Rewiring the Brain for Peace:

Bridging Neuroscience, Spirituality, and Peacebuilding

METHODS DEVELOPMENT & ETHICAL ISSUES

November 29, 2017

I. INTRODUCTION 3

II. HOW CAN NEUROSCIENCE EXPAND OUR KNOWLEDGE? 3

2.1. Evaluating the Core Hypothesis 4

2.2. Knowledge Synthesis of Existing Literature 5

Literature Mapping 5

Brain Mapping 7

III. APPLICATION OF NEUROIMAGING FOR IDENTIFYING BRAIN CHANGES SUPPORTING PEACEBUILDING ACTIVITIES 8

3.1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 8

3.2. Electroencephalography (EEG) 9

3.3. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 11

3.4. Limitations of Neuroimaging Techniques 11

3.5. Vital Caveats Regarding Neuroimaging 12

IV. BEYOND THE BRAIN: THE NEED FOR AN EMBODIED COGNITIVE SCIENCE 13

4.1. Principles of Embodied Cognition 13

4.2. Methods for Studying Embodied Cognition 14

Transmission belts (and other instruments) 14

Hormonal research and cortisol measurements 14

Measuring heart and brain relationship and coherence 15

Other Measurements of Physiological Responses 16

4.3. Psychological tests, self and peer reporting, and observation 16

V. SYNTHESIZING & TRANSLATING RESEARCH FOR APPLICATIONS 17

5.1. Transdisciplinarity: Bridging Research DisciplinesError! Bookmark not defined.

Caveats 18

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Challenges of transdisciplinarity 18

5.2. Neuroscientific Translative Applications for Testing Our Hypotheses 19

VI. ETHICAL ISSUES 20

6.1. The challenges of investigating consciousness 20

6.2. The importance of cross-cultural and gender dimensions 21

6.3. Operationalizing spirituality and the dangers of a research agenda driven by technology 22

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I. INTRODUCTION

The nervous system is the relative center of social behavior and a conduit from

which flows all of the colorful and diverse forms of the human experience. Peace and

conflict are two natural, yet extreme, ends of the human experience spectrum that

our biology has evolved to navigate.

The brain possesses receptors that detect chemicals signalling danger, safety and

potential rewards present in the environment to help inform subsequent behavioral

choices. Social behavior emerges from the formation of complex associations

between the environment and a vast landscape of chemical signals.

Pro-social behaviors, such as collective spiritual rituals, are thought to have been

preserved as a cultural artifact because they increase evolutionary fitness by

promoting group resilience to sudden environmental and social challenges. The

plastic properties of the brain’s neural organization underlies this capacity for

resilience by allowing for new associations to be formed between internal states,

action and changes in the environment. Tapping into this capacity for adaptability

can serve to advance peacebuilding activities throughout the world via synergistic

translation of research in neuroscience to better understand how spirituality may

rewire the brain for peace.

In this document, we present methods for approaching translational applications of

neuroscience in peacebuilding and discuss important issues at the intersection of

science, field work, culture and the ethics of such applications. We also share a

quantitative meta-analysis (i.e. mapping) of research in cognitive and social

psychology, philosophy, neuroscience and biology to demonstrate that while this

field is nascent, it is also ripe with low-hanging fruit bearing potential immediate

impact in world-wide peacebuilding activities.

II. HOW CAN NEUROSCIENCE EXPAND OUR KNOWLEDGE?

The objective of this initiative is to go beyond assumptions, anecdotal accounts and

self-reporting, which represent the largest source of current knowledge on the topic

of peacebuilding, spirituality and psychology. Well-designed experimental research

can provide a critical vantage point for evaluating main-stream knowledge,

confirming what is already suspected, exposing fallacies and identifying the current

gaps in our knowledge.

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2.1. Evaluating the Core Hypothesis

There are spiritual experiences, rituals and values present in all cultures around the

world that: (1) uniquely modulate emotional and cognitive processes compared to

normative experiences, (2) may contribute to transforming behaviors, attitudes, and

relationships, and (3) have the potential to facilitate peacebuilding processes.

