Alezeb Desert

J ambi

Koli Mabel

Koki

Kentefin

Weynma Ases

Gomer Dond

Yergin

Mar Woled

Markuma

Wegedad Yayshal

Danp Belima

Bureafer Arabagel

Wazengis Wogereb

Heret Agamima

Sabadir Abana Kalo

Chirar Galabed

DafmShambla

Webo Legesema

Diend Shindi Boladen

Shindi Town

N

EW

S

4 0 4 8 Kilometers

OROMIA

SOMALI

AMHARA

AFAR

TIGRAY

SOUTHERN NATION NATIONALITIES AND PEOPLES

BENISHANGULGUMz

GAMBELLA

DIRE DAWA

HARARIADDIS ABEBA

ERI TREA

SUDAN

SUDAN

KENYA KENYA

SOMALIA

SOMALIA

DJ IBOUTI

WEST GOJJAM

Womberma

Kebele Boundary

Study Kebeles

Town

Legend

240000 255000 270000 285000

1140

000

1155

000

1170

000

1185

000

ETHIOPIA

1185

000

1170

000

1155

000

1140

000

240000 255000 270000 285000

Amhara Region

West Gojjam Zonal Boundary

Womberam W oreda

Legend

200 0 200 400 Kilometers

CHAPTER ONE1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statement of the problem

Eucalyptus is an exotic species of tree that was introduced to Ethiopia from Australia in

1895. The main reason was to overcome a fuel wood shortage and construction demand

around newly established capital city (Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990b). The expansion of

Eucalyptus in Amhara region (North western Ethiopia) has been observed in the last 50

years where aforestation and re-aforestation have been undertaken to a significant extent

in the rural areas (Poschen - Eiche, 1987). Eucalyptus is a fast growing species which can

be harvested within 4-5 years. It satisfies the need of construction and fuel wood demand

within the available capital and labor of poor farmers (Jagger and John, 2000; Raintree

1991; Hubby 1990, Nair, 1980). Currently Eucalyptus is becoming a dominant tree

species with in the existing agro-forestry system of Womberma woreda. Some farmers

are planting eucalyptus to the extent of replacing Cereal crops (Amare, 2001).

The overall expansion of eucalyptus in the food crop producing area of Womberma

woreda has occurred without the active involvement of extension programmes or

government institutions. However, this species has been a major issue for debate

nowadays. Even some regional states, like the Tigray region have placed a ban for

planting eucalyptus in farm lands (Jagger and John 2000). This is due to the notion that

eucalyptus takes up a high amount of water and nutrients and it exerts possible

competitive effect on the adjacent crops (Jagger and John, 2000). Much of the criticism

for eucalyptus is as a result of the inappropriate selection of species to match specific site

conditions.

The only obvious impact of eucalyptus planting could be in occupying the proportion of

land that would have been allocated to food crops like maize, teff, etc, which are in short

of supply. In fact, the reasons for planting eucalyptus or not in the agro-forestry system

under study differ among farmers. It may depend on socio-economic factors such as

availability of land, cultural perceptions and the social status of farmers (Saxena, 1994).

1

Most of the past studies conducted on eucalyptus in Ethiopia focused mainly on its

financial and ecological implications (Amare, 1999; Sexena, 1992; Pohjonen and

Pukkala, 1988; Ahmed, 1989). Limited attention was paid to the socio economic aspects.

Thus there is a lack of information with respect to why so many farmers prefer

eucalyptus more than indigenous species. The perception of extension workers and

farmers also has not been adequately studied. Moreover the socio economic factors that

encourage eucalyptus planting, the specific niche where eucalyptus is planted and its

relative abundance in the farm holdings in relation to social status have not been

sufficiently studied.

Therefore, this study is intended to fill this gap of socio economic information by

investigating in to the socio-economic factors related to eucalyptus planting, the

perception of farmers and extension workers about eucalyptus planting and its relative

abundance in the farmers holding. This study aims at providing information for extension

agents, policy makers and other institutions responsible for planning forest development

strategies.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to investigate how farmers plant and use eucalyptus

in the food crop based agricultural system as practiced in womberma woreda in a context

of which no external actor or institution support of eucalyptus planting. Hence in this

study an attempt is made what socioeconomic factors favor or disfavor some farmers to

plant eucalyptus while others do not.

The study has four specific objectives

1. To describe the historical development of eucalyptus planting in Ethiopia with

particular reference to Womberma woreda

2. To investigate the main socio-economic factors that relate to eucalyptus planting

3. To identify the specific niche of eucalyptus planting within the farm holding and

its relative abundance.

4. To investigate farmers perception about eucalyptus and to link these to the

perception of extension workers.

2

1.3. Research Questions

From the above objectives four research questions are developed.

1. When, how and why did the farmers in Womberma woreda start planting

eucalyptus.

2. What are the main socio-economic factors that influence the farmers’ decision to

grow eucalyptus or not.

3. How perennial bio-diversity is related to eucalyptus planting in Womberma

woreda

4. Do extension workers in the study area give technical advice and seedlings to the

farmers during eucalyptus planting?

1.4. Significance of the study

The fact that no comprehensive study has so far been made the socio-economic aspects of

farmers in eucalyptus planting practices of the study area has provoked this study. Thus it

can be useful for planners, extension workers and other concerned bodies in providing

relevant information in order to design appropriate strategies and programs to enhance

development of farmers in the woreda.

1.5 Methods and Materials

1.5.1 Preliminary Survey

An initial discussion was held with Kebele Peasant Adminstration (KPA) leaders to

explain the purpose of the study and to get permission to conduct the study in the area. A

meeting with village elders and development agents was also held. Then farmers and key

informants were selected based on their long stay in the study area and their specific

knowledge of the area, which is better than other residents. After the introductory

meetings and the identification of the key informant, an explanatory survey was made

with in the key informants throughout the study area. This helped to get an overview.

There was also informal interviewing, with key informants to develop formal

questionnaires and to test the validity of pre formulated, semi-structured and structured

questionnaires and to check whether it would be appropriately focused on the area with

respect to the topic of the study.

3

1.5.2 Selection of Interviewers

For household interviews, research assistants were selected on the basis of their education

and duration of stay in the study area. They were 10 th grade graduates and some were

diploma holders.

1.5.3 Wealth Ranking System

In each Kebele Peasant Administration sample households are classified based on income

category that is rich, medium and poor household. This classification is based on the size

of the farm land and relative to the economic status of the local people in terms of live

stock type and number. According to the key informants of the small holders of the area.

The criteria for rating or classifying farmers in different wealth status are described

below.

1. the rich households are those who have more than a pair of farming oxen, 5 cows,

5 to 6 sheep, 4 goats and 12 'timad' farm land (4 timad=1 hectare.

2. The medium households are those who have a pair of oxen, 2 cows, 2 to 3 sheep 2

to 3 goats, 6 to 8 “timad” farm lands.

3. the poor households are those who have less than a pair of oxen, 2 to 4 “timad”

farm land and mostly those that rent their land to the others due to lack of oxen

for farming.

Normally rich households take the land from those who have no oxen in exchange of

their oxen, or by renting in cash or through the system of share cropping. There fore a

large amount of land has been owned and cultivated by rich households.

1.5.4 Stratified Random Sampling

In wealth classification one key informant from each social stratum was selected together

with one KPA leader in each KPAs. These four people were asked to rank the households

according to their wealth status. Male and female headed households in the selected

Kebeles were selected and names were written down on a 3cm by 5cm card and key

informants were asked to sort these cards according to their wealth status based on the

already set criteria for classification. Accordingly, they categorized the heads of the

households into 3 wealth classes namely rich, medium and poor. This stratum was used

4

for in depth formal and informal surveys. After categorizing the household based on the

three wealth classes respective households from each wealth category were selected

randomly. The sampling technique employed was therefore stratified purposive random

sampling. Thus sample households in each KPAs are selected purposefully to make the

number of respondents equal in each KPAs across all wealth categories.

The sample size was decided on the basis of time and resource available for the study.

The study was conducted on 120 households for the socio-economic interviews and the

inventory of wood species. From each KPAs 30 households out of which 10 households

were selected randomly to represent each wealth category: rich, medium and poor.

Table 1.1 House hold population of the surveyed KPAs

KPAs Distance from the

center

Total number of households

living in KPAs

Proportion of

households sampled

Marwoled 25 1428 30 (25%)

Wogedad yayshal 17 1269 30 (25%)

Markuma 8 1130 30 (25%)

SebadarabanaKalo 5 1237 30 (25%)

Total 5064 120(100%)

Source: WOARDO (2007)

Focus group discussion which includes young, women and agricultural experts of the

woreda also conducted to asses different problems related with tree planting which

comprises 6-9 people in the selecting four KPAs, with a total of 31 people.

In addition to this 10 forest extension workers were also interviewed on their perception

of eucalyptus plating. Totally 161 respondents participated in the study.

1.5.5 Data collection Methods

Structured household interviews were conducted for the collection of basic socio-

economic data and people's perception of eucalyptus planting for the survey households.

In this method, household size, age, land size, income source, attitude to tree planting and

labor availability data were collected. The head of the household was contacted for the

interviews because he/she could give much information on the households’ affairs.

5

The focus group discussion was conducted with women, young community group and

agricultural experts of the woreda, to collect information on their perception of

eucalyptus planting. Moreover, it helped to line farmers' perception about eucalyptus

planting with that of agricultural experts. In this interview constraints encountered with

extension workers in eucalyptus planting in relation to livelihoods of farmers were

carried out. Key informant interviews were also held with older people, from different

wealth strata and KPA leaders who know the history of the area, in each village to know

the historical trend of eucalyptus expansion in the respective study KPAs. In each KPAs

respondents from different social status and age group were interviewed to discuss the

historical time at which eucalyptus was introduced to the study area. Interviews were also

carried out with extension workers of the Woreda to know their view about eucalyptus

plantation and the relationship between eucalyptus trees and food crops.

Inventory forms were prepared to record the detailed information of the type of species

present per KPAs. A total census was carried out to record perennial woody species in

each farm or niche. The species identification was made on the site by using key

informants. Eucalyptus tree inventory was taken in separate forms. The eucalyptus

diameters were measured to know the eucalyptus diameter distribution across wealth

categories. The total enumeration was taken for farm boundary and live fence. For wood

lots five percent of the total area of wood lots area was measured.

Direct observation were made to assess current land used patterns, geographic features

and agro forestry practices in each study site, approximation of distance of the observed

place from the main town Shendi was registered.

The review of available information such as demographic data map and the socio-

economic condition of the study area and Regional forestry policy were collected from

different institutions.

1.5.6 Methods of Data Analyses

To analyze the various data collected: the study used both quantitative and qualitative

techniques. Qualitative techniques were used to describe and substantiate data acquired,

through observations group discussion and some socio-economic data and characteristic

6

of the rural households through questionnaire. The quantitative data were analyzed using

descriptive statistic, mean percentages etc...) Pearson correlation and Analysis of variance

(ANOVA) were also employed using SPSS 14 and accessories to see the relation that

exists between/with in different variables.

1.6 Scope and Limitations of the study

This micro level study is limited to Wombema Woreda. In addition to this it was based

on about 120 randomly selected households from the specified area. On the other hand

Ethiopia has a wide variation in agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions. There

fore it is difficult to make generalization from the study made in such small area.

However, the area selected for the study is the representative of the areas in which

eucalyptus tree became dominant over the other woody species. Hence it is hoped that the

result could be applicable to some locations having similar circumstances. The other

problem related to this study is the wealth classification may be biased because it varies

with people’s perception about wealth. However, maximum effort was made to get

optimum and fair classification of wealth categories by taking detail information from the

key informants.

1.7 organization of the thesis

This thesis is divided in to six major chapters. The first chapter covers the introduction

part which includes background of the study, objective of the study, significance of the

study, methodology, thesis organization and scope and limitation of the study. The

second chapter is devoted to the conceptual framework and general literature review of

eucalyptus plantation which covers the historical development of eucalyptus in Ethiopia

and debates on ecological, economic and social aspects of eucalyptus trees. The third

chapter deals with the general back ground of the study area which covers the physical

and social settings of the Woreda. The fourth chapter comprises the analysis result on the

major factors related with eucalyptus plantation in the study area and the fifth chapter

deals with the different methods and management practices of eucalyptus plantation

taken by farmers in the study area. The last chapter concludes the study by detail

summaries and recommendations.

7

CHAPTR TWO

REVIEW OF LITREATURE

2.1 Conceptual Framework

A critical factor related to tree planting is land availability. Eucalyptus is one of the cash

generating trees for many households. However there is an argument that although the

sales of cash crops generate income, this source of income may not necessarily foster self

reliance. In addition cash crop production reduces the area of land available to grow food

crops which are needed. As a result more land is needed to produce food crops.

Otherwise more cash is needed for buying food from the market. Farmers are also

motivated to engage in off-farm employment (Arnold, 1992).

A study in Rwanda Biggelaar,( 1996) indicates that there is a positive correlation between

land size and tree density. When farm size declines farmers plant few numbers of species

and they also shift planting locations (Bigalaar, 1996). A study in Babati district,

Tanzania (Alriksson and Ohlsson, 1990) stated that eucalyptus wood plots were either

located on the land around or in the direct vicinity of the homestead, and also sometimes

they can be planted as wind breaks to save crops from high wind on the farms. Thus they

may be classified as one of the agro-forestry practices Alrikson and Ohlsson,( 1990).

Aronold (1987) argued that small farmers often intensify the home garden by food and

agricultural cash crops when the farm size diminishes below the level of which they

cannot meet their basic household food needs. Hence, the area that exceeds the size of

land needed for food production by family labor could be normally used for tree planting.

This implies that when the size of the farmland diminishes below a certain level tree

planting will be given less priority than agricultural crops.

It was stated that economic environment for tree growing exists where trees are used

clearly for the ultimate benefit of those who plant them or for gift to their children.

Conversely the absence of land tenure security or control over the use of land resources is

often a major constraint to tree growing (FAO, 1985). Patterns of tree tenure can be quite

complex, but generally involve the right to own or inherit trees, the right to plant them,

8

the right to use them and the right of disposal (FAO, 1985). For instance, in India and

Nepal commercially valuable tree species largely belonged to the government regardless

of on whose ever land they grew (FAO, 1985). The state ownership of forest resource has

been severe constraint on conducive economic growth and enhancing the responsibility

of private entrepreneurs and farmers in managing and conserving natural resources. This

has discouraged the private sector and individual farmers’ participation in forest

resources management and utilization of agro- foresting (FAO, 1999).

Labor availability is another factor to tree planting. Trees need to be planted at the same

season when there are peak demands for agriculture labor at their highest (FAO, 1985).

The main operations in eucalyptus planting are digging, planting and thinning. Digging of

marginal lands may be done in the summer months when other fields do not require

labor. When planting on arable lands, digging and planting are done together. The

planting season for both eucalyptus and crops is generally common and one has to

consider the peak for labor demand. The total labor requirement is much less for

eucalyptus than for annual crops (Saxena, 1994). As a study made in India (Arnold,

1987) indicated, farmers prefer tree planting because of its low labor requirement and

thus reducing dependency of hired labor. However, the farmer may use hired labor at the

peak period when agricultural activities coincide with tree planting. This mainly depends

upon the socio-economic status of the farm households.

Household characteristics are the fourth factor affecting tree planting decision. There are

many well developed indigenous tropical agro-forestry systems and it is necessary to

assess their comparative contributions to the households in particular and the rural

economy in general with the view of promoting similar systems elsewhere. However the

socio economic benefits of agro-forestry systems are difficult to estimate due to intra-and

inter-household relations (Stocking et al 1989; Nair, 1980). According to a survey in

Thailand,Phantum Vanit et al (1990) found that eucalyptus planters were, on average,

younger, more educated and more experienced and motivated for progress in growing

trees than those who did not plant eucalyptus. A study in Rwanda showed that when the

head of the household of a large family holding is getting old, the size of farm land would

be small. This is because of the portion of land left to each of his children (Biggelaar,

9

1996). However a study in Niger state of Nigeria Adegbehin and Omijeh (1993) found

that tree planting is more linked to farmers’ awareness than to age, family size and farm

size.

Factors such as species, type and location or habitation affect the rate of tree growth and

consequently, have a significant bearing on whether or not communities and small

holders will invest in tree planting. For example, small holders living at higher elevations,

where trees are grown slowly may not find it attractive to invest in tree planting ( Jagger

and John 2000). Trees with very slow growth rates or low mean annual increment will

not give benefit within a short time span and hence, are not preferred by small holders

(Jagger and John, 2000). Species, which are easy for management, withstand adverse

climatic and marginal condition; need low management skills, high market demand or

whose products are demanded by local people for different uses etc… are important

aspects to be considered by community (Raintree, 1991; Nair, 1980).

