meta of aristotle

8/8/2019 Meta of Aristotle

1/143

Home

Browse and

Comment

Search

Buy Books and

CD-ROMs

Help

Metaphysics

By AristotleCommentary: Many comments have been posted about Metaphysics.

Download: A text-only version isavailable for download.

Metaphysics

By Aristotle

Written 350 B.C.E

Translated by W. D. Ross

Table of Contents

Book VI

Part 1

"

"WE are seeking the principles and the causes of the things that are, and obviously of them qua being. For, while

there is a cause of health and of good condition, and the objects of mathematics have first principles and elementsand causes, and in general every science which is ratiocinative or at all involves reasoning deals with causes and

principles, more or less precise, all these sciences mark off some particular being-some genus, and inquire into

this, but not into being simply nor qua being, nor do they offer any discussion of the essence of the things of

which they treat; but starting from the essence-some making it plain to the senses, others assuming it as ahypothesis-they then demonstrate, more or less cogently, the essential attributes of the genus with which they

deal. It is obvious, therefore, that such an induction yields no demonstration of substance or of the essence, but

some other way of exhibiting it. And similarly the sciences omit the question whether the genus with which theydeal exists or does not exist, because it belongs to the same kind of thinking to show what it is and that it is.

"And since natural science, like other sciences, is in fact about one class of being, i.e. to that sort of substancewhich has the principle of its movement and rest present in itself, evidently it is neither practical nor productive.

For in the case of things made the principle is in the maker-it is either reason or art or some faculty, while in the

case of things done it is in the doer-viz. will, for that which is done and that which is willed are the same.

Therefore, if all thought is either practical or productive or theoretical, physics must be a theoretical science, butit will theorize about such being as admits of being moved, and about substance-as-defined for the most part only

as not separable from matter. Now, we must not fail to notice the mode of being of the essence and of its

definition, for, without this, inquiry is but idle. Of things defined, i.e. of 'whats', some are like 'snub', and some

like 'concave'. And these differ because 'snub' is bound up with matter (for what is snub is a concave nose), whileconcavity is independent of perceptible matter. If then all natural things are a analogous to the snub in their

nature; e.g. nose, eye, face, flesh, bone, and, in general, animal; leaf, root, bark, and, in general, plant (for none ofthese can be defined without reference to movement-they always have matter), it is clear how we must seek and

define the 'what' in the case of natural objects, and also that it belongs to the student of nature to study even soul

in a certain sense, i.e. so much of it as is not independent of matter.

"That physics, then, is a theoretical science, is plain from these considerations. Mathematics also, however, is

theoretical; but whether its objects are immovable and separable from matter, is not at present clear; still, it is

clear that some mathematical theorems consider them qua immovable and qua separable from matter. But if thereis something which is eternal and immovable and separable, clearly the knowledge of it belongs to a theoretical

science,-not, however, to physics (for physics deals with certain movable things) nor to mathematics, but to ascience prior to both. For physics deals with things which exist separately but are not immovable, and some partsof mathematics deal with things which are immovable but presumably do not exist separately, but as embodied in

matter; while the first science deals with things which both exist separately and are immovable. Now all causes
http://classics.mit.edu/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Search/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/general.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.mb.txthttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.mb.txthttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Search/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/general.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.mb.txthttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/index.html


2/143

must be eternal, but especially these; for they are the causes that operate on so much of the divine as appears tous. There must, then, be three theoretical philosophies, mathematics, physics, and what we may call theology,

since it is obvious that if the divine is present anywhere, it is present in things of this sort. And the highest

science must deal with the highest genus. Thus, while the theoretical sciences are more to be desired than theother sciences, this is more to be desired than the other theoretical sciences. For one might raise the question

whether first philosophy is universal, or deals with one genus, i.e. some one kind of being; for not even the

mathematical sciences are all alike in this respect,-geometry and astronomy deal with a certain particular kind ofthing, while universal mathematics applies alike to all. We answer that if there is no substance other than those

which are formed by nature, natural science will be the first science; but if there is an immovable substance, thescience of this must be prior and must be first philosophy, and universal in this way, because it is first. And it

will belong to this to consider being qua being-both what it is and the attributes which belong to it qua being.

Part 2 "

"But since the unqualified term 'being' has several meanings, of which one was seen' to be the accidental, andanother the true ('non-being' being the false), while besides these there are the figures of predication (e.g. the

'what', quality, quantity, place, time, and any similar meanings which 'being' may have), and again besides all

these there is that which 'is' potentially or actually:-since 'being' has many meanings, we must say regarding theaccidental, that there can be no scientific treatment of it. This is confirmed by the fact that no science practical,

productive, or theoretical troubles itself about it. For on the one hand he who produces a house does not produce

all the attributes that come into being along with the house; for these are innumerable; the house that has been

made may quite well be pleasant for some people, hurtful for some, and useful to others, and different-to put itshortly from all things that are; and the science of building does not aim at producing any of these attributes. And

in the same way the geometer does not consider the attributes which attach thus to figures, nor whether 'triangle'

is different from 'triangle whose angles are equal to two right angles'.-And this happens naturally enough; for theaccidental is practically a mere name. And so Plato was in a sense not wrong in ranking sophistic as dealing with

that which is not. For the arguments of the sophists deal, we may say, above all with the accidental; e.g. the

question whether 'musical' and 'lettered' are different or the same, and whether 'musical Coriscus' and 'Coriscus'

are the same, and whether 'everything which is, but is not eternal, has come to be', with the paradoxicalconclusion that if one who was musical has come to be lettered, he must also have been lettered and have come

to be musical, and all the other arguments of this sort; the accidental is obviously akin to non-being. And this is

clear also from arguments such as the following: things which are in another sense come into being and pass outof being by a process, but things which are accidentally do not. But still we must, as far as we can, say further,

regarding the accidental, what its nature is and from what cause it proceeds; for it will perhaps at the same time

become clear why there is no science of it.