A systematic exploration of the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying social

cognition, theory of mind, emotional regulation and decision-making is crucial for

developing and assessing the impact of ecologically valid interventions meant to

promote peace building such as: collective rituals, intentional deliberate practices,

guided spiritual experiences as well as the mobilization of spiritual values. This

research program can be spear-headed with neuroimaging -- a useful technique for

exploring psychological and cognitive processes related to exceptional

peacebuilding. Neuroimaging describes a class of experimental methods that can

provide a spatial and temporal characterization of neural patterns correlated with

perception, cognition and behavior. This technique can be complemented by a series

of other ones that can serve as complementary or, at times, alternative research

instruments.

Although neuroimaging presents a promising avenue for developing peacebuilding

interventions, the reward at the end of the journey is only as worthwhile as the

experiments are carefully designed, controlled and replicable. Moreover,

neuroimaging is a useful technique only if one knows which questions to ask a

priori. A quantitative meta-analytic synthesis of existing literature at the

intersection of psychology, neuroscience and peace can be exceptionally useful for

broaching this topic.

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2.2. Knowledge Synthesis of Existing Literature

Literature Mapping

Example of a Preliminary Mapping of PeaceBuilding & Neuroscience Literature

(courtesy of Vibrant Data)

As with all marriages across disparate fields, clear vistas for applications and

intervention methods development may be convoluted due to conflicting findings

from competing theories, replicability issues and a lack of coherence in terminology

and semantics across fields. Quantitative meta-analytic synthesis with natural

language processing, parametric statistical methods and network analysis is able to

provide a map of the relationships between disparate fields, overlapping

communities of research and key bridging concepts. We have applied this data-

driven bottom-up method to support the drafting of our hypotheses and support the

formulation of the research avenues that emerged from our brainstorming process.

Our preliminary efforts have allowed us to identify specific clusters of research and

critical papers that bridge across fields.

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Key Archetypes Bridging Across Subfields

(courtesy of Vibrant Data)

We are extremely grateful to Eric Berlow (co-founder of Vibrant Data) for his pro

bono support in creating this mapping. It is an evolving process.

It is important to note that this effort is limited to a relatively small subset of the

vast literature on neuroscience, spirituality and peacebuilding, as we have been very

mindful of focusing our search on the key questions arising from the working group

conversations.

Future efforts to build a larger database with an associated keyword lexicon to

collapse across research methods, authors, concepts and publically available

biobehavioral data hold the potential for a very large return on investment. Several

new methods and datasets are currently available as open-source software and

lowers the entry barrier to quantitative meta-analytic synthesis. Our mapping

therefore remains an ongoing effort.

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Brain Mapping

In addition to the literature mapping, publically available meta-analytic

neuroimaging databases such as BrainMap and Neurosynth may be harnessed to

test drafted hypotheses using bridging concepts identified from the peacebuilding,

spirituality and neuroscience literature mapping. These datasets allow a relatively

detailed exploration of brain network organization which is indispensable for

identifying biological mechanisms that may be targeted for interventions.

For example, we may evaluate the details of the core hypothesis by identifying the

neural circuit overlap between deliberate practices & rituals using the Neurosynth

database with targeted keyword queries. We can extend the sophistication of our

analysis to inquire whether these overlapping circuits play a role in fundamental

cognitive functions such as interoception, emotional regulation, cognitive control,

social reasoning and prosocial behavior. The findings from this meta-analysis can

be extended to further examine other key concepts for developing intervention

strategies such as neural circuit differences between pro-social & anti-social

behavior measured across studies. The overlap of these differences with the neural

map for deliberate practices & rituals may be assessed as a way of investigating

relationships between hypotheses.

Both the literature map and the brain maps will appear as an essential

interactive feature of our future Rewiring the Brain for Peace online platform.

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III. APPLICATION OF NEUROIMAGING FOR IDENTIFYING BRAIN

CHANGES SUPPORTING PEACEBUILDING ACTIVITIES

Mainstream neuroimaging techniques assess neural activity and function

through proxy physiological measurements such as neural glucose metabolism via

the blood oxygen level dependent signal (BOLD) using functional magnetic

resonance imaging (fMRI), electrical dipoles measured on the surface of the scalp

via electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetic dipoles reconstructed using

sophisticated models of electrical conduction through tissue via

magentoencephalography (MEG). The choice of tool depends on the questions

being asked. fMRI is useful for mapping the approximate anatomical location of a

cognitive process whereas EEG and MEG are very useful for measuring processes

that occur on the order of milliseconds.