The choice of species differs among different categories of people. Categories, such as

women, the poor landless, common resource users and ethnic minorities differ with

respect to species preference. Farmers may not select species on the basis of high yield

replacement value or any aesthetically appealing concept but they base their selection on

tradition, immediate need and experience (Barker, 1990).

Gender relations in tree planting are important for designing an effective extension

method for afforestation and re-aforestation activities. The role of women in tree planting

activities is different in different countries. It depends on cultural practices and the socio-

economic development of the society. For instance, in Kenya and Rwanda women are

forbidden to plant or cut trees because land belongs only to men, who can plant perennial

species in their holdings that ensures land ownership (FAO, 1989). As a study in Rwanda

indicates, local customs do not allow women to plant trees. An exception is made for fruit

and medicinal trees, both of which increase household food security and wellbeing. By

considering that fruit trees are food crops instead of saleable trees women have been able

to gain an advantage over the traditional ban on tree planting (Biggelaar, 1996). A case

study in Gujarat, India, showed that women are involved in weeding and transportation of

10

the seedling while men participate in digging holes for planting (Rorison, 1989). All

negotiations for selling the harvested tree poles are settled by men. On the other hand, the

transportation of the wood for domestic use from the field to the house is the task of the

women (FAO, 1989).

Men and women often have different views on the importance of various tree resources.

A woman’s concern may be to find enough trees and forest products to satisfy her

immediate family needs, particularly fire wood and fruit collection, whereas men’s first

concern may be for tree types with products that are primarily sources of cash,

particularly timber (Alriksson and Oholssun, 1990; Huby, 1990; FAO, 1989). Although

women are interested in cash in some areas they may not be allowed to participate in tree

based income generation activities. Men mostly sell products that could generate a higher

income, for instance, timber, whereas women sell minor tree products such as fruit and

berries, whose return is less than for the timber (FAO, 1989).

Marketing is important in tree planting. A higher output of a particular product may be

the result of a high yield or an increased market price, or both. The qualities and

quantities of the production or distribution over the year often affects market price. A

study in Kenya showed that one of the reasons for planting eucalyptus on farm lands was

that eucalyptus gave high investment returns for a given input and needed less initial

investment cost. The other reason was that the price of wood is decided at the local

market while the price of tea or coffee and many other cash crops strictly follows

international or external factor market price. Moreover, it is easier to predict the price of

wood because it is related to population growth and the lack of alternative sources of

energy. This makes the planting of eucalyptus a safe investment (Gustavson and Kiemu,

1992). As a study in Thailand suggests the price of tree products is correlated with tree

planting (Shively, 1999).( Alriksson and Ohlsson 1990) also argued that proximity and

accessibility to market are determinants to the type and form of agro-forestry practices.

The above fact tells that the increase in demand of a forest product and its price have

accelerated the intervention of trees on the farmlands (Shively, 1999).

11

To sum up, there are several concepts in agro-forestry that need clarification so as to

make clear the distinction between different agro-forestry practices along with socio-

economic factors such as land, capital and labor are key factors affecting tree planting.

The household characteristics like age, gender household size, attitude and perception of

farmers etc… determine the labor availability and awareness of farmers towards tree

planting. The species characteristics is also an important factor because species that grow

fast ,need low input and low initial investment along with quicker return of investment

are highly preferred by farmers. Eucalyptus is one of the fast growing species and is

preferred by the communities. Gender differentiated preferences of species depends on

immediate need, culture and past experience. Marketability of a particular product is

determined by its local and international market price. Thus eucalyptus planting is

affected by market and other socio economic factors.

12

Socio economic factors-Availability of land-Availability of labor-Personal factors (age, gender. education etc..)-Economic status-Distance from the market center

Impact on: -perception-attitude/view to tree planting

-Nature and type of tree species Response:

Lack of interest or motivation to tree palpating

Impact on: farmer’s decision to plant or not to plant trees

Activities of extension workers:-providing seedlings-giving training and other facilities

2.2.1 Eucalyptus Debates

2.2.1.1 The Historical Development of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

During the time of Emperor Minilik II, a fuel wood shortage was one of the main driving

forces behind the deliberate shift of capital town from Ankober to the Entoto hills, in

1881. At the time the Emperor found that his people did not have sufficient wood for fuel

and construction, and decided to start reforestation and a forestation activity. He

discussed the issue with his cabinet repeatedly and requested Mondon-vidolillet, a French

railway engineer and philologist (one of his expatriate advisors) to assist him in the

introduction of some exotic tree species .Minilik’s intention was to get some kinds of tree

species which could rather grow faster and sustain in Ethiopian soil and climatic

conditions. He also preferred that such trees could provide both fuel and construction

wood. Accordingly, Mondom-vidolillet brought in 1895 seeds of 15 eucalyptus species,

including E-amgadalina, E-bicolor, E-camaldulensis, E-clado Cladocalyx, E-cornuta, E-

divers, patent, E-resinifera, E-ridis, E-salubris, E-tereticornis and Acacia species from

Australia to Ethiopia.

He also brought other species, e.g. pines from Portugal, Italy and Greece (Pohjoner and

Pukala, 1990b). Out of the introduced species of trees, the local people preferred

E.Camaldulensis, E-Citriodora, E-globulus, E-Saligna and E-tereticornis and their

cultivation gradually expanded slowly throughout the country (Friis, 1995). Currently,

about 55 species of eucalyptus are reported from cultivation in Ethiopia, of which

between five and ten species are widely planted (Friis, 1995).

The period from 1895 to 1898 is held to be the period of eucalyptus introduction around

Addis Ababa. But half a century the rate of eucalyptus expansion was slow. However,

during 1960 – 1974 its expansion was rapid on both private and government lands. In a

worldwide context eucalyptus investments were made for the use of paper and saw mills.

These extensive uses of wood in industrial matter attracted even external funding

agencies like SIDA and FAO and forced them to involve in providing aid for the forestry

sector and also forestry was visualized as an important segment of industrial development

(Anonymous, 1995). Until the revolution of 1974, the source of forest products in rural

areas of Ethiopia was limited to natural forest exploitation with limited planting of

13

eucalyptus in homesteads. Thus up to the mid 1970s most rural people were used to

exploring natural forests and wood for various needs. However such continued reckless

exploitation without any planting and a forestation led to chronic shortage of fuel as well

as construction wood particularly around the expanding cities and larger villages. More

particular that arose the so called fuel wood crisis in several parts of Ethiopia as well as

southern and central parts of Africa (Anonymous, 1995)

From 1975 to 1984 about 175,000 hectares of land were covered by eucalyptus

plantation. This was mainly done under soil and water conservation projects that were

sponsored by the World Food Programme. On the other hand, large scale plantation on

private land started declining during this period due to land reform of 1974 which

nationalized private lands to state ownership. In 1978, the World Bank led a powerful

worldwide campaign for private forestry sector in a forest policy paper focused on “forest

by the people for the people”. The aim was to enable small farmers to increase food

production along with planting trees and thereby conserving soil land and the

environment. Following this the FAO World Conference on agrarian reform and rural

development was arranged in 1979 (Arnold, 1992). In 1984 and 1988 the Sudano-

Sahelian of the United Nation led to the establishment of 900 hectares of fuel wood

plantation in Ethiopia (Stiles et al, 1991). This was the result of the 1981 UN conference

on New and Renewable Sources of Energy. The FAO also prepared a fuel wood map that

focused on energy needs of the world (Arnold, 1992). Altogether during 1974 to 1991 a

total of 200,000 hectares of plantation was established, usually on hill tops and slopes to

conserve soil and water sources. Planting activities were organized all over Ethiopia on

working days by Peasant Associations (PAS) (Poschen-Eiche, 1987).

Recent estimates put the figure of eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia to be around 250,000

hectares. According to Amare (1999a) that may be an underestimation, but it still places

Ethiopia amongst the top ten countries in the world producing large eucalyptus wood

sources. Ethiopia is also the only country that produces and uses large hectares of E-

camalulensis while other popular species E-globulus is grown in Spain, Portugal and

China (Amare, 1999a). The overall expansion of eucalyptus has been observed in the last

14

3-4 decades, where aforestation and reaforestatoin have been under taken to a significant

extent in rural areas (Poschen-Eiche, 1987).

Different NGO workers visualized a significant increase in tree planting on privately

controlled lands in central and southern Ethiopia in 1990/95 immediately after the Derg

regime abandoned key features of the agrarian reform and relaxed control over the

private sector (Hoben, 1996).

2.2.1.2. Social Aspects

The issue about who benefits from a particular tree planting is an important debate at the

heart of eucalyptus debate. Much of the early debate centered on the idea that only large

scale farmers were benefiting from eucalyptus farm forestry. However, information on

the actual adoption pattern soon revealed that even the relatively small farmers are

establishing eucalyptus wood lots and get good benefits from them (Raintree, 1991). It is

also assumed that an increasing number of technically and economically viable

commercial tree growing innovations will benefit more rural poor and disadvantaged

(marginal) farmers. Jagger and John (2000) argued that small holders benefit from tree

planting by producing timber and non timber forest products from the household

consumption as well as cash from sale. This would increase household incomes and

improve their livelihoods. In contrast to this idea Malla and Fisher (1988) and

phentumvaint et al. (1990) support the general belief that tree planting is usually a

business for relatively wealthy farmers. These large farmers have enough land holding

and capital to diversify their farming activity and experiment with new crops and are

ready to undertake risks of adopting new crops. While small farmers find it difficult to

adopt tree planting because of the trees extended production period, a high establishment

cost and lack of large land holdings.

The landscape in Ethiopia at least in some areas is often dominated by eucalyptus

established, to a very large extent by farmers (Turnbull, 1991). Eucalyptus is so inter

woven with the life of Ethiopian society that it is difficult to dissociate it from the people

(Turnbull, 1991). It has different social benefits for rural people. The good smell of

eucalyptus is usually used to eliminate bad odor. It is also used to sprinkle water on the

15

deceased in order to clean the corpse before burial. E- citroidora has an attractive odor

and is used in making perfume. Traditionally some people chew and throw away

Eucalyptus- globules leaves to control bad breath. There are also some other medicinal

uses, such as people use it’s young leaves in boiling water and take lung breaths to be

cure from cold and sneezing

Eucalyptus is also found to be relatively non labor intensive. Although one of the

constraints in the tree planting is availability of labor during annual agricultural activities

as they coincides with tree planting time (FAO, 1985), yet labor requirements of

eucalyptus for planting, thinning and harvesting are spread throughout the year and hence

require much less overall labor input. A study made in North Gonder, Ethiopia, revealed

that farmers established eucalyptus woodlots using the “tangua” methods of plantation

establishment (Amare, 2001). In this method, the land cultivated for crops is also used at

the same time for eucalyptus planting, without an allocation of extra labor for land

preparation exclusively for the eucalyptus.

From a gender point of view eucalyptus assists women by saving time for fuel wood

collection, but the cash sell of eucalyptus poles belongs to men (Robison, 1989). This

shows that financial income that could be generated from the sell of eucalyptus more

benefits the male than female.

In summary, eucalyptus planting is mainly visualized as benefiting the rich farmers rather

than the poor. However the poor farmers also benefit in satisfying their fuel wood and

construction needs. Additionally eucalyptus needs low labor inputs and saves the time of

women for fuel wood collection.

2.2.1.3. Ecological Aspects

The ecological debate of eucalyptus in Ethiopia has begun since the time of King Lej

Eyasu (1913-1916). He ordered that 2/3 of eucalyptus plantation that have been

established around Addis Ababa should be up rooted and replaced by mulberry species

for silk production. This issue was taken more seriously when an Egyptian minster of

work, who visited Ethiopia in 1913, said that the case for the drying up of the springs in

Ethiopia was the eucalyptus introduction. Despite this, eucalyptus gained popularity

16

among the local people and its planting was expanded (Kinfe, 2000). The perception that

eucalyptus has a negative impact on crop production to the determinant of food security

and livelihood still persists in some regions of Ethiopia. This is due to the belief that

eucalyptus takes more water and nutrients so that it also depletes the soil. The debate has

covered the silvicultural and social forestry literature during the last 30 years and no

consensus has yet been reached. But it is surprising that nobody seems to criticize the

depletion of agricultural lands that are continually being planted without the addition of

fertilizer.

The negative ecological effect of eucalyptus is the result of inappropriate choice of the

species. Eucalyptus should not be heralded as a wonder species that will bring immediate

solutions to local wood crises and erosion problems. The blame should then not fall on

the eucalyptus purse rather than bad forestry practices (Poore and Fries, 1985).

A study in India revealed that most of the critics of eucalyptus relate the promotion of

eucalyptus planting by private farmers as high as cash crop for sell (Raintree, 1991).

While most critics argue that social forestry programs should have been concentrated as a

variety of multipurpose trees instead of planting eucalyptus exclusively on the farm land

only, others recommend that eucalyptus should be planted in integration with other useful

multipurpose species, as woodlots in commons and waste land for fuel wood, medicine

and other subsistence needs. Phantumvanit et al (1990) stated that most farmers in

Thailand complained about the negative environmental impacts of eucalyptus such as

indirect damage to their crops and a reduction in soil moisture and water supply in the

vicinity of the eucalyptus plantation. However they thought that the land used for

planting eucalyptus could still be used for other crops after the stump had been removed.

Moreover, a study made in north west India (Ahmed, 1989) concludes that loss in wheat

production due to eucalyptus was nil in the first two years, 8.2% of the total output in the

3rd and 4th years, 13.6% in 5th and 6th year and went up to 26.4% in the 7th and 8th year.

After this the loss increased rapidly to 48.8% for the 9th and 10th year. However, in this

study the method of estimation was not indicated. Saxena (1992) argues that losses might

depend on the spacing between trees, the number of rows in which trees were planted,

water applied and management practices. It is generally assumed that eucalyptus

17

plantation provides good shelter belts across the wind direction side against high winds

and there by benefit crops to some extent, but over all there is a significant loss in

production due to shade cast by the tree and this loss increase with the growing size and

foliage of the tree.

Advocates of agroforestry often cite the fact that leguminous tree contributes nitrogen to

the soil, enhancing crop productivity, and better suitability to soil. In contrast, non-

leguminous trees such as eucalyptus may compete with agricultural crops in utilizing the

scarce soil nutrients. There is significant support from the literature for the assertion that

fast growing tree crops deplete the nutrients on the site regardless of whether or not the

trees are leguminous (Poore and Friis, 1985). A study made in Australia on the nutrient

up take of eucalyptus revealed that the amount of nitrogen taken up by the cereal crop

was two and half times more than the amount taken by eucalyptus plantation. In contrast

the phosphorus uptake of eucalyptus was fifteen times more than cereal crops because the

sapwood contains 33 times more phosphorus. The study also showed that nutrients

removed in the native forest were 20 times less than in the short rotation eucalyptus

plantation (FAO, 1988). This is because in the native forest, the leaves, branches and bark

were left on the site. The rate of water uptake by eucalyptus could reach between 20 and

40 liters per tree each day, depending on the size of the tree to produce equal proportion

biomass to the amount of water consumed.

The nutrient uptake of eucalyptus is inherently site specific, highly dependent upon tree

and crop interaction being considered and the soil under which tree and food crops is

established. Research in Nigeria on three agricultural crops under neem, prosopis and

eucalyptus trees described that the mean crop yield were 13.99 g/plant, 8.32 g/plant and

6.8 g/plant respectively, to be comparable to a control test of 4.76 g/plant respectively.

The research suggested that although eucalyptus soils are superior to the control, they do

not lead to strong crop growth even when a leguminous agricultural crop is planted

(Jagger and John, 2000). In India farmers are now planting Eucalptus-Camaldulenss,

along farm boundaries. This is because the elongated crowns and vertical roots of

eucalyptus do not noticeably reduce crop yields, and also because the farmers can use or

sell the produce from the trees (Conroy, 1993). A study conducted in southern Ethiopia

18

Legesse, (1994) found that eucalyptus plantation up to 6m away from the tree shelterbelt

has a significant competitive effect on sorghum and maize crops. The study concludes

that growing Eucalyptus- camaldulensis closer to the field of food crops should be

discouraged and replaced with multipurpose tree species. There is also evidence that after

planting eucalyptus on previously treeless sites, soil fertility increases through the

development of humus, which may be slightly on some soils (Pore and Fries, 1985). In

addition to fertility maintenance in a treeless site the root system contributes to the soil

conservation and reduces mass wastage of slopes. Jagger and John (2000) also suggested

that in regions where rainfall is sufficient to sustain trees, the soil conditions conducive to

tree growth and perhaps less appropriate to the input of fertilizers, tree planting might be

environmentally suitable and an alternative land use practice.