"Since, among things which are, some are always in the same state and are of necessity (not necessity in the

sense of compulsion but that which we assert of things because they cannot be otherwise), and some are not ofnecessity nor always, but for the most part, this is the principle and this the cause of the existence of the

accidental; for that which is neither always nor for the most part, we call accidental. For instance, if in the dog-days there is wintry and cold weather, we say this is an accident, but not if there is sultry heat, because the latteris always or for the most part so, but not the former. And it is an accident that a man is pale (for this is neither

always nor for the most part so), but it is not by accident that he is an animal. And that the builder produces

health is an accident, because it is the nature not of the builder but of the doctor to do this,-but the builder

happened to be a doctor. Again, a confectioner, aiming at giving pleasure, may make something wholesome, butnot in virtue of the confectioner's art; and therefore we say 'it was an accident', and while there is a sense in

which he makes it, in the unqualified sense he does not. For to other things answer faculties productive of them,

but to accidental results there corresponds no determinate art nor faculty; for of things which are or come to beby accident, the cause also is accidental. Therefore, since not all things either are or come to be of necessity and

always, but, the majority of things are for the most part, the accidental must exist; for instance a pale man is not

always nor for the most part musical, but since this sometimes happens, it must be accidental (if not, everythingwill be of necessity). The matter, therefore, which is capable of being otherwise than as it usually is, must be the

cause of the accidental. And we must take as our starting-point the question whether there is nothing that is

neither always nor for the most part. Surely this is impossible. There is, then, besides these something which is

fortuitous and accidental. But while the usual exists, can nothing be said to be always, or are there eternal things?This must be considered later,' but that there is no science of the accidental is obvious; for all science is either of

that which is always or of that which is for the most part. (For how else is one to learn or to teach another? The

thing must be determined as occurring either always or for the most part, e.g. that honey-water is useful for apatient in a fever is true for the most part.) But that which is contrary to the usual law science will be unable to

state, i.e. when the thing does not happen, e.g.'on the day of new moon'; for even that which happens on the day

of new moon happens then either always or for the most part; but the accidental is contrary to such laws. Wehave stated, then, what the accidental is, and from what cause it arises, and that there is no science which deals

with it.

Part 3 "


3/143

"That there are principles and causes which are generable and destructible without ever being in course of being

generated or destroyed, is obvious. For otherwise all things will be of necessity, since that which is beinggenerated or destroyed must have a cause which is not accidentally its cause. Will A exist or not? It will if B

happens; and if not, not. And B will exist if C happens. And thus if time is constantly subtracted from a limited

extent of time, one will obviously come to the present. This man, then, will die by violence, if he goes out; andhe will do this if he gets thirsty; and he will get thirsty if something else happens; and thus we shall come to that

which is now present, or to some past event. For instance, he will go out if he gets thirsty; and he will get thirstyif he is eating pungent food; and this is either the case or not; so that he will of necessity die, or of necessity not

die. And similarly if one jumps over to past events, the same account will hold good; for this-I mean the pastcondition-is already present in something. Everything, therefore, that will be, will be of necessity; e.g. it is

necessary that he who lives shall one day die; for already some condition has come into existence, e.g. the

presence of contraries in the same body. But whether he is to die by disease or by violence is not yet determined,but depends on the happening of something else. Clearly then the process goes back to a certain starting-point,

but this no longer points to something further. This then will be the starting-point for the fortuitous, and will have

nothing else as cause of its coming to be. But to what sort of starting-point and what sort of cause we thus referthe fortuitous-whether to matter or to the purpose or to the motive power, must be carefully considered.

Part 4 "

"Let us dismiss accidental being; for we have sufficiently determined its nature. But since that which is in thesense of being true, or is not in the sense of being false, depends on combination and separation, and truth and

falsity together depend on the allocation of a pair of contradictory judgements (for the true judgement affirms

where the subject and predicate really are combined, and denies where they are separated, while the falsejudgement has the opposite of this allocation; it is another question, how it happens that we think things together

or apart; by 'together' and 'apart' I mean thinking them so that there is no succession in the thoughts but they

become a unity); for falsity and truth are not in things-it is not as if the good were true, and the bad were in itself

false-but in thought; while with regard to simple concepts and 'whats' falsity and truth do not exist even inthought--this being so, we must consider later what has to be discussed with regard to that which is or is not in

this sense. But since the combination and the separation are in thought and not in the things, and that which is in

this sense is a different sort of 'being' from the things that are in the full sense (for the thought attaches orremoves either the subject's 'what' or its having a certain quality or quantity or something else), that which is

accidentally and that which is in the sense of being true must be dismissed. For the cause of the former is

indeterminate, and that of the latter is some affection of the thought, and both are related to the remaining genusof being, and do not indicate the existence of any separate class of being. Therefore let these be dismissed, and

let us consider the causes and the principles of being itself, qua being. (It was clear in our discussion of the

various meanings of terms, that 'being' has several meanings.)

Digg

aceb

ook

Twitt

er

Wind

ows

Live

Favor

ites

Yaho

o

Book

arks

ySp

ace

Home

Brows

e andComm

ent

Search
http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://classics.mit.edu/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Search/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/index.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Search/index.htmlhttp://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/


4/143

Buy

Books

and

CD-

ROMs

Help

owe

ed

yddT

oAny

H

Bi

W

Bl

E

Li

Jo

C

B

T

M

L

E

A

A
http://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/general.htmlhttp://www.addtoany.com/http://www.addtoany.com/http://www.addtoany.com/http://www.addtoany.com/http://www.addtoany.com/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/about/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/works/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/posts/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/events/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/links/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/join/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/contact/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/the-last-superstition-part-ii-ditching-aristotles-metaphysics/#respondhttp://www.uncrediblehallq.net/review-of-edward-fesers-the-last-superstition-part-i-morality/comment-page-1/#comment-4759http://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Buy/Aristotle.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/general.htmlhttp://www.addtoany.com/http://www.addtoany.com/http://www.addtoany.com/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/about/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/about/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/works/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/works/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/posts/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/posts/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/events/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/events/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/links/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/links/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/join/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/join/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/contact/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/contact/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/science/biology/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/reviews/collecting-fleas/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/history/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/philosophy/metaphysics/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/philosophy/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/science/physics/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/religion/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/reviews/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/science/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/author/admin/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/the-last-superstition-part-ii-ditching-aristotles-metaphysics/print/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/the-last-superstition-part-ii-ditching-aristotles-metaphysics/#respondhttp://www.uncrediblehallq.net/the-last-superstition-part-ii-ditching-aristotles-metaphysics/#respondhttp://www.uncrediblehallq.net/review-of-edward-fesers-the-last-superstition-part-i-morality/comment-page-1/#comment-4759http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/review-of-edward-fesers-the-last-superstition-part-i-morality/comment-page-1/#comment-4759


5/143

A

T

A

w

W

T

T

1)

F

A

T

O

Li

F

if

N

S

In

Fi
http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/review-of-edward-fesers-the-last-superstition-part-i-morality/comment-page-1/#comment-4762http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/science/biology/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/reviews/collecting-fleas/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/history/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/philosophy/metaphysics/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/philosophy/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/science/physics/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/religion/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/reviews/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/category/science/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/the-last-superstition-part-ii-ditching-aristotles-metaphysics/#comments


6/143

6

1.

