorganismsafteringestion(Coleetal.,2011;IvarDoSul&Costa,2014).Whileearlyresearchindicatesthatingestionofmicroplasticsbymarineorganismscanhavesub-lethaleffectsinindividuals,effectsonpopulationsareunknown(Gall&Thompson,2015).Theroleofmicroplastic ingestioninbioaccumulation—animportantconcerninpollutionresearch—isthoughttobeminimal(Koelmans,2015;Napperetal.,2015).Thereisalsolittlecertainty regarding the indirect effects thatmay be attributable tomicroplastics. Plasticdebris may function as a distribution mechanism for invasive species that hitchhike onplasticdebris,buttheimpactsofplasticonmicrobiallifearepoorlyunderstood(Zettleretal.,2013).

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9.2.2EnvironmentalFateinAquaticEnvironments

During the last ten years, research focus shifted onto sources, quantities, and theultimateenvironmentalfateofplasticdebrisintheenvironment(Andrady,2011;Barnesetal.,2009).Largerplasticdebriswasfoundtobedegradingintomicroplasticsthatarenowfound in high concentrations in the environment. As a consequence, research attentionshiftedtomicroplasticimpactsinbothmarineandfreshwaterecosystems,andonhumanhealth(Coleetal.,2011;Ryanetal.,2009).Studiesbegantoquantifytheamountofplasticdebris entering the environment andhow theseplastics are degraded intomicroplastics(Barnesetal.,2009;Coleetal.,2011;Ryanetal.,2009;Thompsonetal.,2004;Thompsonetal.,2005).Thisresearchhasbeguntodevelopabodyofevidencefornegativeeffectscausedbymicroplastics.

Sourcesofplasticsintotheenvironmentarethoughttocomefromthosecountrieswiththeweakestwastemanagement infrastructures and highest populations (Jambeck et al.,2015).However,duetoinconsistencybetweenjurisdictionalwastemanagementdefinitions(Barnesetal.,2009;IvarDoSulCosta,2014)andchallengesidentifyingmarineplasticdebris,noexactestimatesofplasticreleaseintotheoceanexist.Plasticwasteinputsintothemarineenvironmentareestimatedtoaveragearound10percentoftotalplasticproductionglobally(Coleetal.,2011),however,highdegreesofregionalvariationarethoughttoexist(Jambecketal.,2015).

Themechanisms thatcauseplastics todegradeand fragment intomicroplasticsarerelativelywellunderstood.Keymechanismarewaveaction(especiallyonshorelines)andexposuretoultravioletlight(Barnesetal.,2009).However,ratesofdegradationofplasticintheenvironmentarestilllargelyunknown(Law&Thompson,2014).

Furthermore, quantification of microplastics in freshwater environments are lessstudiedthaninmarineenvironments,thoughsimilarnegativeimpactsarethoughttoexistbetweenmarine and freshwater environments (Eerkes-Medrano, Thompson, & Aldridge,2015). Some research quantifying microplastics in fresh water ecosystems has beenperformedglobally(Driedgeretal.,2015).TheGreatLakesofNorthAmericaareobservedtohavehighconcentrationsofmicroplasticsintheirsurfacewaters.Duetocloseproximitytoareasofhighpopulationdensity, it isspeculatedthathigherconcentrationsofprimarymicroplastics,likemicrobeads,arefoundintheGreatLakesthaninthemarineenvironment(Driedgeretal.,2015;Eriksenetal.,2013).TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramhasidentified that freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems are largely unstudied (Eerkes-Medrano,Thompson,&Aldridge,2015;Rillig,2012)andresearchinnowfocusingontheseecosystems,withparticularattentionpaidtohumanhealtheffects.

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9.2.3HumanHealthImpacts

Humansareexposedtomicroplasticseitherdirectlyfromthedrinkingoffreshwater,or indirectly from eating seafood.While it is evident that the potential exists for humanhealth effects, this area is a major knowledge gap (Government of Canada, 2015) andrequires more research (GESAMP, 2015), particularly for freshwater systems as mostresearch has focused onmarine environments (Eerkes-Medrano, Thompson, & Aldridge,2015).More research is needed, and consistent definitions, samplingmethodologies anddefinitionsofbestpracticeswill allow forbetter comparisonof results (Arthur,Baker,&Bamford,2009).