The plantation of eucalyptus may result in new habitats by changing the ground flora, the

structure of the vegetation and the land use. It substitutes the existing species to occupy

the dominant place in the community. This has certain social and environmental

implications (Poore and Fries, 1985). Jagger and John (2000) conclude that it is not

advisable to make decision about the use of eucalyptus on the basis of considering only

the negative or the positive impacts. The reason why poor households choose to plant

these trees and the economic inputs that trees may have on the welfare of the households

should also be considered.

2.2.1.4. Economic Aspects

The eucalyptus tree provides a range of timber and non timber products to rural

households in Ethiopia. The farmers use very small areas of land, often as small as 0.1ha

to plant Eucalyptus- globules. They often use a very close spacing up to 60,000 seedlings

per hectare. Subsequently the plot may be managed in a form of a coppice with a

standard to yield a variety of products (Turnbull, 1991). Timber products are several

poles, fuel wood, fodder and charcoal. Products obtained from non timber products

include medicine, tannin, resin, honey and bee wax. Farmers in the high land part of

Ethiopia plant large numbers of eucalyptus, particularly Eucalyptus- globulus and mange

small branches for fuel wood, and poles and posts for building and other uses. Farmers

who have insufficient land to have a wood lot often grow a few trees, which can be

19

harvested and sold when cash is required to buy additional stocks from the market when

they experience food shortages (Turnbull, 1999). Many scholars have stated that no other

species, be it indigenous or exotic, could replace eucalyptus in the near future to bridge

the ever-widening gap between supply and demand of wood (Turbull, 1999; Pukkala and

Davidson, 1989).How ever, indigenous trees like Cordia africana,Croton macroslycs and

Albizia gumufera gives greater advantage in the study area by providing fuel wood and

construction purpose to the people.

One economic aspect, with respect to eucalyptus planting is whether to invest in

agricultural crops or planting eucalyptus on a given unit of farmland. A study made in

Ethiopia by Amare (1999) shows that the production cost to establish and manage

eucalyptus wood is minimal in the way farmers do it. According to the study, one hectare

of eucalyptus wood lot with 40,000 trees/ha only costs ETB 2,500 until harvest at the end

of five or six years from planting. Successive coppice rotations do not involve labor

beyond wood harvests. It is also indicated that annual income from agricultural crops is

ETB 529/ha. On the other hand, woodlot containing 10,000 and 40,000 trees/ha annual

income is calculated to be ETB 43,813 and 207, 389 respectively. In other words the net

income from 10,000 and 40,000 trees per hectares woodlot would be ETB 783,360 and

2,631,540 at 8% discount rate within 20 years while agricultural crops would make only

ETB 10,580 (Amare, 1999). One must also note that the farmer is freed from hard work

in woodlot farming as well as the uncertainty of the rains and weather. A study made by

Asaye (2001) in Gonder, Ethiopia, indicated that the net present value of a Eucalyptus-

Camaldulensis wood lot in a planting density of 20,000 trees per hectare was four times

higher than teff and sorghum crops in the best and medium site conditions. In the same

manner, the net present value of a planting density of 1000 trees per hectare was nearly

two times more than growing teff and sorghum crops in the best and medium site

conditions at a 10% interest rate. Additionally, the study conducted by Tesfaye (1997) in

Tigray in northern Ethiopia, found that eucalyptus growing is four to five times more

financially profitable than barley production at 15% rate of return (farmers received 15

unit profit per hundred units they invested). Pohjonen and Pukkala’s (1988) study in the

20

central high lands of Ethiopia found that profitability of forestry as compared to

agriculture is higher at a lower discount rate.

In order to utilize fertile land for agricultural production, the farmers use marginal land or

land with no other productive use for tree planting. Trees are also capable of growing

when they are planted as plot boundaries, on-household compounds or as live fences,

which occupy small, previously uncultivated areas. These lands may also have a lower or

no opportunity cost (Jagger and John, 2000). A study conducted in Tigray region showed

that E-globules dominate other species in both village and community woodlot (Jagger

and John, 2000). In this study it was stated that 100% E-globules and E-camaldulensis

plantings are on hillsides or waste land rather than on cultivate land. It was also stated

that under most circumstances, planting eucalyptus trees yielded a higher rate of return

(above 20%) than agricultural crops. Further Daba (2000) made a study in the central

highlands of Ethiopia, to compare E-globules growing with financial return from

agricultural use of lands. This study showed that growing E-globules is ten times higher

in financial return than from growing agriculture crops at a discount rate of 10%. He

concluded that plantation of E.globulus is economically more profitable than agricultural

use of land.

2.2.1.5. Farmers Interest of Eucalyptus Planting

Much has been said about eucalyptus planting by different authors but neither

environmentalists nor foresters seem to have consulted farmers on the issue (Saxena,

1992). Evans (1988) also argues that successful tree planting programs on small farm are

achieved when villagers perception and hopes are looked into assessed and not when

others ideas are imposed. Farmers may not see eucalyptus planting only in terms of cash

profitability because they may be interested in producing tree products for the household

use such as construction, posts, poles and fuel wood, and in other cases, for soil and crops

protection as wind breakers also. Hence cash profitability is not necessarily a good

predictor of the adoption of tree planting (Current and Scherr, 1995).

Eucalyptus species are really loved and purposely used by Ethiopians. Indeed removing

eucalyptus from this country means deforesting highlands and cutting the remaining high

forest (Evans, 1988). Farmers in Ethiopia are planting eucalyptus to the extent of even

21

replacing enset (staple food), and other tree including fruit trees growing in the

homestead in the south, again because of the high cash return, low labor requirements and

low input demands (Amare, 2001). Crop farms are being converted to farm woodlot

using the “tanguya” method of establishment that further reduces labor requirements,

enabling farmers to extend the crop-growing period too (Amare, 2001). A survey

conducted in north Gonder zone, Ethiopia revealed that farmers reasons for planting

eucalyptus included (in the order listed) cash income, fear of future shortage of wood,

tree growing experience/knowledge acquired /and MOA project extension and technical

assistance. Those few farmers that did not plant eucalyptus gave land shortage as the

main reason (Amare, 1999). Similarly, a study conducted in Eastern Guajrat, India

showed that the reason that farmers were enthusiastic to plant eucalyptus was to obtain a

good price. Another is that, unlike many farmers in other semi-arid areas most of them do

not appear to have experienced a reduction in the yields of annual crops adjacent to their

eucalyptus plants (Conroy, 1993). In India trees are even beginning to be used as security

for consumption loans from the banks. Moreover, trees that can be cut and sold are good

savings banks and insurance for poor rural people (Chambers and Richards, 1986).

Farmers in Thailand were in great controversy with the government on the time of

Eucalyptus planting and farmers’ interest to use the land for other uses. For instance,

there was strong protest against the planting of eucalyptus, in the east Thailand

particularly in 1985 (Puntasen et al. 1992). Two thousand people moved into eucalyptus

plantation, pulling up young trees, burning eucalyptus, nurseries and government offices.

The protest demanded the withdrawal of subsidy given to private planters by the

government. However the protest was not against eucalyptus planting. It was because of

the illegal issuing of licenses to investors for planting eucalyptus. Again in 1987 people

of another district pulled up young eucalyptus trees and began confiscating government

tractors. They demanded that natural forest be maintained, as it was originally, so that

people could use its products to supplement their daily survival. The natural forest at this

time was about to be cleared for eucalyptus plantation by the government (Puntason et al.

1992). The protest was against clear cutting of natural forest for eucalyptus planting.

22

To sum up the chapter, eucalyptus was introduced to Ethiopia in the late 19 th century. The

main reason for its introduction was to alleviate fuel and contraction wood problems

around Addis Ababa. Its expansion was aggravated during 1960 – 1970 in private lands

whereas its expansion increased on government land from 1970 – 1990 and relaxed

control over land in 1990/1991 eucalyptus expanded on private lands. However

eucalyptus has been a major species of debate in Ethiopia as well as other parts of the

world. Social aspects of the debate focused on the issue that eucalyptus benefited those

who have access to resources but not to the resource poor farmers. The study by scholars

on this issue indicates that both the rich and the poor benefit, except that the degree of

benefit may be varied. Another contradicted issue is on the ecological aspect of

eucalyptus tree. The main issue is its competition for water and nutrients with adjacent

crops. A study finding indicates that eucalyptus has a competitive impact on land up to

10m away from the tree shelter belt. Financial analysis of eucalyptus as compared to

agricultural crops showed that eucalyptus is more profitable than the use of land for

agricultural crops at a certain interest rate. Despite all of these arguments farmers plant

eucalyptus for different reasons; and they state that currently, no species could replace

eucalyptus for their immediate needs. Thus, if eucalyptus is planted in the appropriate

site, it will provide multiple benefits with out affecting agricultural production.

23

CHAPTER THREE

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1 Physical Setting

3.1.1 Location and Size

Womberma Woreda lies in the South Western parts of West Gojam zone in Amhara

National Regional State. It is bordered by Bure Woreda in the East and Northeast,

Awizone in the North and Northwest and Oromiya (East Welega) in the south.

Astronomically the Woreda is located between 100 18' 30'' N to 100 35' N latitude and 360

30' E and 370 00' 3''E longitude It covers an area of 12170 hectare, that can make the

Woreda the third largest in the zone. It has twenty Kebele Peasant Adminstrations(KPAs)

24

Alezeb Desert

J ambi

Koli Mabel

Koki

Kentefin

Weynma Ases

Gomer Dond

Yergin

Mar Woled

Markuma

Wegedad Yayshal

Danp Belima

Bureafer Arabagel

Wazengis Wogereb

Heret Agamima

Sabadir Abana Kalo

Chirar Galabed

DafmShambla

Webo Legesema

Diend Shindi Boladen

Shindi Town

N

EW

S

4 0 4 8 Kilometers

OROMIA

SOMALI

AMHARA

AFAR

TIGRAY

SOUTHERN NATION NATIONALITIES AND PEOPLES

BENISHANGULGUMz

GAMBELLA

DIRE DAWA

HARARIADDIS ABEBA

ERI TREA

SUDAN

SUDAN

KENYA KENYA

SOMALIA

SOMALIA

WEST GOJJAM

Womberma

Kebele Boundary

Study Kebeles

Town

Legend

240000 255000 270000 285000

1140

000

1155

000

1170

000

1185

000

ETHIOPIA

1185

000

1170

000

1155

000

1140

000

240000 255000 270000 285000

Amhara Region

West Gojjam Zonal Boundary

Womberam W oreda

Legend

200 0 200 400 Kilometers

Fig 3.1. The study area

Source: Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office.

25

3.1.2 Climate

The Woreda has a variety of terrains ranging from 1660m to 2600m in height above sea

level. It is characterized by distinct dry and wet season. Most of the Woreda falls within

the Woynedega zone (2300 to 2600m) above sea level. The mean annual and monthly

rainfall for the Woreda at Shendi metrological station is 1430 mm and 116.23 mm

respectively. The "small rains" occurs in January and December and the big rains occur

during the period May to October.

The mean annual temperature of the Woreda is 26.570C. The maximum and minimum

daily temperature recorded was 20C in January and 34.50C in April over the previous 5

years. Mostly the hottest and the coldest months in the Woreda are December and April

respectively.

Fig 3.2. Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at Shendi Meteorological station.

050

100150200250300350400

Mean Monthly Rainfall

Months

Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at

Shendi Meteorological station.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug sep Oct Nov Dec

Apr May

26

3.1.3 Soil, Vegetation and land Features

The soil of the flat land is darkish in color with a clay loam texture and that of the hillside

is whitish in color and has a coarse texture. The soil is shallow and barely deep. The top

soil has been subjected to severe sheet erosion and is also exposed to the action of wind

erosion. High and medium sized stone pieces cover about 3% of the area of the ground.

The topography of the Woreda varies from roiling plains to slopes of mountain masses.

However the area includes extensive area of cultivated lands probably originating from

grassland derived from clearing and burning forests within the past. The area also

includes patches of grasslands, which is seasonally waterlogged, especially in the valley

bottom and on plains with insufficient drainage. Shrubs of different varieties are also

found along eroded hillsides. Some indigenous tree species are also found scattered in the

farmlands. However, currently eucalyptus tree species are widely planted by small

holders as a woodlot, farm boundary and as live fences.

3.2 Cultural Setting

3.2.1 The People

Population is an asset. But if its size goes much beyond the required resources or existing

resources; it becomes a burden. Rapid population growth and absolute size are the driving

forces for the destruction of forests all over the country (Davidson, 1988). Massive

destruction of forest is also leading to drastic change in land use/ land cover and

livelihood strategies in the highlands of Ethiopia (Selamyihun, 2003). Among the

woodlots gone currently, exotic tree species like eucalyptus trees are integrated into the

crop production system of the small land holders. Thus it is well known that the size,

growth and spatial distribution of population influence the degree of utilization of natural

resources, the level of economic development and the level of socioeconomic services.

According to the 1994 Population and Housing census of Ethiopia the total estimated

population of Womberma Woreda is about 109,276. The rural population accounts for

91% and the urban population is 8.9%. Male female ratio is estimated at almost 100:104.

Due to adverse climate condition and prevalence of disease in the lowlands, about 90% of

27

the population is concentrated in the highlands whereas 10% of the total population is

estimated to live in the low lands. Average family size and annual growth rate are about

6 persons and 3% respectively. The growth rate is lower than the national average which

is 3.1% per annum (CSA 1995). The age structure of the population shows that 56% of

the populations are below 15 years of age, 42% are between 15 and 64. The remaining

2% are older than 64.

3.2.2 Culture and Tradition

About 97% of the people in the area are ethnically "Amhara" sharing the same culture

and tradition. Agriculture is found to be the major occupation of nearly all people. The

most dominant farm technology is an age-old ox-drawn system. Land is the basic source

of wealth. The larger the size of the land holding, the higher is the social status of an

individual in the community. The numbers of cattle have also a great contribution to the

position of a person in the social ladder. The people of the Woreda are famous for their

Orthodox Christianity. They are very diehard in their Orthodox faith and they used to

observe celebrating different holidays named after "Angels" and martyrs at least fifteen

full days in a month without working. Those that do not celebrate holidays will be

condemned by the clergy of the church. Thus religious binding continuous to grater

obstacle in production of agricultural output and resource development keeping the

people too poor and short of even food

3.2.3 Household and Social Organization

In Womberma Woreda a household (local language "Beteseb") is defined as those

persons that live in the same house, cook and eat together, share the same farm and are

administered normally under the head of the household e.g. father if he is alive. In other

words, a household includes the mother and father living together with their children and

other dependents in the same household and own the same farm holding. Grown up

children could also live in the same compound or in different villages. The head of

household has access and right to control over the land. He can also decide about all

issues regarding family affairs.

28

In Amhara culture the women could not be the head of the family, if the husband is alive

and could not decide on family affairs, but she may have access to the use of land

resources. If the husband dies, the wife will be the head of the household, unless she

maries another man.

According to the informants there are different social organization like "Ekub" "Edir"

and "Mahiber" within which the people in each village of the woreda are used to solve

their variety of social problems. The social organizations play vital role by resolving

social conflicts including conflicts in land through the elected village leaders called

"Shimagiles". The village leaders (“Shimagiles”) are usually elected on the basis of their

local status, age and family background. The main duties and responsibilities of the

village leaders are to arrange agreement when conflict arises between husband and wife,

neighbors and relatives etc.. within the village.

The elders also can mobilize people when there is a need to construct ones house,

cultivate and harvest crops (usually called "Tirota"). This is usually done when an

individual in the village faced health problem or his oxen are sick or stolen by a thief.

3.2.4 Land Use Pattern , Land Tenure and Landholding Size

The main economic activities of the people in the Woreda are crop production and

livestock rearing. Land utilization in general is a reflection of this mode of production.

According to the Agricultural and Rural Development of the Woreda records, arable land

takes the largest share of 78%of the total land. The remaining land is classified as grazing

land (10%), settlement (5%) forest and bush land (5%) and marginal land (2%). Because

of increasing population, the grazing land, forest and bush land have been shrinking in

size from time to time. In high land areas even very steep mountain sides are used for

cultivation which leads to the greater vulnerability of the area to erosion hazards.

Land redistribution was conducted two times during the Derg regime and once under the

present government. The Amhara National Regional State (ANRS) redistributed land to

the rural community in 1998 with the sense of equity consideration. The Woreda also

followed the regional government and implemented the redistribution of land in 1998.

But the interview result and focus group discussion with key informants indicated that

29

there is still greater difference in land holding size. Accordingly, the largest land holding

size is 3 hectares while the smallest is 0.5 hectare. The land redistribution in the Woreda

is mainly based on family size except for those people who were privileged and

politically active during the Derg regime, in which case only 1 hectare is given to them

without considering their family size as a sort of revengeful political action.