A

2

.

3.

wa

s

go

i

ng

to

in

it

iall

y

re

s

p

on

d

to

t

he

fi

rst

o

b

ject

i

on

o

fy

o

u

rsr

e

ga

r

di

n

g

Pr

o

f


7/143

es

s

or

F

es

er

sp

o

siti

o

no

n

Nat

u

r

alL

a

w,

b

u

tI

fi

gu

r

et

h

atI

m

g

o

in

g

to

s

av

e

th

at

o

bje

ct

io

n

fo

r

la


8/143

stsi

n

ce

it

sa

ctu

all

y

ar

at

he

r

sm

al

l

pa

rt

of

h

is

ar

g

um

e

nt

c

om

par

e

d

to

h

isc

e

ntr

al

t

he

si

s(

w

hic

h

yo

u


9/143

try

t

oat

ta

ck

he

re

).

No

te

,t

h

atI

c

a

me

a

cr

o

s

sy

o

ur

b

lo

g

wh

enl

o

o

ki

n

gf

o

rr

e

v

iew

s

of

Th

e

La

st


10/143

Su

p

ers

ti

tio

n,

so

p

lea

s

ed

o

nt

c

o

un

t

me

a

s

ast

al

ke

r

4.

no

tice

d

t

hat

y

ou

w

er

e

a

nal

m

ost

fi

nis

h

ed

u


11/143

nd

e

rg

r

ad

in

ph

il

os

o

ph

ic

alst

u

d

ies.

T

his

is

e

xci

ti

ng

f

or

m

et

ose

e

a

sI

m

eet

v

er

y

f

ew

p

eo

p

lei

n

my

m


12/143

ajo

r.

It

o

o,

am

ast

u

de

n

to

f

ph

il

o

so

p

hy

a

n

dw

il

lb

e

fin

is

hi

ngs

o

o

n.

5

.o

,

In

s

h

A

ll

ah

(

Go

d

Wil

li


13/143


14/143

en

ts

an

d

ho

wy

ou

a

ctu

al

ly

r

ea

d

a

nd

i

nte

r

p

ret

e

dF

e

se

r

sw

ork

.

R

ea

s

on

b

ein

g

,

isb

e

ca

u

se

it

do

e


15/143

sn

t

se

e

m

yo

uh

a

ve

a

ctu

al

ly

ta

k

en

t

he

ti

m

et

o

re

a

dt

h

ea

ctual

b

o

ok

it

sel

f

in

d

et

ail

o

ry

o

uh

a

ve

n


16/143

ta

ct

ual

l

yst

ud

ied

m

eta

p

hy

si

cs

o

r

ph

il

os

o

p

he

rs

su

c

ha

s

Ari

stotl

e

o

rA

q

ui

n

as.

I

m

ea

n

no

t

to

b

er

u


17/143

de,

b

ut

it

sj

ust

ve

r

yd

if

fic

u

ltf

o

r

me

t

ota

k

e

ite

a

sy

o

na

n

alm

ostg

r

a

du

at

in

g

ph

il

o

so

p

hy

st

ud

e

nt.

I


18/143

m

u

su

al

ly

les

sb

l

un

t

wit

h

no

n

-

ph

il

os

o

p

he

rs

,s

u

ch

a

st

hos

e

w

ho

t

ou

t

sci

e

n

ce

a

ro

u

nd

li

ke

it


19/143

st

h

eu

lt

im

ate

wa

y

to

tr

ut

h

an

d

b

elie

v

et

h

at

Ric

h

ar

d

Da

w

ki

nsis

at

t

he

h

eig

h

to

f

p

hil

o

so

p

hic

al

an

d


20/143

th

e

ol

o

gic

alt

hi

n

ki

n

g,

b

ut

n

o

ts

o

wit

h

t

ho

s

ew

h

os

h

ou

ldk

n

o

wt

h

eir

st

uff

.

7

.le

a

se

c

orr

e

ctm

e


21/143

ifI

m

w

r

on

g,

of

c

ou

rs

e.L

et

sb

e

g

in

8.

ir

st

yo

u

be

g

in

b

yg

ene

r

al

izi

n

gt

h

eb

a

si

cp

h

ilo

s

op

h

yo

f


22/143

Pa

r

me

n

id

es

an

d

yo

u

ba

si

cal

l

y

get

it

rig

h

t

(o

t

he

r

th

a

nt

hei

n

a

cc

u

rat

e

lan

g

u

ag

e

),h

o

we

v

er,

y


23/143

ou

r

ew

r

on

gt

oa

s

su

m

et

h

atF

e

s

er

w

as

s

et

tin

g

up

Ari

st

otl

eas

a

r

es

p

on

s

et

o

P

ar

m

en

i

de

s.

Fe

s


24/143

er

d

oe

s

nt

do

th

is

atal

l

an

d

itis

c

o

mm

o

nk

n

o

wle

d

ge

a

mo

n

gi

ntro

d

u

cto

r

yp

h

ilo

s

o

ph

y

stu

d

en

ts

th

at


25/143

Ari

st

otl

e

wa

sr

es

p

on

d

in

g

to

h

is

tea

c

he

r,

P

lat

o

,n

o

tP

a

rm

eni

d

e

s.P

a

rm

e

ni

d

e

sis

u

se

d

as

a

tea

c


26/143

hi

n

gt

o

ol

fo

rt

h

os

e

to

u

nd

e

rs

tan

d

Ari

st

o

tle

(

no

te

pa

g

e5

2)a

s

d

isa

g

re

ei

ng

w

it

hP

a

rm

e

ni

d

es

c


27/143

on

cl

usi

o

n,

bu

tn

o

th

is

ov

e

ral

l

a

rg

u

me

n

t.

Of

c

ou

rs

e,t

h

iss

etsu

p

A

rtis

t

otl

e

se

x

p

lan

at

io

n

of

h

ow

c


28/143

ha

n

ge

a

nd

pe

rm

a

ne

n

ce

c

an

h

a

pp

e

nat

t

h

es

a

me

ti

me;

p

ote

ntial

s

a

nd

a

ctu

al

s.9

.

o

rry

t

ob

e

nit

p

ick

y


29/143

.T

h

ats

w

hat

we

ph

il

os

o

ph

e

rsd

o

,

ho

w

ev

e

r,

rig

h

t?1

0

.o

w

,t

hen

e

x

tc

ri

tiq

u

es

a

r

ew

h

er

e

yo

u

get

a


30/143

litt

le

mo

r

ete

ch

nic

al

(w

h

ile

st

ill

a

v

oi

d

in

g

t

he

n

ec

e

ss

a

ry

lang

u

a

ge

o

ft

h

ea

r

g

um

e

nt)

,

bu

t

It

h


31/143

in

k

yo

u

act

ual

ly

m

isi

n

ter

p

ret

w

h

atA

ri

sto

tl

e,

Aq

u

in

a

s,a

n

dF

ese

r

a

re

tr

yi

n

gt

o

s

ay

.