9.2.4“Biodegradable”Materials

The increased development and production of biodegradable plastics has led toresearchintotheirenvironmentalfateandpotentialhumanhealtheffects(Green et al., 2016;2015;Thompsonetal.,2009a;Thompsonetal.,2005;Wright,Thompson,&Galloway,2013).Muchdebatesurroundsthedegreetowhich“biodegradableplastics”do, in fact,degrade,especially when introduced into the natural environment where conditions vary widely(UNEP,2015a).

Biodegradationisnotasimpleprocess.Multiplemechanismsandprocesses,suchascomposting, oxi-degradation, and photo-degradation, exist. They each define a similaroutcome,butrepresentfundamentallydifferentmechanismsofdegradation.Forexample,plastics labelled as compostable may not, as is commonly perceived, biodegrade in thenatural environment because special environmental conditions only found in industrialcompostersareneeded(Royetal.,2011).

A completeevaluationof themanyprocessesbywhichbiodegradableplasticsaredegradedisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,however,itshouldbenotedthattherearemanyunansweredquestionsregardingtheultimatefateofbiodegradableplastics(Ren,2003;Royetal.,2011).

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9.3PolicyChallengesforSecondaryMicroplasticsPollution

Incontrasttoprimarymicroplastics(suchasmicrobeads),secondarymicroplasticsposeadifferentsetofpolicychallenges.Microbeadscanbemanagedthroughregulationsontheirmanufacture, involving relatively few and clearly identifiable stakeholders. Additionally,they can be regulated nation by nation, with relatively little consequence for industry.Secondarymicroplasticsarecreatedthroughthemismanagementofanyplasticproducedorusedinternationally,whichcomprisesthecontributionsofmanystakeholders.Theyarisefrom global sources of pollution, the social benefits of their source (plastic products) isundisputed,replacementproductsmaynotexist,andenforcementinaglobalcommonsuchas the oceans is very difficult. These fundamental differences complicate the policyenvironmentfortheproblem(Shaxson,2009).

Therefore,thedevelopmentofpoliciestoaddressglobalmarinemicroplasticpollutionwillbe challenging.Manystakeholdersandgovernmentsare required toparticipate, andknowledgegapsinhealtheffectsandenvironmentalimpactscoupledwithhighdegreesofuncertainty further complicate the problem. The environmental fate is hard to track, aswasteisdepositedprimarilyonland,(Jambecketal.,2015)andthenplasticsmigrateintointernational waters where jurisdictions and responsibilities are difficult to establish.Furthermore,plasticsplayanimportantandincreasingroleinmodernsociety(Thompsonetal.,2009b),andanynewpoliciesregardingplasticsmustfullyconsidertheimplicationonthesocietalbenefitsobtainedfromplastics(Andrady&Neal,2009).

Despiterecentcalls fromthepublic forregulationsbanning theproductionofplasticproducts, such as microbeads (5Gyres, 2016), plastics bags (IEEP, 2013) and bottles(Banerjee, 2016), academic literature primarily focuses on two strategies to curb plasticwaste entering the environment: waste management systems and increasing recyclingefforts(Hopewelletal.,2009;UNEP,2009,2014c;STAP,2011;IEEP,2013;GESAMP,2015).

Somescholars(e.g.,Browne,2013)haveevenproposedthatallplasticwasteshouldbeclassifiedas“hazardous”.Thispropositionisbasedonconcernsovertheaccumulationofplasticwaste in theenvironment,associatedenvironmentalandhealthconcerns,and thelackofprogressinpreventingplasticwastefromenteringtheenvironment.Whilethismayseemanextremeposition,thefactthatmanyjurisdictionsnowconsiderplasticmicrobeadstobe“hazardous”or“toxic”isasteptowardthisbroaderconcern:microbeadsmayinfactjustbethetipofa“toxicplastic-berg.”

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10–Discussion

Theacknowledgementthatmicrobeadsmustbetreatedas“toxic”representsagrowingunderstandingoftheenvironmentalimpactsofmicroplastics.Thisunderstandingdoesnotcomedirectlyfromstudyingmicrobeads,butfromthegrowingscientificconsensusthatallmicroplastics (both primary and secondary) are accumulating and are harmful to theenvironment.Whiletheregulationofmicrobeadsinpersonalcareproductsisanimportantstep,itwillnotsolvetheglobalmicroplasticspollutionproblem.