3.2.5 Farming System

Mixed farming is the major economic activity in the rural part of Ethiopia. Farmers'

livelihood directly depends on subsistence base of crop production and livestock rearing.

Crop production

Crop production is confined mostly to the rainy season i.e. Meher. This is probably due to

Mono-modal nature of rainfall in the area. According to the data obtained from the

Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office, greater portion of the land is

allocated for the cultivation of maize, wheat, teff and millet. Of all the crops grown in the

area maize crop gives the highest yield per unit area (42qt/ha) followed by wheat (35

qt/ha) (WWARDO 2007). In addition to these, pepper, beans, peas are also produced on

different patches and smaller quantities.

Livestock production

Livestock production is one of the major economic activities in the Woreda after crop

production. Farmers use their cattle for ploughing, threshing the harvested crops and

assisting the crop production. The major constraint of the production of the sector is

shortage of feed. The rapidly growing population pressure and associated demand of the

newly married couples for land, land redistribution to the landless and tree plantation

have resulted in sharp declining of common grazing land, to woodland and grassland.

30

CHAPTER FOUR

EUCALYPTUS PLANTING IN FOOD CROP PRODUCING AREAS

4.1 Socio-economic Profile of the Study Area

Among the surveyed households of the study area the average household size is the

highest in Marwoled with an average of 7 persons /household followed by

Wogedadyayshal 6.6 Markuma 6.3 and Sebadarabanakalo 6 across all wealth categories.

This implies that a little higher availability of human labor for eucalyptus planting may

be found in Marwoled than in other KPA

Table 4.1 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm practices in surveyed

KPAs

KPAs

Socio -economic Attributes

Wealth Categories Average

Household

Average

Age

Average Land

Size in hectares

Marwoled

Rich 10 66 3

Medium 7 49 1.96

Poor 4 51 0.95

Mean 7 55.3 1.97

Wogedad yayshal Rich 9 56 37

Medium 7 60 1.97

Poor 4 56 0.92

Mean 6.6 57.3 1.96

Markuma

Rich 8 60 2.72

Medium 6 58 1.67

Poor 5 50 0.74

Mean 6.3 56 1.71

SebadarabanaKalo

Rich 8 59 2.95

Medium 6 50 1.88

Poor 4 54 0.87

Mean 6 54 1.90

Source: Household survey (2008)

As table4.1 shows above, the household size increases on average with increase in wealth

status. Thus the rich farmers have (8.7 persons /household), medium (6.5 person/

31

household), and poor (4.25 person/ household) in all KPAs. Rich farmers that have better

source of income, able to produce more food, and sustain their large household have

larger number of children compared to the medium and poor farmers.

Moreover many rich farmers in the study area who have better source of income and are

able to produce more marry widowed women in order to get additional farm land, and

through polygamous arrangement, they can also be get more children. Thus rich farmers

are endowed with more land and larger family labor for farm work and planting

eucalyptus. Woldeamlak (2003) also found that the current forestland holding size of the

study area reveals a general trend of "More people more trees".

The average land size per household also varies with 1.97 ha/household for Marwoled,

1.96 ha/household for Wogedadyayshal, 1.90 ha/household for SebadarAbanakalo and

1.71 ha/household for Markuma. This indicates that better conditions for eucalyptus

planting are available in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal than in SebadarAbanakalo and

Markuma KPAs.

Besides, the average land holding size also varies with varying wealth status in all sample

KPAs. Thus, rich farmers have 2.92ha/household, the medium farmers 1.87 ha/household

and the poor farmers 0.87 ha/household. This shows that rich and medium farmers have

greater land resources and opportunity to plant eucalyptus than poor farmers in terms of

availability of land.

4.2 Introduction and Expansion of Eucalyptus in Womberema Woreda

According to the information obtained from the respondents eucalyptus plantation in the

study area started in the late 1950s.But the trend of expansion and number of planters

were very low at the beginning i.e from 1955to1965 and rose during 1965-1975 and

again declined from 1975to1985. The highest number of eucalyptus planters was

recorded from 1990 onwards. This variation in the number of eucalyptus planters is

mainly related to the land tenure policy of the country. For instance the time from

1975to1985 was the period in which private land was nationalized as a state ownership.

32

This led to the declining of private planters. But in 1990s private planters increased when

the agrarian reform by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) fully relaxed the

private sector to participate in it.

Table 4.2. Number of farmers involved in eucalyptus plantation

KPAs

Numbers of farmers involved in eucalyptus panting during different periods

1955-1965 1965-1975 1975-1985 1985-1995 1995-2005 Total

no no no no no no

Marwoled 0 0 6 20 1 3.33 10 33.33 13 43.33 30 100

Wogedad

yayshal

0 0 5 16.66 0 0 9 30 16 53.33 30 100

Markuma 2 6.66 7 23.33 0 0 10 33.33 11 36.66 30 100

Sebadarab

anakalo

2 6.66 8 26.66 1 3.33 11 36.33 8 26.66 30 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

Eucalyptus plantation was initiated for the first time in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo

KPA's. This is perhaps due to their nearness to the woreda center where new information

could be easily obtained.

33

4.2.1. Farmers’ preference to Eucalypts Tree

Eucalyptus tree has some unique characteristics that makes it more preferable to other

indigenous specious of trees, particularly in case of the small land holders. Since its

introduction as a potential solution for the growing firewood and construction material

crisis and growing demands, eucalyptus became a widely grown tree species in the

highlands of Ethiopia. In the study area too, it became the main component of the land

use system among the small holders.

Table4.3. Farmers reason for preferring eucalyptus to other indigenous trees.

Reasons Multiple Response

Count %

Single Response

count %

Total

count %

A fast growing tree 40 18.26 5 16.66 45 18.07

A multipurpose tree 53 24.20 13 43.33 66 26.50

Good for both fuel and

construction

48 21.91 3 10 51 20.48

A source of cash 35 15.98 3 10 38 15.26

Needs less capital to plant 25 11.41 4 13.33 29 11.64

Needs less labor 14 6.39 1 3.33 15 6.02

Others 4 1.83 1 3.33 5 2

Total 219 100 30 100 249 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

There are a number of reasons that motivate farmers to prefer eucalyptus to other

indigenous specious of trees. As it is indicated above, it is a multipurpose tree that can be

used for fuel and construction material, self use at household level and generation of

money by sale in the market and diversification of income source. Especially in areas like

Womberma Woreda where there is no strong tradition of growing cash crops, growing

eucalyptus is becoming essential to accumulate wealth and to improve the living standard

at household level. Thus as a feasible way farmers prefer eucalyptus to other indigenous

trees. In addition to this, some farmers also reported that they prefer eucalyptus because it

needs less labor force and capital compared to other crops.

34

4.3 Land Allocated to Eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs

The result of the survey shows that in general the average largest portion of land was

allocated for wheat followed by maize, millet, teff, eucalyptus and vegetables

respectively. Wheat, maize teff, and millet are produced as a staple food crops while

eucalyptus and vegetables as a source of cash and fulfilling other demands.

Table 4.4 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm crops in surveyed KPAs

KPAs

Wealth

Category

Total

average

land size

Farm Practices

Wheat Maize Millet Teff Vegetables Eucalyptus

Marwoled

Rich 30(100) 14.4(43) 5.4 (18) 3(10) 3(10) 1.2(4) 2.7(9)

Medium 13.72(100) 5.9(43) 2.97(18) 1.92(14) 1.65(12) 0.42(3) 1.37(10)

Poor 3.8(100) 1.9(50) 0.84(22) 1.78(13) 1.50(11) 0.14(1) 0.41(3)

Mean 100 47 19.33 12.33 11 2.66 7.33

Wogedad

yayshal

Rich 27(100) 11.34(42) 4.59(17) 4.05(15) 3.51(13) 0.81(3) 2.7(10)

Medium 13.79(100) 6.2(45) 2.2(16) 1.93(14) 1.93(14) 0.41(3) 110(8)

Poor 3.68(100) 1.76(48) 0.63(17) 0.66(18) 0.40(11) 0.07(2) 0.15(4)

Mean 100 45 16.66 15.66 12.66 2.66 7.33

Markuma

Rich 21.76(100) 10.88(50) 2.61(12) 2.83(13) 2.61(12) 1.74(8) 1.08(5)

Medium 10.02(100) 5.21(55) 1.20(12) 1(10) 1.10(11) 0.80(8) 0.40(4)

Poor 3.7(100) 2.29(62) 0.40(11) 0.37(10) 0.40(11) 0.19(5) 0.037(1)

Mean 100 55.66 11.66 11 11.33 7 3.33

Sebadar

abanakalo

Rich 23.6(100) 10.62(45) 3.54(15) 2.83(12) 3.07(13) 2.12(9) 1.41(6)

Medium 11.28(100) 5.86(52) 1.47(13) 1.35(12) 1.58(14) 0.68(6) 0.33(3)

Poor 3.48(100) 2.08(160) 0.45(13) 0.38(11) 0.42(12) 0.10(3) 0.03(1)

Mean 100 52.33 13.66 11.66 13 6 3.33

Source: Household survey (2008)

*Values in parentheses are percentages of land allocated for each farm practice

As the above table indicates, eucalyptus occupied the largest proportion of land in

Marwoled and Wogedadyayhal with the mean percentage values of 7.33 percent out of

the total land use. Markuma and SebadarAbanaKalo had only 3.33 percent of the total

land area allocated to eucalyptus. This is due to the availability of large average land

holding and laborforce in Marwoled and Wogedad yayshal KPAs than in Markuma and

Sebadarabanakalo. Contrary to this in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo higher portion of

35

land is allocated to vegetables than to eucalyptus trees. This is due to the proximity of the

KPAs to the town (Shendi) in which vegetables are readily needed by urban people. Thus

the farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPAs use vegetables as cash crops in

place of eucalyptus. The average proportion of land allocated to eucalyptus planting

differs among wealth categories in all KAPs. Accordingly the proportion of land

allocated to eucalyptus is higher on the farms of rich farmers (7.5) followed by medium

farmers (6.5%) and poor farmers (3%). Thus the rich and medium farmers allocate more

land to eucalyptus tree planting than the poor farmers. This is accounted for their better

accessibility to labor and land.

Table 4.5 Average percentage of land allocated to eucalyptus out of the total farm land holdings across

wealth categories.

KPAs

Wealth

Category

Total average land

size in ha

Percentage of land

allocated to eucalyptus

Distance from the

town in Km

Marwoled

Rich 30(100%) 2.7(9%) 25

Medium 13.72(100%) 1.37(10%) -

Poor 3.8 (100%) 0.41(3%) -

Mean 100% 7.33% -

Wogedad yayshal Rich 27(100%) 2.7(10%) 17

Medium 13.79(100%) 1.10(8%) -

Poor 3.68(100%) 0.15(14) -

Mean 100% 7.33% -

Markuma

Rich 21.76(100%) 1.08(5%) -

Medium 10.02(100%) 0.40(4%) 8

Poor 3.7(100%) 0.037(1%) -

Mean 100 3.33% -

Sebadarabanakalo

Rich 23.6(100%) 1.41(6%) 5

Medium 11.28(100%) 0.33(3%) -

Poor 3.48(100%) 0.03(1%) -

Mean 100% 3.33% -

Source: Household survey (2008)

36

4.4 Land Converted to Eucalyptus Plantation

Results of the survey on the history of the previous land use practice on eucalyptus

planting sites are given in table4. 6 (below). Accordingly, most of the present eucalyptus

woodlots had been previously grazing land followed by teff and maize fields. As the

result, grazing land has been adversely affected more by extended eucalyptus planting

than other forms of land use. Moreover some farmers are found to be planting eucalyptus

to the extent of replacing food crop land.

Table 4. 6. Number of plots converted to woodlots within the last 15 year

Farm land Marwoled Wogedadyaysha

l

Markuma Sebadarabanakalo Total

Maize 2 2 1 1 6

Wheat

Teff 4 3 11 1 10

Millet

Grazing land 8 7 5 4 24

Total 14 12 7 6 40

Source: Household survey (2008)

According to most respondents the reason for the conversion of grazing land to

eucalyptus is that in 1992 E.C the distribution of grazing lands was made to the farmers

in order to supplement the cultivated land. Following that many farmers covered their

land by eucalyptus trees. This mass conversion of land to eucalyptus woodlots is due to

two reasons. The first reason according to many farmers in the area was that the food

crops grown adjacent to eucalyptus tree were highly affected by the droplets of water

(tefetef) and crop yield got less and less from time to time. In addition to this, the

eucalyptus woodlots around the farm did not allow the oxen to be turning back on the

farm plot while ploughing. Because of the above mentioned and other related problems,

the grazing land distributed during the time was almost covered by eucalyptus trees.

37

4.5 Patterns of Eucalyptus Planting

Based on the survey result, obtained from the selected KPAs farmers plant eucalyptus

trees in different localities that range from a single and scattered to larger size woodlots

level plantation on their own respective land holdings. The average densities of

eucalyptus per niche across all the surveyed area is higher on woodlots (2320) followed

by farm boundaries (211) live fences (160) road sides (100) and degraded land (5).

Table 4. 7. Average density of eucalyptus per niches per household

KPAs With

teff

With

wheat

With

millet

With

maize

live

fences

On

wood

lots

farm

boundaries

On

road

side

On

degraded

land

Marwoled

mean 0 0 0 0 164 6084 38.38 5 2

percent 0 0 0 0 2.60 96.60 0.60 0.08 0.03

Wogedad

yayshal

mean 0 0 0 0 424 1700 745 347 4

percent 0 0 0 0 13.19 52.88 23.14 10.8 0.12

Markuma

mean 0 0 0 0 9 967 30 24 9

percent 0 0 0 0 0.87 93.88 2.91 2.33 0.87

Sebadar

abanakalo

mean 0 0.2 0 0 43 530 32 25 5

percent 0 0.01 0 0 6.82 84.12 5.03 3.93 0.78

Source: Household survey (2008)

As high81.81% of eucalyptus trees in the surveyed area are planted in the woodlots. This

indicates that planting eucalyptus in the woodlots has become a widespread activity

among the small holders of the study area. According to many respondents the main

reason for this widespread of planting eucalyptus as a wood lot is the earlier distribution

of grazing land to the farmers to supplement the cultivated land by the Woreda and

Kebele officials. Following this for the first time some farmers covered their plot of land

with eucalyptus, but later on due to its adverse impact on the nearby crops other farmers

also followed this practice and used to cover their land with eucalyptus. As a result most

of the area changed into block plantation.

38

Some respondents also mentioned, their preference to plant eucalyptus in the form of

woodlot is because of easiness to protect them by making fences to escape danger from

grazing animals especially during the time of open grazing.

Fig.4.1A wood lot as a cause for block plantation. Filed photo, (2008)

About 8% of eucalyptus trees in the study area planted as a live fence and on farm

boundaries. According to this group of planters, planting eucalyptus as a farm boundary

and live fence is important to protect agricultural fields from the damaged by animals. It

also helps the household to get fuel wood without going far from their residential area.

Planting eucalyptus tree on the road side is also practiced in many parts of the surveyed

KPAs. The farmers plant eucalyptus in such localities due to its suitability to transport

wood poles to the market center. Planting eucalyptus trees on the degraded and

wastelands or gully sides is almost insignificant. Field survey shows that most of the

plantation is taking place on flat lands which are important to crop production. According

to many respondents in the surveyed KPAs, planting eucalyptus in the degraded and

marginal lands is not preferable because planting eucalyptus trees on such lands is not

suitable to the vigorous growth of eucalyptus tree so that it will not be productive.

Moreover, since degraded and marginal lands are inaccessible, it is also difficult to

protect the trees from damage caused by stray animals and fire.

39

4.6 Eucalyptus Trees as Annual Source of Income

Eucalyptus is becoming a major source of income in Womberma Woreda. As indicated

by some farmers during the focus group discussion, selling eucalyptus wood poles has

been increasing from time to time and the income obtained from it is also becoming more

profitable due to the rising prices of poles and other related tree products.

Table 4. 8 Different sources of income in the surveyed area

Source of income Marwoled Wogdadyayshal Markuma Sebadarabanakalo Total

count % count % count % count % count %

Wheat 10 33.33 9 30 8 26.66 9 30 36 30

Maize 7 23.33 7 23.33 6 20 7 16.66 25 20.83

Vegetables 0 0 0 0 6 20 7 23.33 13 10.83

Millets 2 6.66 1 3.33 2 6.66 2 6.66 7 5.83

Eucalyptus 6 20 7 23.33 3 10 2 6.66 18 15

Teff 2 6.66 2 6.66 1 3.33 0 0 5 4.17

Offarm activites 3 10 4 13.33 4 13.33 5 16.66 16 13.33

Total 30 100 30 100 30 100 30 100 120 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

The main sources of income for many of the surveyed households are wheat and maize

followed by eucalyptus. Eucalyptus is the third largest source of income in the Woreda.