As

a

sid

e

no

te


32/143

,I

al

so

d

on

ts

ee

w

hy

y

ou

k

ee

p

m

en

ti

on

i

n

gA

ri

sto

tl

ea

s

th

epri

m

a

ry

v

oic

e

be

h

i

nd

t

he

a

rg

u

me

n


33/143

tsei

t

he

r.

He

wa

ssi

m

pl

y

th

e

fo

u

n

dat

i

on

.

F

es

e

ris

a

Th

o

mis

tin

r

e

ga

r

ds

t

ot

h

e

ex

is

ten

c

eo

f

Go

d


34/143

an

d

mo

r

alit

y,

on

e

wh

o

fo

ll

ow

s

T

ho

m

as

A

q

ui

n

as.

T

ho

m

as

Aqu

i

n

as

w

ou

l

dc

e

rt

ain

l

yb

e

co

n

sid

e


35/143

re

d

an

i

nh

eri

to

r

of

A

rist

o

tle,

b

u

tn

o

te

x

a

ctl

y

lik

e

hi

m

.1

1.u

t

I

di

g

re

s

s

1

2

.o

u

bei

n

gt

o

me

n


36/143

tio

n

th

e

Fe

se

rs

a

rg

u

me

n

to

f

c

ha

n

ge

i

n

or

d

er

e

ds

e

rie

sof

c

a

us

e

s(t

h

es

e

c

on

d

bei

n

gm

e

nti

o


37/143

ne

d

as

a

ne

ss

en

ti

als

e

rie

s,

no

t

a

na

c

cid

e

n

tal)

a

sb

ei

ng

fal

lacio

u

s

,w

it

ho

u

ta

ct

u

all

y

tell

i

ng

u

sw

h


38/143

att

h

ef

al

lac

yis

,m

u

ch

le

ss

h

ow

t

h

ea

n

alo

g

y

fits

w

ith

t

he

cl

aim

atal

l.

L

ast

ti

me

I

ch

e

c

ke

d

,t

h

eE

a

rth

d


39/143


40/143

ss

a

ry

f

un

cti

on

s

of

a

ctu

al

sa

n

d

po

te

nti

al

s.

13

.

tal

l

act

u

all

yma

k

e

sq

u

ite

a

bit

o

f

se

n

se

o

nc

e

yo

u


41/143

vie

w

th

is

wa

y.

As

p

er

e

xa

m

ple

o

f

th

e

trai

n

c

ars

i

nh

is

bo

o

k,

whe

r

e

th

e

ca

b

oo

s

e

isb

ei

ng

p

ull

e

db

y


42/143

Xc

a

r,w

h

ich

isb

ein

g

pu

ll

ed

b

yY

c

a

r,et

c.

Bu

t

t

oe

x

pla

i

nt

h

em

otio

n

(

ch

a

ng

e

)o

f

e

ac

h

ca

r

sim

u

lta

n


43/143

eo

u

sly

,

yo

uc

an

n

ot

si

mp

l

yk

e

e

pa

d

di

n

g

ca

rs

.T

h

er

e

ha

sto

b

e

so

m

eth

i

ng

t

h

atis

m

ov

i

ng

t

he

m


44/143

.T

o

ha

v

ea

ni

nfi

n

ite

s

eri

e

so

f

m

ov

i

ng

v

e

hic

le

sd

o

es

n

ot

exp

la

i

nt

h

em

o

tio

n

it

sel

f.

Es

s

en

ti

alS

e


45/143

rie

s

ex

p

lai

nW

HY

t

hi

n

gs

R

EM

A

I

Ne

x

isti

n

g

,r

at

he

r

th

a

nh

owt

h

e

yc

a

me

i

nt

o

e

xis

te

nc

e.

In

o

rd

e


46/143

rf

o

rt

h

in

gs

to

r

em

ai

na

s

su

c

h

,t

h

er

e

m

ust

h

av

e

alw

a

ys

bee

n

s

om

et

hi

n

ge

x

is

tin

g

to

b

eg

i

nw

it


47/143

h,

a

se

x

iste

nc

ed

o

es

n

ot

c

om

e

fr

om

no

n

-

ex

is

ten

c

e(

B

ein

gfro

m

No

n

-B

ei

ng

,

a

sP

a

rm

e

ni

d

es

w


48/143

ou

l

ds

a

y).

In

ot

h

er

w

or

d

s,t

h

e

re

c

an

n

o

tb

e

an

i

nfi

n

ite

seri

e

s

of

t

hi

n

gs

(

e

ve

n

ac

ci

de

n

tals

)


49/143

be

c

au

s

et

hat

as

s

um

e

st

h

er

e

a

re

a

ni

n

fi

nit

e

se

ri

es

o

fp

oten

ti

al

s,w

h

ich

c

an

o

n

ly

e

xis

t

ift

h

er

e


50/143

isa

n

act

u

alt

oc

ha

n

ge

fr

om

.

Bu

t

t

he

r

ec

a

n

no

t

be

a

ni

n

fin

ites

e

ri

es

o

fc

h

an

g

e

s(

p

ote

n

tial

s

>a

ct


51/143

ual

s

>p

o

ten

tial

s>

a

ctu

al

etc.

)

be

c

a

us

e

ch

a

n

ge

(

aP

o

ten

ti

alt

oan

A

ct

ual

)

re

q

uir

e

s

af

o

un

d

ati

o

no

f


52/143

its

o

wn

(

no

tet

he

tr

ain

c

ar

a

nal

o

g

y).

R

em

e

m

be

r,

ap

o

ten

ti

alc

ann

o

t

ex

is

tb

y

its

el

f.