3.1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Images of the brain are taken with MRI by harnessing the magnetic properties of

water and hemoglobin in the blood. A very strong magnetic field is used to align

spinning hydrogen (H) atoms (much like a compass, or a gyroscope) right before a

brief radio-frequency pulse is applied to tip those H atoms over. After tipping over,

the H atoms relax or return to the direction of the magnetic field. The relaxation of a

spinning charged atom in a magnetic field can be measured by placing a conductive

coil of metal near the head. Electrons in the coil are excited by the protons as they

align back into the direction of the magnetic field. Different parts of the brain tissue

have a higher/lower density of water molecules thus different regions will emit a

stronger/weaker signal. This contrast is the basis of the MRI signal as illustrated in

the image below.

Example of an MRI Image

Functional MRI (fMRI) is the measurement of neural activity via de-oxygenated

blood throughout brain tissue. As oxygen is consumed by active neurons,

hemoglobin disrupts the relaxation of H atoms causing a signal drop-off that can be

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experimentally measured. MRI scanners must be kept very cool and use a large

magnet in order to generate a field powerful enough to measure meaningful brain

activity.

There are a few important caveats for our project. Only a single individual can be

placed in a scanner at one time and that person must remain absolutely still

while the picture of their brain is being taken. Subjects being scanned are limited to

moving extremities and often use a button box to respond to external stimuli that is

projected into a mirror mounted onto the head coil used to measure the relaxation

of H atoms in the brain. Virtual reality and scanners networked over the internet can

be used to overcome the single-subject limitations of MRI to generate immersive

experience in group social contexts.

Another important limitation is cost and availability. Unfortunately, given the

massive energy demands and maintenance requirements, cost will always remain

an issue when considering MRI.

Phillips 1.5 Tesla MRI Scanner

3.2. Electroencephalography (EEG)

The least invasive method for obtaining recordings of the brain’s electrical activity

is using electrodes bathed in a salt solution and placed directly on the scalp. EEG

measures the electrical dipole generated by pyramidal neurons activated in the

input layer (IV) of the cerebral cortex (where subcortical and cortical-cortical

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synapses terminate). The vertical orientation of these neurons in cortical gyri

(convolutions of brain tissue) generates an easily detectable electrical signal.

EEG can be easily confounded by electrical signals from the environment (such as

cell phone towers, power lines, solar flares, etc) and muscle movements. A baseline

signal is usually subtracted from subsequent measurements to remove potential

noise confounds. Low density EEG equipment is very affordable and is easy

enough to use in flexible, adaptive environments.

Low Density EEG Array for Infant Research

(Buzsaki 2006)

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3.3. Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

MEG is a recently developed technique that merges the advantages of both EEG and

MRI for fast and spatially accurate acquisition of brain activity. Whereas EEG is

dependent on electrical dipoles, MEG measures magnetic dipoles in the brain. Since

magnetic fields always occur perpendicular to electrical fields, MEG is not

constrained to measurements on cortical surface gyri (i.e. EEG) but can also detect

signals in sulci and deeper brain structures. Spatial accuracy depends on the

acquisition of a structural MRI image to generate an anatomical head model for

reconstruction the source of a magnetic dipole in the brain. Similar to MRI, MEG is a

very expensive tool.

MEG SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interface Device) Array

(Buzsaki 2006)

3.4. Limitations of Neuroimaging Techniques

All neuroimaging techniques are highly susceptible to artifacts (errors) due to

motion and normal physiological responses that interfere with the measured signal.

Experiments and analyses must be very carefully conducted while keeping each

source of noise and artifact signals in mind. While MRI provides the best spatial

resolution available to researchers today, standard fMRI protocols can only acquire

a measurement approximately once every 2 seconds and thus the technique is not

suitable for measuring cognitive processes that occur on a faster time scale.