However this situation differs from one kebele administration to the other. In those KPAs

that are comparatively more distant, Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal eucalyptus comes

next to wheat and maize as a source of income but for those that are nearer to the center,

Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo off farm activities and vegetables are major source of

income next to wheat and maize. This is mainly because vegetables and offarm activities

and non farm products need shorter time and safe transportation to reach the consumers.

On the other hand wood poles of eucalyptus can stay for a long time and can be

transported by some mode of transport available for greater distance. According to the

participants of the focus group discussion in Sebadarabanakalo KPA due to relative

shortage of agricultural land, farmers prefer to grow vegetables that have shorter rotation

40

period and can be used for cash instead of eucalyptus trees which take longer time for

marketability

Using eucalyptus as a source of income within different wealth categories also varies

considerably because of the variation in the available amount of land to be allocated to

eucalyptus planting and the availability of labor needed to perform eucalyptus tree

management from planting up to harvesting.

Table 4. 9. Eucalyptus as a source of income across different wealth categories

Source of

income

Rich Medium Poor Total

count % count % count % count %

Wheat 9 30 10 33.33 13 43.33 32 35.55

Maize 7 23.33 6 20 8 26.66 21 23.33

Vegetables 3 10 2 6.66 2 6.66 7 7.77

Millet 1 3.33 2 6.66 1 3.33 4 4.44

Teff 1 3.33 2 6.66 1 3.33 4 4.44

Offarm 3 10 3 10 1 10 9 10

Eucalyptus 6 20 5 16.66 2 6.66 13 14.44

Total 30 100 30 100 30 100 90 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

Thus the survey result clearly showed that eucalyptus is used as a source of income

mainly in case of rich and medium farmers than that of the poor farmers. This is because

the poor farmers plant eucalyptus to satisfy their household consumption for fuel wood

than to generate income due to shortage of land and labor. On contrary the rich and

medium farmers have both extra land and labor to plant eucalyptus that can satisfy their

home consumption at the same time to generate income by sale

41

4.7 Tree Species Diversity of the study area

The tree plantation activity in the study area is mainly practiced with a single tree species,

eucalyptus. Farmers prefer eucalyptus tree for its fast growth, coppicing ability and less

labor intensive nature. In addition to these its increased demand in the market persuades

them to plant eucalyptus than other tree species.

Table 4.10. Species composition of the average tree holding in surveyed KPAs

KPAs

Wealth

Category

Average density of

eucalyptus per

hectare

Total tree

pre hectare

Other tree

species

composition per

hectare

Percentage share

of eucalyptus from

the total tree

Marwoled Rich 4310 4370 3 98.62

Medium 3180 3754 5 84.70

Poor 810 1120 8 72.32

Mean 2766.6 3081.33 5.33 85.21

Wogedad yayshal Rich 4123 4379 4 94.15

Medium 2110 2494 5 84.60

Poor 320 480 7 66.6

Mean 2347.66 2451 5.33 81.80

Markuma Rich 1813 2000 4 90.65

Medium 1201 1496 6 80.28

Poor 290 513 9 56.53

Mean 1101.33 1336.33 6.33 75.82

Sebadarabanakalo Rich 512 640 5 80

Medium 310 420 7 73.8

Poor 180 380 9 47.36

Mean 334 480 7 67.05

Source: Household survey (2008)

Other tree species found and traditionally grown in the study area include Albizia

gumifera (Sesa), Cordia african (Wanza), Aceacia nilotica (Cheba), Aronia amysdalian

(Girawa), Croton macruslachys (Bisana) etc. In addition to these species of trees Saspania

and Gravilia robusta are widely planted in the study area. These two species of trees are

officially recommended and their seedlings are given to the farmers by the Woreda

42

Agricultural and Rural Development Office to be planted around their farm land. This is

because the experts of the Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office believe

that Gravilia robusta protects the impact of eucalyptus trees if it is grown in between

eucalyptus trees and the adjacent croplands, while Saspania can be used as afodder tree to

the animals. Because of this these two species of trees are commonly seen scattered in

many parts of the area next to eucalyptus trees.

However almost all the private afforestation activities in the area are dominated by

planting eucalyptus (“key bahirzaf”). The widespread culture of this particular species is

mainly due to the exchange of ideas among farmers rather than the active involvement of

experts or other extension workers.

The average proportion of eucalyptus out of the total tree population across the surveyed

area was the highest in Marwoled (85.21%) followed by Wogedadyayshal

(81.80%),Markuma (75%) and Sebadarabanakalo(67.05%). This means that more

suitable environment for eucalyptus plantation is found in Marwoled than in other KPAs.

However, the average proportion of eucalyptus across all wealth categories in the area

was different. Accordingly, in comparison to the rich (90.8%) and medium farmers

(80.85%) the poor farmers have less coverage (60.70%) in terms of the total tree

population. Other tree species are also more dominated and replaced by eucalyptus

particularly in case of the rich and medium category farmers. The highest proportion of

eucalyptus out of the total tree stand is the highest in the rich farmers’ landholds (98%) in

Marwoled followed by 94% in Wogedadyayshal KPAs. The least proportion of

eucalyptus was found in the poor category farmers (47.36%) in Sebadarabanakalo KPA.

The average number of different species of trees per hectare in the surveyed area was

8/ha in the poor farmers, 6/ha in medium and 4/ha in case of the rich farmers

landholdings. This survey result indicates that the poor farmers plant various species of

trees to satisfy their household consumption in construction and fuel wood while the rich

and medium farmers dominantly plant eucalyptus to generate income beyond their

household consumption in the form of construction and fuel wood.

4.7.1 Eucalyptus Tree Holding Size in the Surveyed Households

43

As indicated in table4.10 the average number of eucalyptus tree coverage varies in the

surveyed KPAs of the study area. Accordingly, the average eucalypts tree holding size

was 2766.6, 2374.66, 1101.33 and 334 trees as we go away from the town of Shendi

towards Marwoled, Wogedadyayshal, Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo respectively.

Thus the number/size of eucalyptus tree holding increases as we go away from the market

center. Thus as the distance decays from the market center, the number of eucalyptus

trees shows significant correlation (r= 0.417 ,p<0.05). Furthermore, the eucalyptus

holding varies across the sampled KPAs with varying socio-economic background of the

planters. For example, households with larger land holding size have higher density and

more number of eucalyptus trees. This shows that land holding size and number of

eucalyptus trees in the surveyed KPAs are significantly correlated (r=0.382, p<0.05).

Eucalyptus plantation is also affected by the gender of the household. For instance, the

number of trees in the female headed households of the surveyed KPAs is lower than in

the male- headed households. This is because female headed households are more

constrained by labor force to perform the task of eucalyptus plantation and management.

As mentioned by many women participants in the focus group discussion due to shortage

of oxen to plough their land, they use their land either by renting for cash or by giving

their lands on share cropping agreement. Because of this, the female headed household

may not be able to plant and manage eucalyptus trees. Thus the variation of number of

trees in the female and male headed household is significant (F=36.76 p<0.05).

However, age and educational level of the respondents are not strongly significant in

affecting eucalyptus tree plantation. This is perhaps due to the homogeneity of the

households in their age and educational level.

Another socio-economic factor that causes variation in eucalyptus tree plantation across

the surveyed households of the study area is the economic/ wealth status of the

households. Accordingly, the poor farmers have lower density or number of trees

compared to that of the medium and rich farmers (r=0.46 p<0.05). This variation was

because of difference in land holdings size and labor force, which are very low in poor

farmers and higher in case of medium and rich farmers. Besides, due to shortage of oxen

to plough their land, most of the poor farmers give their land to the rich and medium

44

farmers on different types of contracts. This also has its own impact on the difference of

the number of eucalyptus trees between farmers of different wealth categories.

CHAPTER FIVE

45

5. Methods of Eucalyptus Plantation and Management

The analysis result in table4.2 of chapter four shows that eucalyptus plantation has been

becoming a major activity in Womberma Woreda since its introduction in the 1950s.

However, the methods used by farmers in eucalyptus establishment differs widely in

terms of space and localities

Table 5.1. Method of eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs

Method of planting Marwoled Wogdadyaushal Markuma Sebadarabanakalo Total

count % count % count % count % count %

Direct seeding 18 60 16 53.33 5 16.7 4 13.33 43 35.83

Planting seedling 5 16.7 7 23.33 18 60 17 56.7 47 39.16

Both direct seeding and

planting seedlings

7 23.36 7 23.33 7 23.33 9 30 30 25

Total 30 100 30 100 30 100 30 100 120 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

Most farmers in Markwoled and Wogedadyayshal KPAs plant eucalyptus through direct

seeding. This is perhaps due to their distant location from the market center in which the

seedlings of eucalyptus trees are usually sold. On the other hand, the availability of large

land holding helps them to grow eucalyptus seedlings on their own land and transplant

them. In contrary the majority of farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabankalo KPAs plant

eucalyptus trees by transplanting the seedlings bought from other farmers. This is mainly

related to their relative shortage of land to grow their own seedlings and the availability

of eucalyptus seedlings in the near by market from other farmers..

In terms of the management of the planted trees almost all farmers of the study area

practice cultivation, thinning and coppice reduction practices for eucalyptus woodlots. In

coppicing management most of the farmers in the study area leave an average of five

shoots per stump and remove the rest. According to key informants, coppicing is

advantageous because it allows the tree to send up a number of shoots instead of the

original single stem. However coppiced plant requires adequate space for coverage and

soil and water for adequate growth and expansion.

46

According to the information obtained from the key informants, the majority of farmers

in Wogedadayayshal and Marwoled KPAs usually harvest eucalyptus from March to

April. This is because the farmers become free from other agricultural activities so that

they can get much human labor and at the same time cutting the tree is safe because the

crops near to the tree will have been harvested so that it could not be damaged during tree

harvesting.

However, farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo harvested eucalyptus trees when

ever there was a need of wood for personal consumption. This is because the farmers in

these KPAs chiefly plant eucalyptus for personal or home consumption unlike in

Marworled and WogedadYayshal KPAs where it is used for market sale. Almost all

farmers in the study area harvest eucalyptus trees less than six years after planting. The

harvesting rotation in Marworled and Wogedadyayshal takes from two to three years.

While the length of rotation in Marworled and Sebadarabanakalo KAPs is nearly three

years. This is perhaps due to the reason that the farmers in Markuma and

Sebadarabanakalo use other sources of income i.e. vegetables and offarm activities to

satisfy their immediate needs.

5.1. Sources of Eucalyptus Seedlings

Farmers of the study area plant eucalyptus trees through different methods by obtaining

the seedling of the tree from different sources.

Table5.2. Source of eucalyptus seedlings planted in the study area.

Source of eucalyptus

seedlings

Maroled Wogedad yayshal Markuma Sebadarabanakalo Total

No.of

house

holds

% No.of

house

holds

% No.of

house

holds

% No.of

house

holds

% No .of

house

holds

%

- Their own land 26 21.67 24 20 14 11.67 8 6.67 72 60

-The market 4 3.33 5 41.7 12 10 18 15 39 32.5

-The Agricultural office - - 1 0.83 4 3.33 4 3.33 9 7.5

Total 30 25 30 25 30 25 30 25 120 100

Source: Household survey (2008)

The majority of farmers (60%) in the study area grow their own seedlings on their own

land. According to the information obtained during field observation most farmers

especially the rich, living at a distance from the market center i.e those in Marwoled and

47

Wogedadyayshal KPAs grow their seedlings on their own land during the ‘belg’ time

(March to May) and transplant them during the summer season on the well prepared site

for this purpose. Farmers are also sowing the seeds of eucalyptus tree especially on their

farm boundary.

The second source of eucalyptus seedling is the market center where they have to be

purchased by cash payments. About one third of the planters in the surveyed KPAs

planted eucalyptus trees buying the seedling from the market. This was commonly seen

in case of farmers who live in Markuma and Sebadarabankalo KPAs. This is perhaps due

to their proximity to the market center in which all tree seedlings including eucalyptus are

commonly sold. In contrast only some farmers about (7.5%) in the area obtain eucalyptus

seedling from the Woreda Agricultural Office. As it was mentioned by most of these

farmers, the main reason that helped them to obtain eucalyptus seedlings from the

Woreda Agricultural office was their active participation in agricultural extension

package. This indicates that the extension workers of the woreda do not have strong stand

to persuade the farmers for eucalyptus plantation

5.1.1 Problems related to Eucalyptus Plantation

Eucalyptus tree plantation is becoming a commonly practiced and growing activity of

small land holders in Womberma woreda. However, the number and spatial extent of

trees in the area under study are not geographically even. The spatial variation in number

and distribution of eucalyptus trees in the area mainly depends on the absence and

presence of the necessary in put and other related factor required for the purpose.

Table 5.3. Problems of farmers related to eucalyptus plantation in the surveyed KPAs

Problems of eucalyptus plantation

48

KPA

Wealth

Category

Lack of

land

Lack of

labor

Lack of

capital

Survival

rate of

seedlings

Lack

of tree

security

Inadequate

knowledge or

skill for tree

plantation

Marketing

problem

Total

Marwoled Rich 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 3(10) - 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 10(3.33)

Medium 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) - 3(10) 2(6.66) 10(3.33)

Poor 3(10) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) - 3(10) 1(3.33) 10(3.33)

Total 6(20) 1(3.33) 3(10) 6(20) - 10(33.33) 4(13.33) 30(100)

Wogedad

yayshal

Rich 2(6.66) 3(10) - 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 10(3.33)

Medium 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) - 2(6.66) 2(6.66) 10(3.33)

Poor 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) - 3(10) - 10(3.33)

Total 8(26.66) 2(6.66) 2(6.66) 6(20) - 9(30) 3(10) 30(100)

Markuma

Rich 3(10) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) - 2(6.66) - 10(3.33)

Medium 3(10) 2(6.66) 2(6.66) - 3(10) - 10(3.33)

Poor 4(13.33) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) - 2(6.66) - 10(3.33)

Total 10(33.33) 6(20) 2(6.66) 5(16.66) - 7(23.33) - 10(3.33)

Sebadaraban

akalo

Rich 4(13.33) 1(3.33 3)10) - 2(6.66) - 10(3.33)

Medium 4(13.33) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) 2(6.66) 2(6.66) - 10(3.33)

Poor 5(16.66) 2(6.66) 1(3.33) 1(3.33) - 1(3.33) - 10(3.33)

Total 13(43.33) 4(13.33) 2(6.66) 6(20) -- 4(13.33) - 30(100)

Total 37(30.83) 15(12.5) 9(7.5) 23(19.7) - 29(24.17) 120(100)

Source: Household survey (2008)

*Values in parenthesis indicates percentages

Shortage of land in case of smallholder farms is the major reason that hinders the

expansion of eucalyptus tree in their farm holds. other obstacles such as, inadequate

knowledge of farmers to tree planting and low survival rate of the seedlings of

eucalyptus trees are also considered by farmers as the main problems that are faced

during tree plantation. Inadequate knowledge of tree planting and survival of seedlings

are mainly related with the absence of external expert agents that can provide technical

assistance and training to the farmers during and after plantation period. According to the

response of most participants in the focus group discussion, extension agents and other

concerned bodies are not willing to give either technical assistance or adequate number

and healthy seedlings to the farmers. Even sometimes they advice the farmers not to plant

eucalyptus simply by explaining its negative impact to the adjacent crops ignoring its

advantages in short and long term perspectives

49

Although, they are not considered as sever as the other main problems mentioned before,

there is lack of labor and capital as constraints to eucalyptus tree planting in the study

area. Shortage of labor to tree planting has been commonly observed in the female

headed households. According to the response of most women participants in the focus

group discussion eucalyptus tree planting is difficult to them even in case of harvesting

such as cutting and preparing the wood pole for sale as well as for fuel and construction

as this task needs much labor. The young participants of the focus group discussion also

mentioned that although it is not great constraint as that of the production of food crops,

eucalyptus planting needs money to buy seedlings and to transport them as well as labor

force to prepare the planting area, to plant them and to protect and manage until they are

cut down and taken to the market center.

However, preparing and transporting eucalyptus wood poles to the market is not a

common problem in the area excluding few farmers that prepare some eucalyptus wood

poles for the distant market. However, almost all rich and medium farmers usually

contact the wood pole merchants by the help of middlemen (“delala”) and are able to

transport their wood pole for the market.