14

.

ot

h

er

e

mu

st


53/143


54/143

ste

x

ist

b

ef

or

ea

n

yt

h

in

g

ca

n

h

ap

p

en

;

s

om

et

hi

n

gt

h

atc

ann

o

t

be

a

cte

d

up

o

n

(si

n

ce

t

he

n

itw

o


55/143

ul

d

no

t

be

so

met

h

in

g

pri

m

ar

y

,

bu

t

se

c

o

nd

a

ry

a

nd

la

ck

allt

h

e

ne

c

es

s

ar

y

f

eat

u

re

s

of

p

ur

e


56/143

bei

n

g[i

.e

.p

erf

ect

i

on

])

.N

o

tet

h

at

th

is

atta

c

k

sa

n

ot

h

er

c

riti

cism

o

fy

o

urs

th

e

t

hi

n

gt

h

atm

u

stb

e


57/143

th

e

Pri

m

eA

ctu

alit

y

,h

a

st

o

ha

v

e

all

t

he

n

e

ce

s

sa

r

yf

e

atu

res

(

b

ein

g

th

at

itm

u

st

be

A

LL

fo

r

ifit

la


58/143

ck

s

so

m

eth

in

gt

h

en

it

isn

o

tt

h

e

all-

e

nc

o

m

pa

s

sin

g

act

u

alit

y).1

5

.

his

al

so

st

rik

e

s

do

w

ny

o

ur

a

ss

u


59/143

mp

ti

on

t

hat

Fe

se

r

do

e

sn

t

gi

v

e

an

e

xp

la

n

ati

o

na

s

to

h

ow

the

P

ri

me

B

ein

g

(G

o

d

)c

a

nn

o

tb

e

ch

a


60/143

ng

e

d,

o

ri

mm

uta

b

lea

s

we

li

ke

t

o

sa

y

.O

f

c

ou

rs

eh

e

gi

v

es

are

a

s

on

.

He

s

be

e

n

gi

v

in

g

ar

e

as

o


61/143

nsi

n

ce

c

ha

pte

r2

.

Ij

u

ste

x

pla

i

n

ed

it

in

c

a

se

y

ou

d

on

t

wa

ntt

o

g

ob

a

ck

a

nd

a

ct

ual

l

yr

e

ad

t

he

b


62/143

oo

k

.If

t

he

Pri

me

B

ein

g

ist

o

be

c

h

an

g

ed

t

h

en

it

mu

st

be

c

ha

nge

d

b

ys

o

met

h

in

g

o

uts

i

de

o

fit

s

elf,

w


63/143

hic

h

th

e

nm

ea

ns

it

isn

t

th

e

Pri

m

e

Bei

n

g.

It

s

sel

f

ex

p

lan

at

or

y.A

n

d

we

ve

al

re

a

d

ym

e

nti

o

ne

d

th

e


64/143

in

a

de

q

ua

cy

of

a

ni

n

fin

it

er

e

g

re

s

sb

o

t

hi

n

co

n

tex

t

of

Acci

d

e

nta

l

Or

d

er

e

d

Se

ri

es

a

nd

E

ss

e


65/143

nti

al

Or

d

er

ed

Se

ri

es,

s

oI

d

on

t

s

ee

w

hy

w

e

ne

e

dt

o

get

b

ac

kin

t

o

th

at

.1

6

.le

a

s

ea

s

ka

n

yq

u

est

i


66/143

on

s

ifI

s

ou

nd

in

c

oh

e

re

n

tt

o

y

ou

,

th

o

u

gh

I

ha

r

dl

y

bel

ieve

t

h

isis

d

iffi

c

ult

t

o

un

d

ers

ta

nd

.

17

.


67/143

ou

g

oo

n

to

me

nti

o

no

n

eo

f

Fe

s

e

rs

r

eb

u

tt

als

t

ot

h

eN

e

wt

onia

n

p

rin

ci

ple

o

fi

n

e

rtia

,

bu

t

on

l

yO

N


68/143

Eo

f

th

e

m,

as

th

o

ug

h

th

at

st

h

e

en

ti

re

s

h

ab

a

ng

.

Yo

u

re

spo

n

d

to

t

he

nat

u

r

eo

f

th

e

th

i

ng


69/143

ar

g

um

e

nt,

bu

ty

o

uf

o

rg

et

th

at

t

his

d

oe

s

n

ta

ff

ect

t

he

P

rim

ary

A

ct

ual

/

Fir

st

Ca

u

s

ea

r

gu

m

en

t,

as

it


70/143

sim

p

ly

r

ais

es

th

e

qu

e

sti

o

na

s

t

ow

h

ys

u

c

ha

t

hi

n

gh

a

st

hatn

at

u

re

at

all

(

an

d

le

ad

s

us

b

ac

k

to

t


71/143

he

o

bv

i

ou

sa

ns

w

er

o

fG

o

d).

I

w

ou

l

dh

o

p

ey

o

u

d

als

o

lik

eto

e

x

pla

i

nt

h

eo

t

h

er

2

ex

p

lan

at

io

n


72/143

sb

y

Fe

s

er

(p

g.

1

02

),

ify

o

uw

is

h

to

b

eh

o

n

est

t

oy

o

ur

r

ea

ders

.

1

8.

o

in

g

ba

c

k

to

a

pr

e

vi

o

us

p


73/143

oi

n

t,I

d

als

oli

ke

t

oa

s

kh

o

wy

o

u

bel

ie

ve

a

b

ein

g

wit

h

all

f

eat

ure

s

is

so

m

eh

o

wi

n

c

oh

e

re

n

t?

S

tri

k


74/143

es

m

ea

s

od

dt

os

a

yif

y

ou

a

ctu

al

l

yu

n

de

rs

ta

nd

t

he

A

rist

o

teli

an/

T

h

om

is

te

x

pla

n

at

io

n

.1

9

.o

v

in

g


75/143

on

t

oy

o

ur

cri

tiq

u

eo

f

th

e

4c

a

u

se

s

I

fi

n

dt

h

isr

at

he

r

an

emb

a

rr

as

s

me

n

to

n

y

ou

r

pa

rt

.N

o

to

n


76/143

ly

d

oy

o

un

ot

cri

ti

qu

e

th

e

fo

u

r

ca

u

se

s,

b

ut

y

ou

s

ee

m

to

plac

e

t

he

m

all

i

nt

h

e

sa

m

eb

o

atb

y

clai

m


77/143

in

g

th

at

Fe

se

ris

o

nl

y

clai

m

in

g

t

hat

c

au

s

e

iso

f

its

Fi

n

al

for

m

(

pu

r

po

s

e).

T

h

er

e

ar

e

ob

v

io

u


78/143

sly

o

th

e

rc

au

se

s

in

p

lay

(t

he

fi

rs

tt

h

re

e

c

om

e

to

m

in

d

).A

gain

,

t

he

e

xis

te

nc

e

o

fp

o

ten

ti

als

c

an

o


79/143

nl

y

be

s

ob

as

ed

o

na

f

ou

n

dat

i

o

n,

t

hu

s

t

he

n

ee

d

fo

r

as

upe

r-

i

nte

ll

ect

(j

ust

a

s

th

e

an

al

og

y

of

t


80/143

he

p

ain

ti

ng

an

dt

h

ep

ai

nte

r

ex

p

la

in

s)

.T

h

e

po

te

nti

al

sa

r

eh

idd

e

n

wit

h

in

t

he

u

lt

im

at

ea

ct

ual

,

wh

ic


81/143

he

n

co

m

pa

ss

es

al

le

x

iste

n

ce.