EEG suffers a limitation opposite from fMRI in that the technique is not appropriate

for localizing function to specific neural structures. The spatial resolution of EEG is

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limited to regions coarsely defined on the scalp such as frontal, temporal, parietal

or occipital areas. The electrical activity of cortical gray matter may be estimated

with electrical source localization algorithms that model the conduction of

electricity through the brain and skull before it is smeared on the scalp. A high

resolution anatomical MRI image of each subject is required in order to specify the

parameters of the source localization algorithm.

MEG strikes a balance between spatial and temporal resolution but source

localization algorithms are still in their infancy and will require extensive validation

before being embraced by the field. Furthermore, MEG equipment requires very

large and expensive superconducting magnets and thus may not be feasible for most

research sites.

A common analytic limitation of neuroimaging techniques is the requirement

of both large subject groups and many repeated measurements within

subjects in order to obtain sufficient statistical power for testing the effect of

interventions on groups or individuals. Carefully designed experiments with

reported reproducible behavioral findings are recommended to be used

before pursuing neuroimaging as a method to test hypotheses.

3.5. Vital Caveats Regarding Neuroimaging

It is important to note that there is no evidence that the proxy measurements implemented in neuroimaging actually sample the true nature of perceptual or cognitive processes (i.e. the substance of consciousness or experience) but are rather considered to be correlative in nature. Furthermore, researchers must be careful not to fall into the fallacy of reverse inference by forwarding post hoc explanations of neural activation that go beyond the the controls provided in the experimental task. Despite these considerations, neuroimaging has a proven track record for predicting behavior and developing detailed models of human brain organization and function.

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IV. BEYOND THE BRAIN: THE NEED FOR AN EMBODIED COGNITIVE

SCIENCE

4.1. Principles of Embodied Cognition

Looking at the brain alone is not enough; there has traditionally been a strictly

internal view of the brain, abstracting it from the rest of the body and disconnecting

it from the socio-cultural world. The central nervous system (i.e. the brain and

spinal cord) depends on external receptors in the peripheral nervous system and

hormonal feedback from the endocrine system in order to correctly function in a

constantly changing environment. Top-down attentional control modulates

incoming sensory input and subsequently the body’s responses to events in the

world.

More plainly speaking, anything you do changes your brain; beyond a specific

practice such as mindfulness, the social and communal setting of that practice is key

and has real effects. For example, the effect of parenting on childhood development

does not manifest solely in the brain, but is embedded in a social and cultural

environment (and therefore variable between brains); each quality of parenting

may vary in content and expression depending on the context; one could not study

and assess a specific quality of parenting by only looking into someone’s brain.

A holistic approach to the brain in the context of body and environment is known as

embodied cognitive science.1 In this view, cognitive and emotional processes can

be understood only if we look at the whole embodied being in their specific

social and cultural environment.

Embedded cognition posits that any behavior is part of a network comprised of

three elements: the nervous system, the body, and its environment forming a

culturally extended cognitive system.2 The perspective of ecological cognition

further elaborates this viewpoint by claiming that mere neural processes are not

sufficient to understand behavior and experience.3 Cultural context in which those

1 Source: Evan Thompson, International Symposium for Contemplative Studies, San Diego, November 2016. 2 This expression was coined by Merlin Donald who reminded us that a brain is a cultural brain. Donald, Merlin (2002). A Mind So Rare: The Evolution of Human Consciousness. New York: WW Norton. Donald, Merlin (1993). Origins of the Modern Mind: Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3 Hutchins, Edwin (1995). Cognition in the Wild. Boston: MIT Press; Hutchins, Edwin (2008). The role of cultural practices in the emergence of modern human intelligence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Volume 363, issue 1499.

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processes exist is vital for a complete model of human behavior. This does not mean

that looking at the brain processes is futile, but emphasizes that it is not possible to

understand them unless we understand how they are also socially and culturally

seated and orchestrated as part of an ecology.

Physiological measurements can be measured through interventions with social

contextual controls to evaluate the embodied brain. In the spirit of embedded

cognition, biological changes to social contexts can, in particular, inform effective

practices for treating and curtailing the effects of trauma due to conflict and thereby

supporting peace building efforts.