Consideringthekeybenefitssocietyderivesfromnowubiquitousplastics,thebanningofallplasticproductsisinconceivable.However,societiescoulddomuchmoretopreventplasticwastesfromenteringtheenvironment.Theassociatedproblemsmaystillbehiddenin the oceans, but the fact that plastics do not chemically decompose means that theybasically“areforever”(toborrowasloganfromthediamondindustry).Theymaybecomesplitintosmallerunits,butthisconversionoflargeplasticpiecesintomicroplasticsisnotanenvironmentalbenefit. Dilutionisnotthesolutiontopollutionanddecreasingthesizeofplasticsisevenlesshelpful.

Socialchangeseemsnecessarytomanagehowweviewend-of-lifeplastics.Thereisaneedtothinkofthesenotatwaste,butasrecyclablefeedstockforthemanufactureofnewplastic products (World Economic Forum, 2016). While many of the problems that arepresentwithexistingplasticseconomiescanbeaddressedbytheclassic"3R's"ofreduce,reuse,recycle,thereisamovementtoincludemore"R's"tothelist.Theseinclude"rethink","refuse" and "rot" resulting in at least “6 R’s” (pRRRdy.com, 2016, Sustainable WorldCoalition,2016).

Theredesignofentiresystemsofproductionthatfocusoncradle-to-cradleorcompletelife-cyclesofmaterialsmayrequirerethinkingourconsumptionhabits.Manybiodegradableandcompostableplastics,whiledevelopedtoaddressplasticpollution,havebeenshowntohave a similar environmental fate to conventional plastics.We will have to see if somebiodegradablesare indeed“intrinsicallybiodegradable” (that is, that theywilldegrade inmostnaturalenvironmentwithouthumaninterferenceinrelativelyshorttime).

Someproducts,suchasthosewithmicrobeads,fitintothe"refuse"categoryofthe"6R's".Ifmoreproductsareunderstoodbysocietyasenvironmentallydamagingwithintheirentire life-cycle, they we may see decreasing demand. One mechanism is the PlasticsDisclosureProject,throughwhichbusinesspublishtheirplasticuse.Itallowsforconsumerstochooseproductsthatarelessplasticintensiveandinvestorstounderstandriskexposuretoincreasingplasticsregulation(ThePlasticDisclosureProject,2014;UNEP,2014c).Newandcreativesolutionsfocusedonsolvingtheplasticpollutionproblemwill likelystarttospan many of the "R" categories, and the development of new products like edible,inexpensiveeatingutensils(Munir,2016)maybecomemorecommonplaceinthefuture.

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Solutions for preventingmicroplastic pollutionwill need to include improvedwastemanagement and sewage treatment infrastructures. New technologies (such asnanomaterials)andnewideasmaybringpracticalandaffordablesolutions(Newport,2016).Advances in biotechnology and the use of biologicals in the treatment of plastic wasteprovideanotherpossibleavenueforthefuture(Yangetal.,2014;Yoshidaetal.,2016).Alltheseefforts indiagnosis,designandtherapyneedtobeglobal. It ishardtoconceiveofpracticalsolutionsthatdonottakeintoaccounttheimportantdischargesofplasticsintotheoceanfromAsia,forexample(Jambecketal.,2015).

Plasticwastewilllikelyremainacomplex,maybeevenwickedpolicyproblem.Atthesametime,atleastonecommentatorcharacterizedtheplasticproblemascomparabletotheissueofclimatechange(Glazner,2015).Howeverdifficult,thebenefitsofpreventingplasticwaste fromaccumulating in the environmentwill almost certainly justify thepreventionefforts. While it is unthinkable to imagine a modern world without plastics, there is acertainly a growing understanding that plastics must be managed intelligently. Theimportantfirststepwillbetounderstandandgloballycommunicatethescaleoftheissue.Thedebateovermicrobeadshasopenedthedooracracktonowattemptsuchandambitionsinternationalresearch,communication,andpolicyproject.

11–Acknowledgments

WewouldliketothanktheUSEmbassyfortheopportunitytocarryoutthisliteraturereviewandfortheopennesstomeetwithusattheirpremises.Inparticular,wewouldlikeRachel So for identifying the topic, sharing researchmaterials, and forguiding the initialdesign of the study. Any errors or omissions in this final report remain our soleresponsibility,however.

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