T

a

ke

t

his

f

o

ra

n

ex

a

mp

le

.S

ayt

h

at

th

e

Pri

m

eA

ct

u

alit

y

isa

tr

ee.

F

ro

m


82/143

th

at

tre

e

ar

es

ev

e

ral

p

ote

n

tial

s,

s

uc

h

as

t

h

eu

s

eo

f

ho

u

sin

gby

i

n

se

ct

so

r

sm

al

l

bir

d

s,p

a

pe

r,

etc.

N


83/143

ow

,

ift

h

etr

ee

isal

l

th

at

ex

is

ts(

b

ei

ng

e

xis

te

n

ce

it

sel

f)

,t

h

en

eve

r

y

th

i

ng

t

hat

t

h

attr

e

eC

O

UL

D

be

(i


84/143

na

le

ss

e

rs

en

se,

n

ot

g

re

at

er)

is

p

ote

n

tial

iz

e

di

n

its

f

or

m

.T

her

e

f

or

e,

ev

e

ry

t

h

in

g

th

at

co

m

es

fr


85/143

om

t

hat

tr

ee,

its

po

te

nti

al

mu

st

ex

is

t

be

f

or

e

it

isa

ct

ual

iz

ed

a

sT

HAT

p

a

rtic

u

lar

t

hi

n

g

.It

s

ex

is

ten

c

e,h

o


86/143

we

v

er,

is

alr

ea

dy

e

sta

b

lis

h

ed

i

n

th

e

Pri

m

e

Act

u

alit

y

.2

0

.r

oba

b

l

ya

b

ette

r

ex

a

m

ple

is

th

is

.A

p

iec

e


87/143

of

p

ieis

a

pie

in

wh

o

le,

b

ut

y

ou

ta

k

ea

p

iec

e

o

ft

h

ep

ie

aw

a

y,

and

y

o

ug

et

ap

ie

ce

o

f

ap

ie

.T

h

ep

ie

its

el


88/143

fis

n

ot

a

pie

ce,

bu

t

ith

a

st

h

ep

o

te

nti

al

of

p

ie

ce

s

in

it

.It

is

no

tma

d

e

up

o

fp

ie

ce

s,

b

ut

t

he

p

ote

n

tial

f


89/143

or

p

iec

e

sa

re

th

e

re.

2

1.

a

lso

d

o

nt

s

ee

h

o

wF

e

se

r

d

e

fe

nds

A

rist

o

tle

fr

om

D

ar

w

in

.

Da

r

wi

n


90/143

do

e

sn

t

aff

ect

Ari

st

otl

e

or

A

qu

i

n

as,

b

ec

a

u

se

n

eit

h

er

o

ft

hem

a

r

ea

r

gu

i

ng

b

a

se

d

on

p

ro

b

ab

il


91/143

itie

s

or

t

he

lac

ko

f

Fi

n

alC

a

us

al

it

y.

F

es

e

r

ma

k

es

t

his

p

oi

ntcl

e

a

ri

n

on

e

sp

o

t

(p

g

.1

1

3)

a

nd

i


92/143

no

t

he

r

pla

ce

sa

s

wel

l.

22

.

es

e

r

wo

u

ld

n

o

th

a

ve

u

sb

el

iev

eth

at

a

f

u

tu

r

e

tr

e

ec

a

us

e

sa

p

re

v


93/143

io

u

str

e

et

oe

xis

t.

He

w

ou

l

dn

e

v

er

a

rg

u

e

th

at

af

u

tu

r

eli

nki

n

a

nA

c

cid

e

nta

l

O

rd

e

re

d

Se

ri

es

w


94/143

ou

l

da

ff

ect

ap

re

v

io

u

sli

n

ki

n

t

he

c

hai

n

.

He

m

er

el

ya

r

gu

edt

h

at

th

e

po

te

nti

al

f

or

X

th

i

ng

al

re

a


95/143

dy

e

xis

t

wit

hi

nt

h

eP

ri

me

A

ctu

al

/

Fir

st

Ca

u

s

e.2

3

.

m

su

r

ey

ou

v

e

be

e

nta

u

gh

t

a

bo

u

tS

tr

aw

m

en

i


96/143

ni

n

tro

d

uct

or

yl

o

gic

?

24

.

orr

y

t

ob

e

so

h

a

rsh

,

bu

t

Is

e

rio

usly

c

a

nn

o

tu

n

de

rs

ta

nd

y

ou

r

cri

ti

cis

m


97/143

sh

e

re

a

sb

ein

ga

c

cu

r

ate

t

ot

h

e

act

u

alp

ic

t

ur

e

bei

n

gd

r

aw

n.I

m

a

ym

o

ve

o

nt

o

y

ou

r

pr

e

vi

o

us

p


98/143

ost

.

25

.

ak

ec

ar

e.2

6.

A

2

7

.2

8

.

ya

p

ol

o

g

ies

f

or

a

ny

t

yp

osa

s

w

ell.

2

9.

C

30

.

3

1.

li

r

e

-r

e

ad

y


99/143

ou

r

co

m

me

nt.

At

o

ne

p

oi

n

t,y

o

u

se

e

mt

o

n

oti

c

et

h

ep

r

ob

lem

w

it

hit

,

bu

t

th

e

n

yo

u

qu

ic

kl

y

ba

n


100/143

ish

t

he

t

ho

ug

ht.

3

2.

f

yo

u

ca

n

t

fig

u

re

t

h

iso

u

to

n

yo

u

ro

wn:

y

e

s,y

o

ud

o

so

u

n

di

n

co

h

er

e

nt,

a


101/143

nd

y

ou

r

eal

ly

ar

e

th

at

ha

r

dt

o

u

nd

e

rsta

n

d

.Y

o

ut

h

ro

w

ar

oun

d

ja

rg

o

ni

n

dis

c

ri

mi

n

atel

y

,w

it

ho

u


102/143

te

v

er

e

xp

lai

ni

n

gw

h

atit

m

ea

n

s.

Do

y

ou

k

n

ow

w

hat

it

me

a

ns

?De

fi

n

eit

f

or

y

ou

rs

el

f,y

o

um

a

yb

e

su

r


103/143

pri

s

ed

at

ho

wh

ar

d

th

is

ist

o

do

.