4.2. Methods for Studying Embodied Cognition

Transmission belts (and other instruments)

Transmission belts can be used to study the modulation of breathing rates heart

rates, or blood pressure during ritual activity. Synchronous physiological changes

time-locked to events during a ritual can be revealed with this technique. A pre-

ritual baseline scan would be required in order to control for noise and artifacts. An

important dimension to keep in mind when considering cardiovascular rhythms, is

the effect breath holding or recitation of mantric prayers may have on the pulse.4

Recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) and and cross-recurrence quantification

analysis (CRQA) can then be used to analyze individual data. This analytic technique

boasts several advantages over standard correlation analyses. Correlation

techniques assume stationarity and rely on session averages to generate similarity

metrics. These assumptions are often violated in physiological data recorded across

groups during a task. RQA and CRQA are nonlinear methods that allow

quantification of dynamical systems and their trajectories. With these methods we

are able to capture many properties of the heart (or breath) rate dynamics that

would otherwise be lost due to averaging with more traditional correlation analysis.

Example of application: Measure of raw pulse data during a fire-walking ritual in a

Spanish village.5

Hormonal research and cortisol measurements

4 Bernardi L, et al. (2001) Effect of rosary prayer and yoga mantras on autonomic cardiovascular rhythms: Comparative study. BMJ 323:1446–1449. 5 Konvalinka, I. et al, Synchronized arousal between performers and related spectators in a fire-walking ritual, PNAS | May 17, 2011 | vol. 108 | no. 20 | 8514-19.

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Mike Nikonchuk has pioneered the examination of the social cognitive and biological

impact of subjective belonging among refugees in Za’atri Camp, in Jordan.

Specifically, he focused on the degree to which a sense of belonging in different

types of formed communities in Za’atri can boost neurobiological resilience to

traumatic stress, and how belonging may orient refugees’ sense of empathy and

tendencies for dehumanization towards certain groups (including foreigners,

Jordanian military, etc.). During his studies in Social Cognition, he specifically

focused on social neuroendocrinology, and the links between traumatic stress,

hormone changes, and social behavior, with a perspective for inter-group behavior

and violence. For this, he used cortisol measurements in hair samples.

Measuring heart and brain relationship and coherence

The HeartMath Institute has been working on the value of psychophysiological and

global coherence, with special reference to human functioning through

synchronisation between positive emotions, cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous,

immune and other physiological systems. The Institute researchers introduced their

research on the central role of the heart in generating and sustaining positive

emotions in the early 2000s.6 Special focus is on such themes as the physiology of

positive emotions and spirituality, the relationship between psychophysiological

coherence and positive emotional states, positive emotion focusing techniques and

heart-rhythm coherence feedback.7 The pattern of the heart’s rhythmic activity

became the primary physiological marker, as it was considered as the most sensitive

measure of changes in emotional states. Research indicated that whereas negative

emotions were associated with erratic, irregular, incoherent heart rhythm patterns,

positive emotions produced coherent heart rhythm signatures.8 They then

expanded to the whole system in which psychophysiological coherence refers to a

state of synchronisation between positive emotions, cardiovascular, respiratory,

immune and nervous systems.9 In their most recent work, the team at HeartMath is

6 See Lopez, S , & Snyder, C R (Eds ) (2009) Oxford handbook of positive psychology New York, NY: Oxford University Press http://dx doi org/10 1093/ oxfordhb/9780195187243 001 0001 7 McCraty, R , & Rees, R A (2009) The central role of the heart in generating and sustaining positive emotions In S Lopez & C R Snyder (Eds ), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp 527–536) New York, NY: Oxford University Press http://dx doi org/10 1093/ oxfordhb/9780195187243 013 0050 8 McCraty, R , Atkinson, M , & Tiller, W A (1993) New electrophysiological correlates associated with intentional heart focus Subtle Energies, 4, 251–268. 9 McCraty, R , Atkinson, M , & Tomasino, D (2001) Science of the heart: Exploring the role of the heart in human performance Boulder Creek, CA: HeartMath Research Center, Institute of HeartMath; Childre, D L, & Martin, H (1999) The HeartMath solution, New York: Harper Collins. For an application in the context of South Africa, see Stephen D Edwards (2015) HeartMath: a positive psychology paradigm for promoting psychophysiological and global coherence, Journal of Psychology in Africa, 25:4, 367-374.