Lack of tree security was not considered as a greater problem for tree planters of the area.

This is because according to the information obtained during field observation, there is no

any concerned body that prohibits the farmers not to cut and sell their eucalyptus tree.

However the severity of the above mentioned problems on eucalyptus plantation differs

from place to place as well as across different wealth categories of farmers. For instance

lack of survival of the seedlings of eucalyptus trees and inadequate knowledge to tree

planting are considered as major problems incase of rich farmers. Shortage of land is the

main problem of many poor farmers in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal . But for all

KPAs found near to the town of shendi shortage of land is the major constraint for

eucalyptus plantation almost for all wealth categories of farmers.. It may be due to this

reason that farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabankalo similarly plant vegetables (annual

crops) that have shorter rotation period and quickly get cash payments every sell instead

of eucalyptus which can be sold after4 -5years.

50

Lack of labor and capital has also their own contribution in affecting eucalyptus

plantation in the nearby two KPAs than in the distant two KPAs due to their smaller farm

sizes. Moreover the seasonal migration of labor to the nearby town in order to seek

additional income through daily work aggravates the problem in these two nearby KPAs.

5.2 Gender Difference and Eucalyptus Plantation

According to the focus group discussion, the role of men and women in eucalyptus tree

planting happens to be quite different. Traditionally decisions like where to plant, how to

utilize and manage tree products was mainly decided by men. Culturally a woman is not

allowed to decide on such activities unless her husband is dead and she becomes the head

of the household. (FAO 1989) Consolidate this idea in the form that, the role of women in

tree planting activities is found to be also different in different countries. It depends on

cultural practices, the general status of women versus men and the socio-economic

development of the society. For instance, in Kenya and Rwanda women are forbidden to

plant or cut trees because land holding belongs only to men, who can generally plant

perennial species that ensures their land ownership specifically. Thus the choices of men

and women are also different in different countries in terms of their preference to the type

of trees planted on their land. This was also commonly seen in the study area too. As a

result Women prefer their particular tree species type in descending order as, Gesho,

fruit, AroniaAmy saliana (Girawa), eucalyptus and Cordia africana(wanza), while men

prefer Eucalyptus, Cordia africana(wanza),fruit, Gesho and Aroniaamy salina (Girawa).

This shows that men and women often have different views on the importance of various

tree resources. A woman’s concern may be to find adequate number of trees and forest

products to satisfy her immediate family needs whereas men’s first concern is for the

forest products that are primarily sources of cash, particularly timber (Alrikson and

Oholssun, 19990, FAO 1989). In the same way, many women participants in the focus

group discussion put their reason for the preference of” Gesho” in the first place because

it is necessary to make local drink. “tella” . the leaves of “Girawa” tree have also their

own contribution in the making of “tella” for the cleaning of pots used for the

preparation of this local drink However, on the men’s side the use of ‘Gesho’ and

‘Girawa’ is considered as insignificant. This is because the price of one wood pole of

51

eucalyptus tree can buy more than one quintal of “Gesho”. Thus for men, the use and

price of “Gesho” and eucalyptus is not comparable from market point of view. As a result

male headed households had a higher density of eucalyptus per household than the

femaleheaded households. Accordingly in the nearby KPAs of Markuma and

Sebadarabanakalo, female headed households have an average of only 50 eucalyptus

trees per household while the average density of eucalyptus per household in the male

headed households of the same KPAs is as high as 810. On the other hand in distant

KPAs of Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal the average number of eucalyptus trees per

household increases even though the difference in male and female headed household

remains much. Thus in those KAPs the female headed households had an average of

1257 eucalyptus trees per household as compared to4120 in the maleheaded household.

This shows that the majority of eucalyptus trees in the surveyed KPAs are found in the

male headed households land than in case of the female headed counterparts. Thus the

male headed households benefited more from eucalyptus planting than the female headed

households as far as cash income is concerned.

According to some women participants of the focus group discussion, apart from

differences in the preferential order of the type of trees for planting, other cultural

influence as well as shortage of land and labor needed for eucalyptus tree planting and

harvesting are also constraints faced by the female headed households. This is because

culturally tree planting is mainly considered as a male task, if a woman involve herself in

the male’s task, she will lose her respect in the society and even she can be considered as

a different sort of person behaving abnormally in the society. Culturally women are

allowed only to involve in the household care and looking after children. Moreover as

mentioned by one woman in the discussion tree plantation is more difficult to them

especially during the time of harvesting because tree cutting and preparing need more

physical force. She also added that women’s activity in eucalyptus tree plantation cannot

go beyond transporting the seedlings to planting area, planting them and weeding the

planted trees. Cutting and harvesting including protecting the trees from theft and selling

the tree products is mainly the task of men. In line with this Rorison, (1989) stated that a

case study in India showed that women involved themselves in weeding and

52

transporting of the seedling to the planting site while men operates in digging holes for

planting. FAO (1989) also confirmed Rorisons idea by stating that all negotiations for

selling the poles are settled by men. On the other hand the transportation of the wood for

domestic use from the field to the house is the task of the women. In the study area also

women are normally engaged only in some activities of eucalyptus plantation and

management (Appendix 3)

5.3 Farmers’ Interest on Eucalyptus Plantation

Farmers in the surveyed KPAs mentioned their interest in eucalyptus tree plantation for

several benefits. In the first place eucalyptus plantation to them generally is a vital source

of income to improve the life of their households through different ways. Thus they can

use it as a source of cash income, construction and for fuel wood as well as to make

agricultural tools. Current and Scherr,( 1995), did confirm that farmers in general are not

only interested in eucalyptus plantation as a source of income only but also for producing

tree products for the household use such as construction poles and fuel wood and in other

causes for soil and crop protection as wind breakers. Hence cash profitability is not

necessarily a good indicator of the adoption of tree planting.

The respondents also mentioned that eucalyptus is profitable to them as compared to

other crops because it does not need fertilizer unless it is sown on the land prepared for

seeding. At the same time it does not need more care if the seedlings are grown up in two

years of age. Even if it is in its young stage, the plants do not need series and close follow

up steps like other crops. Supporting this idea, FAO (1985) stated that labor requirements

of eucalyptus for planting, thinning and harvesting are spread through out the year and

hence require much less overall labor input.

Although eucalyptus tree has the above mentioned importance to the planters they are

also aware of its negative impact. As indicated by participants of the group discussion, a

woodlot planted adjacent to the farm land creates difficulty during cultivation by

hindering the farmers to turn oxen while ploughing. This problem is common in many

areas where eucalyptus is planted either as a farm boundary or as a woodlot. According to

53

some farmers this condition forced many farmers to cover their entire land with

eucalyptus trees.

Another negative impact of eucalyptus tree is in the form of the leaf fall and shadow

effect. When the leaves of eucalyptus tree fall on the adjacent farmland it tends to dry up

and crop growth is hindered. Moreover the woodlot does not allow sufficient sunlight on

the growing crop. Thus the crop land enclosed by eucalyptus does not give good output

compared to other crop lands which are free from this effect. The respondents also added

that most of the time these negative effects of eucalyptus trees create conflicts between

farmers who have adjacent farm lands. Due to this, many farmers are forced to plant their

lands with eucalyptus.

Although farmers in the study area believed that eucalyptus planting between adjacent

farms is the main source of conflict a majority of them mentioned that no other species

could replace eucalyptus in terms of benefits to them.

5.3.1 Preferable sites to Eucalyptus plantation

Farmers entertain different types of planting sites on their own convenience. These

individual choices differ. They provide the following preference sites in order as on

roadside, as woodlot, on farm boundary, on degraded land and in farm land, respectively

Table 5.4. Farmers preferred sites for eucalyptus planting

Site types

Number of respondents

Number %

farm land 0 0

farm boundary 25 20.83%

woodlot 33 27.5%

roadside 56 46.67%

degraded land 16 5%

Total 120 100%

Source: Household survey (2008)

Accordingly most respondents (46.67%) prefer to plant eucalyptus trees on the road side.

The main reason for this preference is for its suitability to transport whenever they want

to take the products. Another reason for the preference of this site is that road sides are

54

free from crops or other tree species most of the time so that such areas are safe to grow

and cut the trees at any time.

Fig 5.1Planting

eucalyptus on the road side. Field Photo, (2008)

The second preferable site for planting is as a wood lot. The main reason for these groups

of respondents was that a woodlot is important to minimize the impact that can be caused

by eucalyptus trees on adjacent croplands. According to them planting eucalyptus trees as

a woodlot has been homogenizing the area, as practiced by many farmers to avoid any

possible conflict caused by negative impact of eucalyptus trees on adjacent cropland of

neighbors.

Planting eucalyptus tree as a farm boundary is the third type of choice for many farmers.

The respondent put their reason of preference in the form that planting eucalyptus trees

on the farm boundary can help them to protect their crops from animal damage and also

may function as a wind breaker to the cropland at the time of speedy wind. Furthermore

eucalyptus trees can also serve to separate their farmlands from the adjacent farmland.

But the respondents also mentioned its negative impact on the adjacent crop land. It also

slackens the speed of the wind that helps farmers to separate the grain from the straw

after threshing time. According to them whatever it is, planting eucalyptus as farm

boundary is by far better than planting it together with crops (on the farm land) and on

degraded lands which are not suitable to the growth of the tree. They also mentioned that

55

trees slacken the wind speed and hinder the process of winnow up the grains from chaff

or straw after threshing the harvests.

Fig 5.2 .Planting eucalyptus as farm boundary. (Field photo, 2008)

Only few (5%) of the respondents prefer planting eucalyptus on the degraded lands. This

is because these lands are not suitable for proper growth of eucalyptus, due to absence of

fertile soil and their exposure to the damage of the tree by stray animals .However the

respondents did not deny the importance of eucalyptus tree to protect from further soil

erosion on the wastelands. In connection to this, one respondent put forward his reason of

preferring eucalyptus on degraded land, because planting trees on such type of lands

could save the suitable and fertile land not to be totally consumed by eucalyptus trees.

However none of the respondents recommended planting eucalyptus on the farm lands

together with crops or amidst crops. This may be due to the negative impact of eucalyptus

on the adjacent crops as it may cause a decrease in the yield of crops.

5.4 Extension Workers and Eucalyptus Plantation

56

Extension workers are employees of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) who give

technical advice in agricultural and forestry practice to farmers. These extension workers

could be trained either in agriculture or forestry. The extension workers in Womberma

Woreda were interviewed about their perception in eucalyptus planting practice of

farmers in the Woreda. All of the trained respondents mentioned that eucalyptus had a

high nutrient and water consumption effects that could reduce the yield of adjacent field

crops. They explained that species such as E. Camal dunesis, E-globulus and E-grabdus

are more efficient competitors and draw upon rapidly and heavily on the soil nutrients

and water and thus do not allow these elements to benefit the crops fully. However none

of them could explain which type of crops, at what age and to what extent could be

negatively affected. This may be related to their training level and background. In line

with this Mulugeta (1992) indicated that the type of training and background (being rural

or urban) of extension workers is one of the development problems in Ethiopian

agriculture development. They must be well trained or may need to have rural

background which would make them most immediately useful. They must not only

acquire farming competency but also must learn about rural custom, socialvalues and

ways of thinking why farmers do prefer eucalyptus. Lack of preparation in these areas

can make them to feel insecure and inadequate to discharge their responsibility.

According to the extension workers of the Woreda eucalyptus tree is not friendly to the

environment due to its ecological effect Therefore they only recommend Gravillia

robusta ,Albizia gumfera, Croton macroslachys and Cordia africana as potential species

to replace eucalyptus. With regard to the impact of eucalyptus on food security only one

expert said it could sustain the household’s food security if the food supply could be

obtained by the cash earned from eucalyptus sales to market but the rest believed that

eucalyptus had negative impact on food security. The reason they stated was that since

eucalyptus would reach some growth for harvest within 4-5 years farmers did not have

alternative means to feed their families during the intervening period of 4-5 years. In this

context Amare (2001) indicated that farmers should have to use the” tangua” method i.e.

planting eucalyptus together with food crops during its young age so that they can

withstand the problem of food insecurity caused in relation with eucalyptus planting.

57

5.4.1 Preferred Sites of Extension Workers for Eucalyptus Plantation

Extension workers were asked about their views in their preferred types of sites for

eucalyptus planting. They gave the following order of preference as: degraded land,

waste land and on steep slope, along river bank, road sides and as livefence.

Table 5.5 Extension workers preferred site for eucalyptus planting

Site

Number of respondents

Number %

waste land 5 50%

degraded land 5 50%

steep slope 5 50%

river bank 4 40%

road side 4 40%

live fence 2 20%

Total 10 100%

Source: Household survey (2008)

Most of the extension workers recommend farmers to plant eucalyptus on waste land, on

degraded land and steep slopes. The main reason for their preference was that waste land

degraded land and steep slopes are areas of land that are not suitable for crop production.

Therefore planting eucalyptus in such areas will be profitable. Also since these areas of

land are exposed to erosion, covering them with eucalyptus tree will be used to protect

the land from further sever erosion. River banks and roadsides are also other preferable

site for eucalyptus plantation because these areas are open and free to cut and transport

the wood pole without causing damage to other crops and trees. Planting eucalyptus as a

live fence was not as such preferable to the extension workers because planting

eucalyptus as alive fence in their opinion can cause damage on the adjacent crops as

well as on the near by houses.

None of the extension workers recommended planting eucalyptus as a farm woodlot on

fertile lands. The main reason is that it would minimize the proportion of land to be used

for the production of food crops otherwise the area will become food insecure. In

contrast Daba (2000) has found that planting eucalyptus on fertile land is more profitable

58

than using such lands for agricultural purpose. According to him planting eucalyptus on

well prepared and fertile land would have high economic return compare to food crops.

But in a densely populated food insecure country or area food is more important than

planting tree

Extension workers also mentioned the RLAUP (NO.46/2000:Article 1315) that obligated

the peasants to identify trees including eucalyptus which have negative effect upon crop

production and plant them far from the farm land .

5.5 Eucalyptus Diameter Frequency Distribution across Wealth

Categories

The data on the frequency distribution of diameters across the so far uncut first

generation eucalyptus trees shows almost no difference across the plantations of all

wealth category farmers in nearby KPAs in case of less than5cm diameter. This indicates

that no eucalyptus tree in this stage is ready for consumption or sale. But a proportional

decrease in the number of eucalyptus trees between the different wealth categories of

farmers in the surveyed KPAs has been seen, starting from a diameter of 5-9.9cm. The

proportion of number of trees in this stage started decreasing in the lands of poor farmers

while it remains almost the same in the lands of rich and medium farmers. However the

grater difference in the proportion of number of eucalyptus trees in different wealth

categories in the surveyed households was clearly seen when the diameter of the poles of

eucalyptus trees is reached between10-14.99cm. Accordingly the number of eucalyptus

trees in this stage is fewer in the lands of poor farmers, highly declined in the lands of

medium farmers and started declining in the rich farmers. But when the diameter classes

of eucalyptus trees reached between15-19.99, the number of trees becomes the fewest in

the lands of poor farmers; it became insignificant in the lands of medium farmers and

highly declined in the rich farmers. Thus, the over all trends of diameter frequency of

eucalyptus trees in Marawoled and Wodegedyayshal KPAs (those farm from the center

of the town of Shendi showed that rich farmers and to some extent medium farmers could

keep eucalyptus trees until they attained large diameter while the poor farmers harvest it

at an early stage either for consumption or sell. This is perhaps due to their difference in

59

the availability of diversified source of income and accumulated capital using in medium

and rich farmers carry to solve their immediate problems.

Fig.5.3 Diameter Frequency Distribution of Eucalyptus Tees in Marwoled and

Wogdadyayshal KPAs

The proportion of number of eucalyptus trees for diameter classes less than 5cm do not

show differences across different wealth categories of farmers in Markuma and

abanakalo KPAs. But when the diameter of eucalyptus trees reaches between5-9.99cm

the proportion starts varying between different wealth categories. Accordingly the

numbers of trees in the poor category farmers minimize while they remain the same in

case of medium and rich farmers remain the same. According to the information obtained

during the field observation this is the stage in which the poor farmers start harvesting

eucalyptus trees and use it for different purposes. However, when, the pole of eucalyptus

trees become mature and reach a diameter class between 10-14.99cm and 15-19.99cm the

disparity in the proportion of eucalyptus trees in between the different wealth categories

increases. Thus the greater numbers of eucalyptus trees are found in case of the rich

farmers land less in medium farmers but in the poor farmers land they were fully

60

3

consumed. When the diameter classes of eucalyptus trees increases to 20cm, the number

of eucalyptus in the medium and poor farmers category become insignificant and there

fore greater but decreasing number of trees are found in the rich farmers land. This

indicates that the rich farmers in the surveyed KPAs have a potential to wait until the tree

can have a large diameter and hence they can sell their pole with better prices compared

to the medium and poor farmers.

