MEXICAN AMERICANS MEXICAN AMERICANS AND PUERTO RICANSAND PUERTO RICANS

CHAPTER 10CHAPTER 10

Mexican AmericansMexican Americans• Legacy of war created America’s two

largest Hispanic minorities• Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848February 2, 1848• Under the treaty the new Americans were

guaranteed rights to property and their cultural traditions.

• The loss of land and the lack of legal protection after the treaty

• US gained Texas, California, Arizona, ad New Mexico for $15 million

• In exchange, US granted citizenship to 75,000 Mexican nationals• Guaranteed

• Religious freedom• Property rights• Cultural integrity

• Right to continue Mexican and Spanish cultural traditions and to use the Spanish language

• Land conflict between Anglo ranchers and Mexican-American ranchers

• Mexican-Americans became outsiders in their own land

The Immigrant ExperienceThe Immigrant Experience• Immigration from Mexico is unique in

several respects• Continuous large-scale movement for most of

this century• Proximity of Mexico encourages past

immigrants to maintain strong cultural and language ties

• Aura of illegality that surrounded Mexican migrants

• Suspicion of Anglos toward Mexicans contributed to mutual distrust

• Mexican immigration has been tied closely to the economies of Mexico and the United States

• US corporations invested in Mexico in a way that maximized profits but minimized money remaining in Mexico to provide needed employment

• Mexican workers are used as cheap laborers in their own country by fellow Mexicans and Americans or as undocumented workers here

• RepatriationRepatriation• Program of deporting Mexicans during Program of deporting Mexicans during

depression of 1930sdepression of 1930s• Constitutional because only illegal aliens were

to be deported• Many classified as illegal had resided in US

for decades• BracerosBraceros

• Program between Mexico and US allowing Program between Mexico and US allowing migration across border by contracted migration across border by contracted laborerslaborers

• Mexicans regarded as positive presence when useful

• Operation Wetback and Special Force Operation Wetback and Special Force Operation (1954)Operation (1954)• Crackdown on illegal aliensCrackdown on illegal aliens

• MojadosMojados• Derisive slang for Mexicans who enter illegally Derisive slang for Mexicans who enter illegally

and refers to those who secretly swim across and refers to those who secretly swim across Rio GrandeRio Grande

• The Mexican American Legal Defense The Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF)and Education Fund (MALDEF)• Expressed concern over handling of illegal Expressed concern over handling of illegal

aliensaliens

The Economic PictureThe Economic Picture• Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans

• Higher unemployment rates, higher rates of poverty, and significantly lower incomes than Whites

• The Culture of PovertyThe Culture of Poverty• Embraces a deviant way of life that involves Embraces a deviant way of life that involves

no future planning, no enduring commitment to no future planning, no enduring commitment to marriage, and absence of work ethicmarriage, and absence of work ethic• Developed by Oscar Lewis• Cultural traits as the cause of poverty• Blaming the victim• Used indiscriminately to explain continued poverty

• César ChavezCésar Chavez• Formed National Farm Workers Association• Became United Farm Workers (UFW)

• Difficulties of organizing migrant farm workers• No savings for organizing or to live on while

on strike• Growers relied on limitless supply of Mexican

laborers to replace strikers• Opposition by agribusiness and lawmakers

• 70% lack health insurance and make less than $10,000/year

Political OrganizationsPolitical Organizations• La Raza Unida (LRU)La Raza Unida (LRU)

• Pride in one’s Spanish, Native American and Pride in one’s Spanish, Native American and Mexican heritage.Mexican heritage.