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expanding to look not only at intrapersonal, but also at interpersonal, observing

heart coherence between individuals and among groups. David Nichol and Deborah

Rozman are also exploring the issue of societal and global coherence.

Although HeartMath presents a unique perspective for analyzing embodied

cognition, it is important to apply Occam’s Razor when evaluating a model. All

cardiovascular effects are attributable to noradrendergic & cholinergic tone in the

peripheral and central nervous system. Many of the proposed mechanisms in

HeartMath can be potentially explained by the release of norepinephrine and

choline to regulate heart rate, blood pressure and the release of cortisol from the

adrenal medulla.

Other Measurements of Physiological Responses

Measurements of physiological responses to social context and spiritual and ritual

experiences can help identify effective interventions. Some examples include:

● Cortisol measurements in the hair to measure history of stress responses

and following rituals compared to a control exercise. Game theoretic

constructs and direct observation of social behavior can be used to measure

generosity.

● Detection of blood hormones released in response to emotionally salient

stimuli or challenging social contexts. How does the initial spike in cortisol in

a progenitor influence the spread of stress through the group (i.e. emotional

contagions).

● Measurement of pupil dilation, skin conductance, blood pressure and

heart rate to measure arousal via the adrenergic system.

● Cortisone levels for those engaged in different ritualized group activities in

expected and surprise activities.

● Measurement of raw pulse data during a ritual while controlling for effects

of the actual ritual on physiology to dissociate physical and mental effects.

4.3. Psychological tests, self and peer reporting, and observation

Psychological tests can help assess how people feel before and after a ritual, and

how their relationships change before and after a ritual. Part of these tests can be

administered as self-reports. In most cases, it can be useful to use introspective

self-reports guided by an expert on self-reflection and deliberate practice.

Direct observations and peer reports can help confirm self-report data, and

substantiate the correlations that will be made.

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Some can also be used for testing and refining hypotheses, so also as a preparatory

tool for the field research. In particular, biographical information and interviews

with participants can provide essential insight on cultural perspectives and intrinsic

intuitions that may not be readily detectable in a highly controlled experiment.

Cross-cultural similarities and differences can be assessed via cultural formulation

interview, which presents how the participant interprets experiences so the

subsequent treatment can be tailored better to that interpretation and those goals.

Mixed/multi method approaches (including stories and narratives) are important

to truly capture the multi facets of embodied cognition.

It is equally crucial to ensure participatory approaches in collecting practice-

based evidences that have meaning in the cultural context concerned, making sure

that the methods selected make sense and are not missing what is culturally

relevant in that particular context. This should help document the experiences and

present the results of the research in ways that make sense to the people concerned.

V. SYNTHESIZING & TRANSLATING RESEARCH FOR APPLICATIONS

The synthesis of research with field work for promoting peacebuilding must occur

with the departure of research from confined laboratory spaces to seek applications

in uncontrolled ‘real world’ settings. Translational research is dependent on

bridging research disciplines in order to bring multiple perspectives for solving

problems associated with the uncertainty of field research.

5.1. Transdisciplinarity: Bridging Research Disciplines

Transdisciplinarity occurs in an emerged, multifaceted conversation space whose

components are the voices of distinctly-“disciplined” persons, allowing for the

emergence of unique conclusions and lines of thought that would not be possible at

a more basic, divided, single-disciplinary level.

By design, transdisciplinarity is inherently unstable and even chaotic; conversations

cannot be forced, but must instead be carefully nurtured. The instability is perceived

to be vital in the breaking down of conceptual barriers and the emergence of

synergy between fields. This explains why, in this project, we never tried to force

any consensual view on phenomena which are, by definition, extremely complex.