Figure Diameter Distribution of Eucalyptus trees in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPAs across diferrent wealth categories

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

<5cm 5-9.99cm 10-14.99cm 15-19.99cm >21cm

Diameter classes

Num

ber

of

trees

Rich

Medium

Poor

Fig 5.4 Diameter Frequency distribution of eucalyptus trees in Markuma and SebadarAbabkalo

KPAs.

The trend of tree by diameter size shows that the large diameter of eucalyptus was

concentrated on the rich and medium categories farmlands both in those KPAs near and

far from the center of the town. Thus, the eucalyptus diameter frequency distribution was

directly proportional to the wealth status of farmers. However the higher proportion of

eucalyptus with lower diameter classes were found in distant KPAs of Marwoled and

Wogedadeyayshal which indicates that there is a shorter rotation of harvesting

eucalyptus trees either for sell or other personal consumption in these KPAs. This is also

related to the farmers’ greater dependency on eucalyptus trees for different purposes. On

the other hand, in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KAPs the diameter frequency

distribution of eucalyptus trees across the different wealth categories was greater. This

61

indicates that the eucalyptus tree harvesting period in these KPAs is more extended than

those in distant KPAs far from the center of the town. This is because the farmers in

these KPAs use other cash crops like vegetables and offarm products as a source of cash

until the eucalyptus tree get matured to develop full diameter size.

5.6 Relative Share of Eucalyptus per Niche

The relative share of eucalyptus trees per niche also varies. Thus eucalyptus accounted

for the highest share in woodlot and on farm boundary out of the total tree plantation

respectively. As a whole eucalyptus shared about 88.15 percent of the total number of

woody species. Fruit trees and other woody species accounted for a smaller portion

compared to eucalyptus trees. The share of eucalyptus within the farms is insignificant.

This indicates that the farmers are well understand the impact of eucalyptus on food

crops so that they do not grow it mixed with food crops in the farm land.

Table 5.6 Relative share of eucalyptus per niche in the surveyed KAPs

Niche Number of trees and shrubs planted

Total Eucalyptus Fruit Other tree species Share of eucalyptus

Livefence 2150 300 2 1848 13.95

Woodlot 17100 17100 0 0 100

Farm boundary 1900 1750 3 147 83.33

Vegetable 25 0 5 20 0

Wheat 348 5 0 343 1.44

Teff 110 2 0 108 1.81

Maize 100 2 0 98 2

Total 21733 19159 10 2564

Percent share 100 88.15 0.046 11.80

Source: Household survey (2008)

5.7 Farm Size versus Eucalyptus Planting

According to the data obtained from the Woreda Agricultural office, the majority of

farmers (40%) have a farm size less than one hectare. However a substantial number of

households (34%) had a farm size of 1-1.5 hectare and the rest had larger than 1.5

62

hectares. The density of eucalyptus declines proportionally with a decline in farm size.

This is because the farmers give top priority to their land for the production of food crops

used for their family. Arnold (1987) argues that small farmers often intensify the home

garden with food and agricultural cash crops when the farm size falls below the level of

which they can meet their basic household food needs. Hence, the area that exceeds the

size of food needed for the family and that can be cultivated by family labor would be

usually used for tree planting. Accordingly, the density of eucalyptus in the study area is

the highest in the households that had a farm size greater than one hectare. Thus farm size

in the study area is highly correlated with tree planting density.

The Relationship Between Farmsize and Number of Eucalypts Trees

01000200030004000500060007000

<1 1-1.5 1.5-2. >2

Farmsize

Nu

mb

re o

f tr

ee

Fig.5.5 the relationship between eucalyptus planting and farm size

The density of eucalyptus trees thus massively increases when the farm size increases

above two hectares and decreases appreciably in farm sizes below one hectare. This

implies that small holders give priority to food crops or other cash crops which have a

minimum rotation age than eucalyptus plantation.

63

1.5-2 ha

CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Summary

The historical development of eucalyptus plantation in the surveyed KPAs of the study

area indicates that there were two periods of eucalyptus expansion. Following its

introduction in the late 1950s the increasing or decreasing in eucalyptus planting was

closely linked with the events at the national level (Amare 2001) and international level

(Hegberg 1995, Arnold 1992) favoring or disfavoring forestry development. Generally

eucalyptus planting in the Woreda increased during1965-1975 and from 1995to2000

because of the active involvement of private farmers in tree planting. This trend was

supported by the agrarian reform of 1990 and relaxation of control over the private

sector. Tree planting by private farmers in the study area showed a decreasing trend

during 1975-1985 following the nationalization of private land to state ownership by the

Derg regime.

Eucalyptus plantation in the Woreda has developed as one of the major economic

activities to day with the greater impact on grazing land. The highest portion of grazing

land in the surveyed KPAs was mainly converted to eucalyptus woodlot. Even in some

places eucalyptus plants proved to be so lucrative to the farmers that they began planting

them even replacing maize and teff crops. The fast growing nature of the tree and its

suitability to multipurpose benefits together with higher output of eucalyptus for a given

input led the farmers to plant eucalyptus to a higher degree. There are pertinent spatial

distributions in KPAs and also in terms of farm size of farmers with other assets in land,

labor and capital and other resources. The two KPAs of this study area are located

comparatively near to the woreda center of Shendi, while the other two KPAs of the

study area are distant from it. This difference in location causes difference in eucalyptus

plantation. The main reason for farmers in Markuma and Sebadarabanakalo KPAs for

planting eucalyptus is for construction and fuel wood. A study by Kahuranaga et al

64

(1993) in Sidama, Ethiopia has reached a similar conclusion. Thus farmers are more

interested in producing trees for household use such as for construction and fuel wood.

Therefore, as Current and Scheer (1995) also argue that financial profitability is not

necessarily the basic criterion for predicting the adoption of tree planting. However this

situation has changed over time as evidenced in the present study area. Here farmers in

almost all wealth categories also use eucalyptus for marketing the extra products beyond

their own requirements in form of poles and posts particularly in distant two KPAs of

Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal. Also rich and medium class farmers all over the four

KPAs, who have relatively more eucalyptus trees use it in the form of poles and posts and

even earn more money. The number of farmers involved in eucalyptus planting and the

area allocated for woodlots were significantly different among the four surveyed KPAs

Farmers live in KPAs little far away from Shendi town are more actively involved in

eucalyptus tree planting than those nearer to it. The latter grows vegetables ready for cash

in the nearby market

The average numbers of eucalyptus across wealth categories in the surveyed KPAs was

higher in case of the rich and medium category farmers than in case of the poor category

farmers. This is mainly because the rich and medium category farmers have larger land

holdings than the poor, higher labor force and diversified sources of income so that they

could allocate some portion of their land to eucalyptus planting and are able to adopt

better and more efficient means in tree planting and management on time. They are also

more capable of withholding their tree until maturity time for maximum benefit. Malla

and Fisher (1988) states that the rich farmers could bear the risk that might come as a

consequence of eucalyptus planting that is the possible reduction of yield of food crops.

The diameter size frequency of eucalyptus trees in the study area varies in case of

different wealth categories of farmers. This is because the rich farmers are able to retain

their trees for longer time to allow higher growth in diameter dimension. The largest

diameter poles of eucalyptus trees that can fetch higher prices than the smaller diameter

enable the rich farmers to profit more from planting eucalyptus than the smallholder.

Malla and Fisher (1988) stated that eucalyptus tree planting practices could be also used

as to meet some accidental or eventual needs such as wood for funereal ceremonies, fire

65

or for the rebuilding of houses after floods or fires or other disasters. The proportion of

area allocated for eucalyptus tree planting and the farm size (land holding) of farmers are

significantly correlated. Thus the proportion of land allocated for eucalyptus planting was

very low for land sizes less than one hectare because farmers with smaller size of farm

land gives top priority to food crops for family needs. Secondly, farmers involved in

eucalyptus planting, planted few tress only to satisfy their home consumption in the form

of construction and fuel wood. Thus the massive increase of eucalyptus trees in the study

are was found for land size greater than two hectare and less and less as the farm size

decreases in general.

Eucalyptus accounts for a larger portion of tree density of the total woody species in all

the surveyed KPAs of the study area. It was most commonly planted as woodlots, live

fences and farm boundaries. This shows that farmers are well aware about the adverse

impact of eucalyptus on crops so that they are reluctant to plant it in form of mixing with

crops in the farmland. Shortage of land and low land opportunity cost of boundary and

live fences planting site usually attract farmers for tree planting than other sites. Farmers

also plant eucalyptus as farm boundaries to secure their holdings. One of the criticisms

by agricultural extension workers and policy makers about eucalyptus is that farmers

plant eucalyptus on agricultural land. They state that agricultural production cannot be

sustained and led to food insecurity. Because of this the extension workers as rule advise

the farmers no to plant eucalyptus trees. Even regularly noticing that farmers are

increasingly plant eucalyptus, they do not provide them better methods of plantation,

healthy seedlings where and how to plant them. Despite all these farmers of the study

area take their own decision free from official advice and plant eucalyptus trees on their

own site by themselves.

In fact women in the study area are not actively involved in eucalyptus tree plantation.

The reason is mainly socio-cultural. Culturally women are not given any decisive role

within the household to decide when and where to plant trees or what to do with trees

unless her husband is dead and she becomes a head of a household. Besides, most women

who serve as a heads of household can ill afford to plant eucalyptus on their land due to

66

shortage of labor and oxen. Because of these two key factors many of them always use

their land by renting on cash or by sharecropping.

Both farmers and extension workers confirm that eucalyptus tree plantation can affect

adjacent crops adversely. But they do not indicate at what distance interval and age of

plants, and which species of eucalyptus start giving adverse impact. Their main argument

is simply that eucalyptus takes up much amount of water and soil nutrients and leave

smaller share for crops planted next to it. Due to this and other reasons extension workers

do not give technical advice and even eucalyptus seedlings to the farmers. However the

actual forms of planting pattern in the study area tell us that farmers do rationalize their

own self interest and plant eucalyptus on their own methods and sites out side their cereal

crop farmlands. As a matter of fact extension workers views are mainly based on their

negative attitude to eucalyptus without looking into the conditions and needs of the

farmers involved in the actual practice. However the extension workers and farmers of

the study area believe that eucalyptus planting could affect the households’ food security

in the negative way. Their justification for this is that eucalyptus would take 4 -5years to

be ready for harvest so that the households would face food shortage during this period.

However, current eucalyptus planting shows that eucalyptus is complemented along with

the cereal crops by sharing smaller portion of the farm holdings or by planting

agricultural crops within eucalyptus until three years. After that farmers convert it totally

to eucalyptus woodlots. Extension workers advise the farmers to grow other species of

tress which are friendly with the food crops as well as to the fertility of the soil and land.

Farmers and extension workers have different opinions in their site preference for

eucalyptus planting. Farmers prefer farm woodlots for eucalyptus while extension

workers suggested degraded land and steep slopes as preferable site for the purpose. The

extension workers justification for their preference is that, degraded lands are out of

production so that it can fit for plantation of eucalyptus trees and hence fertile land could

be exclusively used for agricultural crops. Moreover waste land would escape from sever

soil erosion

67

In general, eucalyptus planting in the study area is one of the main income sources

particularly to farmers in Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal KPAs. In the nearby KPAs of

Markuma and SebadarAbanakalo eucalyptus is used more for construction and fuel

wood. However, eucalyptus plantation in these nearby KPAs is constrained by the

availability of alternative cash crops like vegetables and other offarm and nonfarm

activities. Thus farmers are more interested to produce vegetables and offarm and

nonfarm activities than in eucalyptus trees. This has an implication that accessibility or

proximity to the market center may not be the only factors for eucalyptus planting. It may

also depend on the perception of the farmers and access to land and labor as well.

6.2 Conclusion

Plantation of eucalyptus trees in Womberma Woreda was started in the late 1950s. The

activity expanded mainly without the active involvement of external factors. The numerical

increase and decrease of eucalyptus planters in the study area was related to land tenure

system. Large numbers of farmers were encouraged to involve in eucalyptus planting after

the agrarian reform in 1990s. Farmer to farmer extension was the main means for its

dissemination. The major reasons for farmers to choose this species are as a source of cash

sales, fuel wood and construction wood and also because of its fast growing ability. This

species has expanded at the expense of grazing land, some areas of teff and maize fields have

also been converted to eucalyptus woodlots because of the need for cash and construction as

well as fuel wood.

The proximity to towns and access to market are not necessary incentive for eucalyptus

tree plantation in the study area. Other activities like offarm and income from vegetable

sales in the near by market does have its own influence on eucalyptus plantation.

Farmers growing interest in eucalyptus tree plantation and availability of large land

holding size also plays a significant role. The density of eucalyptus is higher in case of

rich and medium farmers than in case of the poor farmers because of their difference in

land holdings, labor size and other resources. Eucalyptus is more common in rich

farmers’ fields than in case of medium and poor farmers. This implies that rich farmers

obtained more benefits from eucalyptus planting than the poor and medium farmers.

Lower numbers of more aged eucalyptus in the poor farmers’ field is because the poor

68

farmers use them early at the age of 4-5 years for their immediate needs. They cannot

hold them longer like the rich farmers.

Eucalyptus density and farm size are positively correlated when a farm size is above one

hectare where farmers are more a bale to meet subsistence requirements. Eucalyptus

plantation is not only related to farm size but also to farmers’ interest, site quality and other

socio-economic factors. The farmers in Womberma Woreda are aware of the impact of

eucalyptus on food crops. Therefore they plant eucalyptus on the selected sites as woodlots,

farm boundaries and live fences in form of block or rows outside the farm lands.

Both extension workers and farmers have similar idea on the impact of eucalyptus on food

crops. However, the preferred site for eucalyptus plantation to them is different. Cultural

influence together with shortage of land and labor become the main reason for decreasing of

eucalyptus tree holdings in the woman’s farmland.

6.3 Recommendations

This paper recommends to the concerned bodies to actively participate with appropriate

policy implementation in order to create friendly relationship between eucalyptus

plantation and other food crop production activities in the area and to help farmers in

improving their economy.

Eucalyptus tree is becoming the main source of income in Womberma woreda in general

and especially for the rich farmers in Marwoled and Wogdadyayshal KPAs. Due to this,

the plantation activity has increased for the last 50 years, if it continues in such manner

the crop land will be totally colonized by eucalyptus trees. As a result, the area will be

much food insecure. Thus the farmers need to be persuaded to think that eucalyptus is not

the only source of income to supplement their livelihood in the cereal crop producing

area. As clearly shown from the result of the study, the farmers in Markuma and

Sebadarababkalo KPAs who are living near the market center use vegetables and offfarm

activities to diversify their income. In the same way the farmers in relatively distant

KPAs of Marwoled and Wogedadyayshal can use other cash crops like growing papper

and oil seeds that have short rotation period and greater market demand in order to

substitute the income obtained from eucalyptus. This way they can control the growing

69

number of eucalyptus tree on their own farm lands and also simultaneously improve their

economy.

Shortage of land is the major factor that disfavors the poor farmers from planting

eucalyptus in the study area. They devote most of their farm lands for food crops for

family needs. As a result even some of the farmers face shortage of wood for construction

and for fuel. So introducing and popularizing the ‘tangua’ method of plantation

establishment i.e. the method of using the land cultivated for crops at the same time for

eucalyptus planting for a short time, will help to solve the problem related to shortage of

fuel and construction needs. It will also be possible to help the female and other poor

households who are seriously affected by the problem.

Local governments of the woreda ,NGOs ,civil society and well aware farmers

organization are required to persuade the farmers for growing food and as sufficient for

income generation through eucalyptus tree along with balanced planting of other species

of trees ,cash crops etc through which ready as providing well organized seedlings and

other technical advices of alternative tree resources to farmers to know where to grow

them and how and where to market them but not the cost of food security or general

fertility of land.

Environmental effects and impacts on the general land, soil and water resources of this

mixed species of trees, other alternative cash crops and the farm household’s benefits are

required to be considered in a package planning of policy and execution. This apart in

dominantly crop growing areas like Womerma Woreda, some feasible offarm activities

such as crop processing, fruit- canning and processing etc need to be established to

provide fruit full employment to the society

Although it is a nation-wide problem, establishment and effective work of family

planning and population control centers are necessary to create a balance between

population growth rates, food and row materials and higher crop yields and sustainability

70

because sustainable development in such poor farming, deforested area can not be

possible with fast rapid growth of population

In general eucalyptus tree plantation in the woreda should be in its optimal benefit

providing stage but not the cost of food security or general fertility of land, so it is up to

the extension workers and other concerned officials to work with the farmers and make

the plantation a balanced mix of species of trees, harmonious with other economic

activities by giving trainings and other assistance to the planters.