• Supported candidates who offer alternatives to the Democratic and Republican parties

• Chicanismo (Chicanozaje)Chicanismo (Chicanozaje)• Stress a positive self-image and place little Stress a positive self-image and place little

reliance on conventional forms of political reliance on conventional forms of political activityactivity

• Reies Lopez Tijerina (1963)Reies Lopez Tijerina (1963)• Formed the Alianza Federal de Mercedes

(Federal Alliance of Land Grants)• Purpose of the organization was to recover

lost land

• Mexican American Legal Defense and Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) 1967Education Fund (MALDEF) 1967• Pursue issues through the courts and protect

Mexican Americans’ constitutional rights• Addressed segregation, biased testing,

inequities in school financing, and failure to promote bilingualism

Puerto RicansPuerto Ricans• Borinquen (Puerto Rico)Borinquen (Puerto Rico) claimed by Spain in

1493• Native inhabitants, Taino IndiansTaino Indians

• Reduced in number by conquest, slavery, and genocide

• Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States from Spain after the the Spanish-American War of 1898• Puerto Rico has been a United States colony since

1898 (Commonwealth Status since 1948)• Puerto Ricans have been subjected to bureaucratic

(Political) control by the United States

• Colonization of Puerto Ricans• Politically, then culturally, and finally

economically• Jones Act of 1917Jones Act of 1917

• Citizenship extended to Puerto Ricans• Remained a colony

• 1948• Elected its own governor and became a

commonwealth• Cannot vote in presidential elections and have

no voting representations• Subject to military service, Selective Service

registration, and all federal laws

The Bridge Between the Island and The Bridge Between the Island and the Mainlandthe Mainland

• Despite citizenship, occasionally challenged by immigration officials• Other Latin Americans attempt to enter

country posing as Puerto Ricans

• Push and pull factors led to migration from the Island to the mainland• Underdeveloped and overpopulated island,

absence of legal restrictions, growth of cheap air transportation, and Puerto Rican communities (New York City) on the mainland

• NeoricansNeoricans• Term the islanders use for Puerto Ricans in Term the islanders use for Puerto Ricans in

New YorkNew York• Better educated and have more money than

Puerto Ricans from the Island• Often resented by long time

Islanders

• Now more dispersed throughout the mainland• Sizable numbers in New Jersey, Illinois,

Florida, California, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut

The Island of Puerto RicoThe Island of Puerto Rico• Original inhabitants, Taino Indians, wiped

out in a couple of generations• Disease, tribal warfare, hard labor,

unsuccessful rebellions against the Spanish, and fusion with their conquerors

• NeocolonialismNeocolonialism• Refers to continuing dependence of former Refers to continuing dependence of former

colonies on foreign countriescolonies on foreign countries

• English and Spanish are the official languages

• Statehood and Self-RuleStatehood and Self-Rule• Puerto Ricans periodically argued and fought for

independence• Contemporary commonwealth arrangement is

popular with many, others prefer statehood, and some call for complete independence from the US

• Idea of statehood invokes fear of higher taxes, erosion of cultural heritage, end of separate participation in Olympics and Miss Universe pageant

• Commonwealth supporters argue too many unknown costs, so embrace status quo

• Others view statehood as key to increased economic development and expansion for tourism

• Arguments for and against independence• Probably economicProbably economic

• Independent Puerto Rico would not be required to use US shipping lines, more expensive than foreign competitors

• Independent Puerto Rico might be faced with a tariff wall when trading with its largest customer, the mainland US

• Puerto Rican migration to mainland would be restricted

• 50% favor commonwealth; 47% backed statehood; less than 3% favor independence

• Discontent remains a “colonial dilemma”“colonial dilemma”

Social Construction of RaceSocial Construction of Race• Color GradientColor Gradient

• Describes distinctions based on skin color Describes distinctions based on skin color made on a continuum rather than by sharp made on a continuum rather than by sharp categorical separationscategorical separations

• Reflects past fusion between different groups• Rather than being “black” or “white”, such Rather than being “black” or “white”, such

societies judge as “lighter” or “darker” than societies judge as “lighter” or “darker” than othersothers