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Caveats

● A vital caveat in that process is the importance of replication and validation

in different disciplines using a common lexicon to describe reproducible

scientific phenomenon;

● The outcome of the conversation might be expressed in a (mostly)

“disciplined” way, so the same conversation might lead to multiple

publications in different disciplines;

● Transdisciplinarity emerges from the impossibility of any single, true,

totalizing explanation: in its process, we must recognize that each of us does

not have the full account and in fact, an omniscient account is impossible;

human knowledge is by definition incomplete;

● Transdiciplinarity does not create a new, unified field of knowledge; there is

not one answer, nor an attempt to come up with a new discipline.

Challenges of transdisciplinarity

A few challenges identified by John Dunne are worth keeping in mind, specially for

our exchanges during the retreat:10

● Hubris:

○ Thinking that a single person can come up with a final account;

○ A person may learn a bit about neuroscience and believe that it is

enough to create a foundation and expand upon it (many publications

like this exist, posing a substantial threat to the integrity of the field,

and diffusing a lot of false ideas);

○ Thinking that personal experience overrides existing scientific theory;

risk of dismissing concrete elements of the disciplines; humility is

needed at this level also.

● Universalism: Idea that everyone should do one thing and that it would solve

everything regardless of context; not feasible or comprehensive.

● Scientism: Idea that a single scientific principle or method (fMRI image, for

instance) actively proves something, that it is enough to encompass and

explain the scope of any problem.

● Affective Mysterianism: Replacing science with the idea that what makes us

human is feeling and therefore science should not drive everything or can

never account for or fully facilitate empirical research.

10 John Dunne, International Symposium for Contemplative Studies, San Diego, November 2016.

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● Objectivism: Equally as dangerous would be ignoring (subconsciously or

consciously) the effects of human subjectivity and cultural diversity; we must

recognize that there is no universal map of all that is the world and all that is

human cognition. There is inherent variability and things that are

unknowable.

5.2. Neuroscientific Translative Applications for Testing Our

Hypotheses

Neuroimaging techniques present the opportunity for testing predictions of

behavioral and cognitive models relevant to the relationship between spirituality

and peacebuilding.

The brain in the context of conflict recruits a disparate set of cognitive processes

compared to the brain at peace. Emotional regulation, weighting of social norms

and values, control over attention paid to conflicting salient stimuli, and inhibitory

control of automatic and habitual motor responses are all examples of cognitive

functions characterized by an underlying neural organization that is plastic in

relation to the environment and internal physiological states.

Spiritual experiences may be a promoter of plasticity in neural circuits underlying

cognitive processes impacted by violence and that are required for building peaceful

resolutions to conflict. Carefully controlled interventions can be designed to

test the potential of spiritual experiences and collective rituals for promoting

plastic changes in the brain that support peacebuilding activities. Some

examples include:

● Identifying neural activity correlated with empathy/compassion using staged

displays (i.e. in the spirit of Milligram) of suffering and pain.

● Evaluating the strength of neural patterns related to empathy/compassion as

a function of exposure to collective rituals and development of spiritual

intelligence through guided introspection.

● Comparing the neural response to aggressive behavior in those exposed or

not exposed to spiritual mindfulness practices intended to develop explicit

control over emotional regulation.

● Conducting a longitudinal study on the effect of meditation on prefrontal

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cortical-limbic connectivity during presentation of stressful and emotionally

salient stimuli.

● Comparing neural correlates of social behavior using game theoretic

constructs in individuals that have or have not participated in a series of

collective rituals together.

● Evaluating before/after effects of personal rituals on arousal and emotional

regulation circuits.

● Evaluating the longevity of neurobehavioral effects of a particular

intervention or therapy for assessing long term effectiveness in behavioral

changes.

VI. ETHICAL ISSUES

This project raises a fair number of ethical issues.

6.1. The challenges of investigating consciousness

Philosophically, the attempt at investigating the nature of consciousness and the

access of unconscious states raise a number of challenges, as highlighted by Terje

Sparby in some of his writings about contemplative science.11 Among them is a

series of questions that relate to the double nature of contemplative science: as a

method and as an object of study. They relate to the larger question or what is the

consciousness that is studying consciousness? Or how can the brain study its own

self?