T

hr

o

wi

n

g

ar

o

un

d

jar

g

on

with

n

o

cle

a

rm

e

an

i

n

gi

n

mi

n

dis

a

tra

p


104/143

th

at

se

a

sy

to

fal

l

in

t

oif

y

ou

st

u

dy

p

hil

o

s

op

h

yl

o

ng

e

no

ugh

,

I

ve

f

alle

n

in

t

o

it.

3

3.

o

um

a

yb

el


105/143

iev

e

th

at

Fe

se

rd

e

fin

e

se

v

er

y

o

un

c

eo

f

ja

rg

o

np

e

rfe

ct

ly

clea

rl

y

,b

u

tI

c

ou

l

d

nt

fi

nd

a

ny

s

uc

h


106/143

cle

a

re

x

pla

nat

io

n

sw

h

ile

r

ea

d

i

ng

h

isb

o

o

k.

T

he

r

ew

a

sa

little

e

v

id

e

nc

e,

fo

r

e

xa

m

ple

,

th

at

p

u


107/143

re

b

ein

g

m

ea

nt

bei

n

gt

h

atc

o

u

ld

n

ot

p

o

ssi

b

ly

n

ot

e

xis

t,b

u

t

th

e

wa

y

Fe

s

e

ra

n

dy

o

uu

s

es

u


108/143

ch

te

rm

s

oft

en

se

e

ms

t

os

u

gg

e

st

itm

u

stm

e

a

nm

o

re

t

ha

n

th

is.W

h

at

do

e

sit

m

ea

n

?

En

li

gh

te

nm

e.

34

.


109/143

ou

r

eal

s

ow

ea

ko

n

lo

g

ical

c

on

n

e

cti

o

ns

b

et

we

e

ny

o

ur

i

de

as.Y

o

u

lik

e

th

e

ph

r

a

se

i

no

t

he

r

wo

r


110/143

ds,

wh

ic

hn

or

mal

l

yi

n

dic

at

es

t

h

ato

n

est

at

e

me

n

tis

j

ust

a

pa

rap

h

r

as

e

of

t

he

o

t

he

r,

bu

t

yo

u

ne

v


111/143

er

e

xp

la

in

ho

wt

h

isis

s

oi

n

th

e

c

as

e

sw

h

e

re

y

ou

u

se

t

he

phr

a

s

e.P

e

rh

a

ps

y

o

ut

h

in

k

th

is

wo

u


112/143

ld

b

eo

b

vi

ou

sif

o

nl

y

th

e

jar

g

o

nw

e

re

e

x

pla

i

ne

d

,b

u

th

ave

y

o

utr

ie

de

x

pla

i

n

in

g

th

e

jar

g

on

t


113/143

oy

o

urs

el

ft

om

ak

e

su

r

ey

o

uu

n

d

ers

ta

nd

it

?

35

.

in

o

rp

o

in

ts:Y

e

a

h,

I

kn

o

wA

ri

st

otl

e

wa

s

Pla

t

os

st


114/143

ud

e

nt

a

nd

all

th

at

.B

u

tit

s

stu

p

i

dt

o

sa

y

t

hat

if

ap

h

ilo

s

op

her

r

e

sp

o

nd

s

to

h

is

im

m

ed

ia

tep

r

ed

e


115/143

ce

s

so

r,

th

en

he

is

nt

r

es

p

on

d

i

ng

t

oa

n

y

ot

h

er

p

hil

o

so

phe

r,

e

ve

r.

Fu

rt

he

r

m

or

e,

Fe

s

er

cl

ea

rl


116/143

yd

o

es

u

se

th

eh

is

to

ri

cal

fi

gu

r

e

of

P

ar

m

e

ni

d

es

t

oe

st

ab

lish

,

r

het

o

ric

al

ly

,

t

hat

t

he

r

eis

a

pr

o


117/143

ble

m

o

f

ch

an

ge

a

nd

p

er

m

an

e

n

ce,

it

si

n

j

ust

t

hat

s

en

s

et

hatF

e

s

er

u

se

s

Pa

r

m

en

i

de

s

to

s

etu

p


118/143

Ari

st

otl

e

(th

ou

gh

m

ay

b

e

a

rg

u

m

en

t

of

P

a

rm

e

ni

d

es

ist

oost

r

o

ng

,

pe

r

ha

p

s

p

r

ob

le

m

p

ro

m


119/143

ote

d

by

P

ar

me

nd

ie

s

?

)3

6

.s

f

o

rt

h

es

o

la

rs

y

ste

m

:d

e

ny

ing

t

h

atit

is

no

t

th

e

E

art

h

bu

t

gr

a

vit

y


120/143

th

at

ca

u

se

st

he

m

oo

n

to

o

rb

it

is

lik

e

lo

o

k

in

g

ata

b

all

o

na

strin

g

,

an

d

sa

y

in

g

t

hat

it

isn

o

tt

h

est

ri


121/143

ng

t

hat

c

au

se

st

h

eb

al

lt

o

go

r

o

un

d

in

ci

r

cle

s

bu

t

ten

si

on

.3

7.

A

38

.

39

.

ow

a

s

th

is

an

a

ctu

al

re

s


122/143

po

n

se

t

om

yo

bje

ct

io

n

st

o

yo

u

o

ra

c

all

o

u

to

n

gr

a

mm

a

rc

orre

ct

i

on

,

wh

ic

hI

fi

n

dr

at

he

r

hy

p

oc

ri


123/143

tic

al

in

li

gh

to

fy

o

ur

o

wn

st

ate

m

e

nts

i

nt

h

e

in

it

ial

p

ost

.

40

.d

b

e

mo

r

et

h

an

h

a

pp

y

to

e

xp

la

in


124/143

pu

r

eb

ei

ng

t

oy

o

uif

y

ou

dli

k

e,

mi

n

us

m

y

ne

e

dt

o

ex

p

lai

nstat

e

m

en

ts

su

c

ha

s

i

no

t

he

r

wo

r

ds

.


125/143

Im

s

ur

e

yo

uc

an

b

eg

r

aci

o

us

t

o

me,

b

ein

g

t

hat

y

ou

la

ck

t

he

nee

d

t

of

o

rm

al

ly

a

n

ds

y

ste

m

atic

al

ly

c


126/143

on

st

ru

ct

an

yt

hi

n

gy

o

urs

el

fo

r

u

se

p

ro

p

e

rte

r

mi

n

ol

o

gy

.4

1.

C

42

.

43

.

h,

if

y

ou

r

eh

a

pp

y

to

e


127/143

xp

la

in

y

ou

rja

rg

o

n(

n

ot

g

ra

m

m

ar,

n

oi

d

e

aw

h

yy

o

um

e

nti

one

d

g

ra

m

ma

r)

th

e

n

ex

p

lai

n

it,

r

ath

e


128/143

rt

h

an

a

nn

ou

nci

n

gy

o

ur

h

ap

p

i

ne

s

st

o

e

xp

la

in

it

.4

4.

p

45.