• On the Island factors such as social class determine race

• On the mainland race is more likely to determine social class

The Island EconomyThe Island Economy• Overall economy well below that of

poorest areas of the US• Federal government exempted US industries

in Puerto Rico from taxes on profits for at least 10 years

• Enterprise Zones• Federal program that grants tax incentives to

promote private investment in inner cities• Extended to Puerto Rico

• Island’s agriculture ignored and economic benefits to the island are limited

• Business profits returned to the mainland

• Unemployment is three times that of mainland

• Per capita income is less than half of Mississippi, the poorest state

• Puerto Rico emerging as major gateway to US for illegal drugs from South America

• World Systems TheoryWorld Systems Theory• View of the global economic system as View of the global economic system as

divided between certain industrialized divided between certain industrialized nations that control wealth and developing nations that control wealth and developing countries that are controlled and exploitedcountries that are controlled and exploited

• Major factors in Puerto Rico’s economy• TourismTourism

• Government subsidies encouraged construction of luxury hotels

• Criticisms• Major economic beneficiaries are investors from the

mainland not locals• High prices prevent less affluent from visiting,

unnecessarily restricting tourism

• NAFTA (North American Free Trade NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)Agreement)• Reduction of trade barriers and its lower wages

undercut Puerto Rico’s commonwealth advantage

• Other island nations compete for tourist dollars

The Contemporary Picture of The Contemporary Picture of Mexican Americans and Puerto Mexican Americans and Puerto

RicansRicans• EducationEducation

• Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans experienced gains in formal schooling but still lag behind Whites

• 1968 – 55% of all Hispanics attended predominantly minority schools

• 30 years later, increased to 76%• Over 1/3rd of Latinos in schools that were at

least 90% non-White

• 3 factors of increasing social isolation of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans• Latinos are increasingly concentrated in

largest cities where minorities dominate• Latino numbers increased dramatically since

1970’s when school desegregation began to lose momentum

• Schools once desegregated have become re-segregated

• TrackingTracking• Practice of placing students in specific Practice of placing students in specific

classes or curriculum based on test scores classes or curriculum based on test scores and other criteriaand other criteria

• Family LifeFamily Life• Most important organization or social institution

among Latinos or any group• Structure differs little from that of all families in

US• FamilismFamilism

• Means pride and closeness in the family, which Means pride and closeness in the family, which results in family obligation and loyalty coming before results in family obligation and loyalty coming before individual needsindividual needs

• Expected to decline in importance with urbanization, industrialization, and acquisition of middle-class status

• Display variety of American family in general while suffering higher levels of poverty

• Health CareHealth Care• Life Chances limited for Latinos

• People’s opportunities to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences

• Hispanics as a group are locked out of health care system more often than any other racial or ethnic group

• Complicated by lack of Hispanic health care professionals

• CuranderismoCuranderismo• Latino folk medicine, form of holistic health care and Latino folk medicine, form of holistic health care and

healinghealing• Culture makes them less likely to use medical

system

• ReligionReligion• Predominantly Catholic• Church took assimilationist role in past• Recently, more community oriented• Hispanic population growth important for the

church• Some churches starting to accommodate

observances of Mexican rituals• Dia de los Muertos (Day of the Dead)

• PentecostalismPentecostalism• Type of evangelical Christianity growing in Latin Type of evangelical Christianity growing in Latin

AmericaAmerica

QUESTIONSQUESTIONS

• In what respects has Mexico been viewed as a source of workers and a place to leave unwanted laborers?

• Using the functionalist perspective, will the current exploitation of Mexican labor in Mexico by American corporations and the Mexican government eventually lead to an improved economy and living conditions for Mexicans? Explain your answer.

• In what respects are Hispanic families similar to and different from Anglo households?

• How does Chicanismo relate to the issue of Hispanic identity?

• How does the case of Puerto Rico support the notion of race as a social concept?

• What role does religion play in the Latino community?

• Churches have become reliant on the growing Latino population to replenish their congregations. Based on the changes in religious values currently noted in American culture, will the religiosity of Latinos remain the same as they assimilate more into American culture? Explain your answer.