Any attempt at understanding (and even more “manipulating” the brain),

immediately raises questions, as it should, since there is potential risk that it

might not be used for the good. Spiritual practices, beliefs, and rituals can be used

for all kinds of purposes, including harming others, and creating more violence.

There seems to be a need to go beyond the minimum Do No Harm imperative valid

for any peacebuilding intervention. Cultural appropriateness and the Do No

Harm imperative, including on the part of spiritual healers and leaders themselves,

are important ethical dimensions of any discussion of psychosocial intervention.

11 Sparby, Terje (2015). Investigating the Depths of Consciousness Through Meditation. Mind & Matter 13(2), 213–240. Sparby, Terje. The Nature of Contemplative Science and Some Prospects for its Future Development (January 2016, unpublished).

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More generally, a number of best practices and guidelines have been developed over

the years for psychosocial support, in particular for peacebuilding contexts.

Specific issues are also raised around the possibility of “re-purposing” rituals, or

re-tooling spiritual practices in a more targeted way for peacebuilding purposes

(what could be called “hacking spirituality”), a perspective that might be considered

implicit in the objectives of this project. Questioning what is at stake when we do

this is crucial. It is also important to note that, in many cultures, spiritual practices

might have been hidden to outsiders for protection. They may not appear at first

sight or might be thought of having “disappeared” because they are not visible to

outsiders who then bring in new practices.

6.2. The importance of cross-cultural and gender dimensions

It is important to avoid generalizing research without appreciating individual

variances across groups such as gender and culture. In a way, neuroscience can be

blind to the large diversity of ways in which behaviors and belief systems can be

understood. The balance must be struck between isolating particular groups so as to

avoid attribution of stigma based on cognitive ability or susceptibility to particular

behaviors, therapies or interventions. The most obvious example is that

researchers should avoid making claims that a particular race, gender or culture

exhibits more/less empathy than another, since such claims are often statistically

unfounded and often in poor-taste.

This does not mean that neuroscience is a defunct field without a moral compass but

instead that the focus should be on mechanisms that bridge all cultures/genders and

those that are unique. Although the brain is not neutral to culture, the questions of

cultural influences on brain organization and biological mechanisms can be

reframed so as to understand how individual variance can be explained by a whole

range of parameters and environmental features.

Culture is not just a social process, it is a process of making meaning and passing

down “how we do things.” As such, there is also heterogeneity within a culture and

in the many ways similar experiences are interpreted by individuals, even within a

community. Neuroscience can help provide a neuroscientific basis to explain to the

individuals what is happening to their mind and body so they can frame and

understand their experience, and support the practitioner’s approach. This is where

culturally embedded processes and the physiological system can be understood

hand in hand. This is a key methodological dimension of our work in the project.

Guidelines for researchers, peacebuilders and spiritual healers will be required to

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ensure informed participation and application of promising interventions. The

development of a template and trainings to organize workshops that could be

fielded across many sites could be among the project future activities, so that

peacebuilders can be up-to-date on current practices.

6.3. Operationalizing spirituality and the dangers of a research agenda driven

by technology

There is always the question of to what extent the developments in technology

guide where we go in our work, at the detriment of our study’s integrity. The

practicality of having technologies now available to measure what happens in the

brain may hinder our ability to progress in understanding since we are looking to

capture these ideas with certain types of frameworks that fit existing technology.

Another important gap in our current knowledge and techniques relates to the

scalability of the interventions and the feasibility of conducting research on a long

enough period of time in order to measure the durability of the effects documented.

This is also true of our concepts: there is potential to create constructs that are more

practical to engage with by framing issues in terms of concepts we already know,

even though they won’t “do justice” to these issues’ unique qualities. The fact that all

spiritual terms exist within their own contexts and belief systems, with an infinity of

nuances at the individual level, makes this particularly challenging in our case.

All of this questions the operationalization of spirituality: can mechanisms such as

psychospacial surrender, for instance, common to different spiritual experiences, be

empirically tested? How can scales be built, given the many different contexts in

which they’d function? In devising scaling systems and spiritual operationalization,

it is also important to recognize that neural and spiritual mechanisms are embedded

in a purpose, since the experience of spirituality is generally driven by an intention.