4

6

.a

m

cu

rr

en

tl

y

wo

r

ki

n

go

n

ar

e


129/143

vie

w

of

F

es

er

sp

o

lem

ic

an

d

th

a

n

ky

o

uf

o

r

pr

e

se

n

tin

g

yo

urv

ie

w

so

n

th

e

mat

te

r

of

A

rist

o

tle

s

th

e


130/143

or

y

of

ca

us

e.

It

ish

el

pf

u

lt

o

u

nd

e

rsta

n

d

th

at

his

a

cc

o

un

tof

c

au

s

alit

y

is

n

o

tw

it

ho

u

tp

r

ob

le


131/143

ms

o

rc

ri

tic

s,a

so

n

em

i

gh

t

be

le

d

to

b

elie

v

e.

47

.

fi

n

dit

f

as

cinat

i

n

gt

h

atA

ri

sto

tl

e

sa

r

gu

m

en

ts

(o

n


132/143

ce

u

se

d

to

p

ro

v

e

h

isP

a

ga

n

G

od

)

wo

r

k

se

q

ual

l

yw

el

lt

op

r

o

ve

th

e

ex

is

te

nc

e

of

A

lla

h

be

f


133/143

or

e

be

c

om

in

gk

n

ow

n

in

t

he

W

e

st,

a

nd

fi

n

all

y

(!)

t

he

C

ath

olic

G

o

do

f

Aq

u

in

a

s.

Its

e

em

s

th

at

ev

e


134/143

nif

it

wo

r

ks

as

ad

v

ert

is

ed

,

wh

at

it

pr

o

ve

s

is

so

a

mo

r

ph

o

us

and

o

b

sc

u

re

it

isir

r

el

ev

e

nt

t

ot

h

eb

el


135/143

iefs

o

fo

r

di

na

ry

t

hei

st

so

n

eis

li

k

ely

t

oe

n

c

ou

n

ter.

4

8.

t

se

ems

t

h

atli

k

em

o

sts

y

ll

og

is

tic

a

rg

u

me

n


136/143

ts,

it

sc

o

ncl

usi

on

is

hi

d

de

n

in

t

h

ep

r

em

is

e

s

i.

e.is

n

tt

h

en

otio

n

o

fF

i

nal

C

au

s

al

ity

s

mu

g

gli

n

gi

n


137/143

th

e

id

e

ao

fa

bei

n

g(

c

alle

d

Go

d

i

nt

h

ec

o

n

clu

si

on

)

wh

o

se

pur

p

o

se

is

bei

n

gs

e

r

ve

d

?

4

9

.B


138/143

50.

St

5

1

.

J

54.Y

55.

57.C

58.

59

.

Fro

(Redireced

fromrist

ocracy)

ump

o:navigation,search

1994-

2009

Aris
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristocracy&redirect=nohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristocracy&redirect=nohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristocracy&redirect=nohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#searchInputhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/permissions.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/permissions.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/permissions.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/permissions.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/permissions.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Help/permissions.htmlhttp://www.watersdesigns.com/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/sitemap?PHPSESSID=1c551a882efa07389b8b72a8ca93ab59http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/blog/wp-login.phphttp://www.uncrediblehallq.net/feed/http://www.uncrediblehallq.net/comments/feed/http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Donate/Now/en?utm_source=enwiki_00&utm_medium=anon_donation_banner&utm_campaign=spontaneous_donationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristocracy&redirect=nohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristocracy&redirect=nohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristocracy&redirect=nohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy#searchInput


139/143

12-

1

3

:

e

x

i

s

t

e

n

c

e

o

f

fo

r

m

s

,

po

t

e

n

t

i

a

l

o

r

a

c

tu

a

l


140/143

Ta

ble

of

Cont

en

ts

Forms ofgovernment

Anarchy

Aristocracy

Authoritarianism

Autocracy

Communist state

Confederation

Corporatocracy

Consociational state

Demarchy Democracy

Direct

Representative

Consensus

Despotism

Dictatorship

Military

Epistemocracy

Ethnocracy Exilarchy

Federation

Feudalism

Gerontocracy

Military junta

Kleptocracy

Kratocracy

Kritocracy

Kritarchy Logocracy

Meritocracy

Geniocracy

Minarchism/Night Watchman

Monarchy

Absolute

Constitutional/Limited

Diarchy/Co-Kingship

Noocracy

Ochlocracy/Mobocracy

Oligarchy

Panarchism

Plutocracy

Puppet state

Republic

Crowned

Capitalist

Constitutional

FederalParliamentary

Federal
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forms_of_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forms_of_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consociational_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_dictatorshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exilarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerontocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_juntahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleptocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kratocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geniocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_watchman_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochlocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowned_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republichttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forms_of_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forms_of_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consociational_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despotismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_dictatorshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exilarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerontocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_juntahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleptocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kratocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geniocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_watchman_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochlocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panarchismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowned_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic


141/143

Socialist state

Sociocracy

Technocracy

Cyberocracy

Netocracy

Theocracy

Theodemocracy

Timocracy

Totalitarianism

Tribal

Chiefdom

Politics portalList of forms of

government

vde

See also: Aristocrat (disambiguation)

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Pleaseimprove this article if you can. (June 2009)

Aristocracy is a form ofgovernment, in which a select few such as the most wise, strong or contributing citizens

rule, often starting as a system of cooption where a council of prominent citizens add leading soldiers, merchants,

land owners, priests, or lawyers to their number. Aristocracy deforms when it becomes hereditaryelite.

Aristocracies have most often been deformed to hereditaryplutocratic systems. They sometimes include amonarch who although a member of the aristocracy, rules over it as well as over the rest of society.

The term "aristocracy" is derived from the Greek languagearistokratia, meaning 'the rule of the best'.[1] See

Aristocracy for the historical roots of the term.

[edit] See also

Plutocracy Oligarchy

[edit] References

History, John Cannon (Editor), Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 9780198661764

1. ^ The Oxford Companion to British History, John Cannon (Editor), Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 9780198661764

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy_(government)"Categories: Forms of government | Social sciences | Social groups | Social classes | Oligarchy

Hidden categories: Cleanup from June 2009 | All pages needing cleanup

Views

Article Discussion Edit this page History

Personal tools

Log in / create account
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy_(bureaucratic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodemocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefdomh

meta of aristotle

Documents