71

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Abstract

The main objective of the study is to examine how farmers plant and use eucalyptus in the cereal crop producing area of Womberma woreda by investigating the key socio- economic factors favoring and disfavoring the farmers in eucalyptus plantation. To achieve the intended objectives, a questionnaire survey was conducted for 120 sample hold in four KPAs by categorizing them into 3 wealth category namely rich, medium and poor. In addition to this the view of group discussion participants and key informants as well as measurement and direct observation were incorporated. The data collected were analyzed using qualitative and various statistical tools such as percentage, mean correlation and variance analysis (F-ratio) test. The finding of the study show that eucalyptus tree plantation which was introduced in the late1950s become well known in Womberma Woreda passing through the problems related to land tenure policy in different government systems. At present farmers of the study area actively planting eucalyptus trees mainly on the expense of grazing land and in some extent on teff and maize fields. However, the expansion of eucalyptus trees in the woreda has been done by the effort of the farmers with out the support of extension workers and other concerned bodies.

The study also demonstrate that eucalyptus tree planting in the study area practiced differently by farmers depending on their wealth status, proximity to the town, access to land, sex, availability of alternative income source and interest. Thus density of eucalyptus and area allocated for eucalyptus plantation per household between the kPAs located far and near to the market center were significantly different. As the result we can get greater density of tree and more land allocated for eucalyptus plantation as we go far away from the market center and vice versa. This was mainly due to the reason that farmers near to market center sought alternative source of income that have shorter rotation period and does not need more land like eucalyptus. Moreover due to cultural constraints, shortage of land and labor, women in the study area are not directly involved in eucalyptus plantation.

78

Acknowledgement

First and for most “Glory be to God” who helped me to carry all the burdens throughout

my study and research completion.

Next, I would like to thank my advisor professor KN.Singh, who has been with me all

the way through this study, more importantly, his expert advise, guidance, comments,

suggestions and pain staking corrections were extremely valuable.

I would also like to express my indebtedness to the workers of Womberma Woreda

Agriculture and rural development office workers. Especially Ato Belayneh Kassa,

Temesgen Hailu, Ato Mulualem Ayalew who have always been with me when ever I

need assistance during my field survey. They provide me with all necessary equipments

and assisted me in data collection. I also thanks all who assisted me in data collection.

My sincere appreciation also goes to the informants for their openness and enthusiastic

response and provision of information and hospitality during the study.

My gratitude also extends to my family, friends and colleagues, who in one way or an

other shared my pains during the course of the study. Special thanks go to my father Ato

Anteneh Wubie, and my mother W/ro Enat Mekonnen and my brother Agumasie

Anteneh for their special advice moral support starting from my childhood till now.

Last but not least. I would like to thank my lovely W/ro Getenesh Dejene for her

unreserved moral and material support.

79

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Appendix 1

Questionnaire

Dear respondents, I am doing a research as a part of MA Program in Addis Ababa

University. This questionnaire is designed to assess the socio-economic aspects that

affect the farmers in eucalyptus planting practices in Womberma Woreda. Hence I would

like to thank you in advance for giving me your valuable time to fill this questionnaire

and discussion about it.

Part I

Household Socio-economic Survey

Interview Date PA Social Class Code

1. Family status

1.1. Household number Male Female

Age younger (under 30) Older (over 30)

Education level (tick)

Can read and write 1 - 6 grade

Can’t read and write 7 – 8 grade

9 – 12 grade

Training if any

1.2. Income

What are the main sources of cash for the household?

Off-farm employment Sale of livestock products such as milk

Gift or remittances Sales trees of tree products such as wood

Sale of cash crops (paper) Other specify

80

2. How does the household cop up with food shortage? Is there any insurance crop (trees)

to be consumed or sold?

There is no insurance crop

There is donation to the community by the government

The farmers sale eucalyptus and other trees to buy food

Migration to other resource rich area

Other means specify

2.1. Is eucalyptus tree planting affect your farming practices?

Yes No

If yes in what way

2.1.1. Is eucalyptus planting replacing the families’ food and cash crops?

Yes No If yes how

3. Attitude to tree planting

Have you planned to plant trees on your farm?

Yes No If yes which species

-If not, why not because of ________________________

Inadequate knowledge to tree planting Lack of tree seedlings

Lack of labor Lack of land

Low survival rate of the seedlings others specify_____________

4. Livestock

4.1. Which kind of livestock does the household have?

Animals Number owned by this household

CattleGoatsSheepAss HorsePoultry Other

81

5. Land

5.1. What is the total size of your farm land? (Estimate) (Hectare or” timad”)

5.2. What proportion of land is allocated for: Wheat?

Maize

Millet

Teff_______________________

Fruit trees(Vegetables)__________

Eucalyptus_________________

5.3. Does the household have access to other land outside the farm?

Yes No

-If yes where is it (Location?)

-What it is used for (crops, tree planting, grazing, other uses?)

-How is it obtained? Communal rented

Borrowed Given by higher government bodies

5.4. Tree tenure right

5.4.1. Can you cut and sell your own tree any time?

Yes No

If not what is the problem

5.4.2. Are there restrictions on the type of trees you may plant and/or harvested on

your holdings? Yes No

6. Labor availability

6.1. How many people work on the farm full-time?

Male older than 30 years old younger than 30 years old

Female older than 30 years old younger than 30 years old

6.2. Is labor hired or family labor?

If hired for what operation

How long?

What costs?

82

PART II

Questionnaire on Historical Trend and Reason for Eucalypts Planting

Interview Date K PA Social Class Code

1. Past and present residence

1.1. How long have you lived here? Years

2. Do you have eucalyptus tree Yes No

- If yes, when did you plant it for the first time in 19 E.C.

2.1. How did you know about this tree?

From development agent from my friend from my children

From neighbor NGO’s specify

Other specify

2.2. Who brought eucalyptus to your farm?

Husband Son/daughter

Wife others specify

3. Did you remember when eucalyptus was introduced in this area?

Yes No

-If yes, when (year) by whom

4. Why do you plant eucalyptus rather than indigenous trees? Because

It is fast growing it needs less labor

It is good for both fuel wood and construction it needs less capital

It is profitable to sell it is a multipurpose tree

Others specify

5. Did you ever get eucalyptus seedling from different institutions?

Yes No

- If yes, from which institution_________________ how ________________- . ?

6. What form of land use was practiced for the last fifteen years in this area before you

cover it with eucalyptus?

Maize teff other tree species

Wheat millet other crops specify

83

6.1 What was your reason to convert the land to eucalyptus plantation? ______________

____________________________________________________________________

7. Management aspects of eucalyptus

7.1. How the tree is established

Planting the seedling Direct seeding

Both direct seeding and planting seedlings.

7.2. What kind of management practice would you supply?

Pollarding Coppice-reduction

Cultivation Thinning

Pruning Others specify

-At what time you harvest (cut) trees

7.3. How many times do you cut trees?

Once in a year more than once in a year

Once in a season never cut

8. Constraints for tree planting

8.1. What are the constraints to plant eucalyptus trees?

Lack of land Lack of tree security

Lack of labor Inadequate knowledge or skills

Lack of capital Marketing problem

Low survival others specify

PART III – A

FARMERS PERCEPTION ON EUCALYPTUS PLANTING – QUESTIONNAIRE

Name/group of Interview Young

Women

Men

Interview Date PA Social Class Code

1. Do you plant eucalyptus? Yes No If no why

2. From where did you get eucalyptus seedlings?

84

3. Have you encountered any problem with regard to eucalyptus tree planting?

4. Where do you want to plant eucalyptus trees? And why?

On the farm land On Waste land/marginal land

On the farm boundary As wood lot

On the degraded land Others specify

The reason

5. Do you know any tree species which could substitute for eucalyptus function?

Yes No

6. Do you think eucalyptus planting may affect food security? .

Why? ______________________________________________________

7. Do you get any eucalyptus seedlings and technical assistance from agricultural office?

Yes No If any why

8. What kind of taboo/culture exists in relation to tree planting in your area? And which

species of trees are unwanted by the farmers and why?

PART III – B

PERCEPTION OF EXTENSION WORKERS ABOUT EUCALYPTUS TREES –

QUESTIONNAIRE

Interview Date PA Social Class Code

QUESTION FOR EXTENSION WORKERS

1. What kind of constraints have you observed in eucalyptus planting (both ecological

and social) (from your experience in research work constraints

1. 3. 5.

2. 4.

85

2. Do you have any empirical evidence of ecological impact of eucalyptus in Ethiopian

case in general and womberma case in particular?

3. Which eucalyptus species has a negative impact for the crops, which one is appropriate

and in which site?

4. Do you know other species that have relatively the same function as eucalyptus?

__________________________________________________________________

5. What kind of advantage and disadvantage could you observe between eucalyptus and

other agroforestry trees?

Advantage Disadvantage

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

6. Does your institution raise and distribute eucalyptus seedlings?

Yes No If no why

7. Does eucalyptus expansion affect food security?

Yes No If yes, how

8. Where shall eucalyptus be planted? And why?

On waste land /marginal land On road side

On degraded land On live fence

On fertile land Together with crops

On steep slope others specify

Along the river bank

The reason for your choice__________________________________________________

86

Gender Role Data Sheet

Interview Date PA Social Class Code

Focus group

NoActivities

Responsible personMen Women Son Daughter

1 Planting material

- Purchase of seedling - Household nursery

2 Transport of plant materials

3 Preparing the land for planting

4 Planting seedling

5 Giving care to the planted seedlings

- Watering

- Weeding

- Mulching

6 Protection

- Fencing

7 Long term maintenance

8 Harvesting

- Recurrent products (fruits leaves, branch)

9 Processing

- Recurrent product - Wood and timber

10 Marketing

- Recurrent products (fruit, leaves, branch)

- Wood and timber

87

PART V

DATA SHEET FOR COLLECTING PERENNIAL SPECIES COMPOSITION

Interview Date PA Social Class Code

Farm plot no Social Class

Farm

type

Amharic

Name

Local

name

Scientific

Name

Niche Quantity

(no)

Planted Retained Spatial

site

Uses

part

Strata

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

NB. (1) 1 – maize

2. Teff

3. Wheat

4. Grazing

5. Millet

6. Grave yard

(5) On farm boundary

2 – farm wood lot

3 – live fence

4 – front yard

5 – in the farm

6 – road side

(10) uses – 1 fuel wood

2 – fence

3 – construction wood

4 – boundary

5 – fodder

6 – charcoal

7 – shade

8 – food

9) – farm tool

(11) – upper layer

- middle layer

- lower layer

7) -leaves

-root

-trunk

PART VI

DATA SHEET FOR INVENTORY OF EUCALYPTUS STAND

Interview Date PA Social Class Code

Plot no Social Class

Niche Species Age Quantity Diameter

in cm

Height

(meter)

Volume

88

Name of Data collector Signature Date

PART VII

A.Secondary Data

1. Regional (local) tree planting policy guide lines

2. Land and tree tenure pattern in the region

B.Direct Observation

Land feature and land use

1. Current land use

2. Where is the site situated?

1. Top of hill

2. Mid slope

3. Valley bottom

4. On flat topography

3. What type of soil is found on this plot?

1. Red loamy

2. Black cotton

3. Sandy

4. Alluvial

5. Rocky

6. Nitosol

4. What is the slope of the plot

1 – Flat (0 – 4%) 2 – Gentle (5 – 7%)

3 – Moderate (8 – 30%) 4 – Steeper (> 31%)

5. Where are trees planted

1 – with corps

89

2 – agroforestry plot

3 – degraded land

Appendix 2

I. Checklist for focus group discussion with youngsters, women and agricultural

experts

1. What is your problem related with eucalyptus tree planting?

2. Do you think that eucalyptus is use full to you? If yes, in what way?

3. Among the eucalyptus trees you harvested how much income do you earn from sale

per annum?

4. How can you compare the price of eucalyptus now and before?

5. Who decide where to plant eucalyptus trees in your family?

6. Who make decisions about how eucalyptus trees are used and manage in your family?

7. Are there difference in the preference of tree species between men and women? If yes

-What are the choice of women (please put it in order from ascending to descending)

-What are the choices of men (put it in order)

8. Do you think that eucalyptus have an impact on food crops? If so, How?

9. Have you ever given any training or advice to the farmers or extension workers about

eucalyptus trees and food crops?

10. Is your office ever made any research work in relation with food crops and eucalyptus

trees?

11. What suggestion can you give about the expansion of eucalyptus trees in the expense

of food crops?

II. Check list for key informant interview

1. Do you remember when eucalyptus plantation started in your Kebele?

- Who brought it for the first time?

90

2. How is your relation to the extension workers?

-Are they voluntary to provide the seedlings and other technical assistances?.

3. How can you see the expansion of eucalyptus tree in your Kebele? Is it increasing or

decreasing?

4Which season is appropriate to harvest your tree products?

5. What kind of management would you use before and after harvesting the tree

products?

-Why you prefer that specific method?

91

Appendix 3

Division of labor between men and women in tree planting in surveyed KPAs

No Activities Responsibilities person

1. Planting material Men Women Son Daughter

Purchase of seedling X X

Raising of seedling X X

2. Transport of planting material X X X X

3. Preparing the land for planting X X

4 Planting seedlings X X X

5 Giving care to the planted seedlings

Watering X X X X

Weeding X X X X

Mulching X X

fencing X X

6 Harvesting X X

7. Processing the harvested tree products

Recurrent products(leaves, branches} X X

Wood and timber X X

8. Marketing

Recurrent products ( leaves, branch) X X

Wood and timber X X

92

Apendix4

SPSS data analysis result(SPSS Version 14 and accessories)

Correlations

Total number of eucalyptus

trees per household

Land size possessed by

the respondents

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

Pearson Correlation 1 .382(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120Land size possessed by the respondents

Pearson Correlation .382(**) 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000N 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Correlations

Age of the

respondents

Total number of eucalyptus

trees per house hold

Age of the respondents Pearson Correlation 1 .175

Sig. (2-tailed) .056

N 120 120Total number of eucalyptus trees per house hold

Pearson Correlation .175 1Sig. (2-tailed) .056

N 120 120

93

Correlations

Distance of kebeles from

the town

Total number of eucalyptus

trees per household

Distance of kebeles from the town

Pearson Correlation 1 .417(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

Pearson Correlation .417(**) 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

ANOVA

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.Between Groups 34608911.

6151

34608911.6 15

36.755 .000

Within Groups 111111581.510

118 941623.572

Total 145720 119

94

Correlations

Total number of eucalyptus trees planted

per household

Economic status of

respondentsTotal number of eucalyptus trees planted per household

Pearson Correlation 1 .455(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120Economic status of respondents

Pearson Correlation .455(**) 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000N 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Correlations

Totalnumber of eucalypyus

trees planted per hhousehold

Educational Status of

respondantsTotalnumber of eucalypyus trees planted per hhousehold

Pearson Correlation 1 -.148

Sig. (1-tailed) .054

N 120 119Educational Status of respondants

Pearson Correlation -.148 1Sig. (1-tailed) .054N 119 119

95

Acronyms

ANRS=Amhara National Regional State.

Cm=Centimeter.

CSA=Central Statistical Authority.

ETB=Ethiopian Birr.

FAO=Food and Agricultural Organization.

Ha=hectare.

KPAs=Kebele Peasant Administrations.

M=meter.

Masl. =Meter above sea level.

MoA=Ministry of Agriculture.

MoARD=Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.

Mm=millimeter.

NGO=Non Governmental Organization

0c=Degree centigrade.

RLAUP=Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation.

SIDA=Seweden International Development Agency.

SPSS=Statistical Package for Social Scientists.

TGE=Transitional Government of Ethiopia.

UN=United Nation.

UNSO=United NationSudanoSahlian Organization.

WOAS=Woreda Agricultural Statistics.

WWARDO=Womberma Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office.

96

Table of Contents

Page

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………

I

Table of contents......

……………………………………………………………………...II

List of tables……………………………………………………………………………...III

List of figures…………………………………………………………………………….IV

Acronyms ...........................................................................................................................V

Abstract ............................................................................................................................ VI

CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................1

1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................1

1.1. Background of the study...........................................................................................1

1.2. Objective of the Study..............................................................................................2

1.3. Research Questions...................................................................................................3

1.4. Significance of the study..........................................................................................3

1.5 Materials and Methods............................................................................................3

1.5.1 Preliminary Survey............................................................................................3

1.5.2 Selection of Interviewers....................................................................................4

1.5.3 Wealth Ranking System.....................................................................................4

1.5.4 Stratified Random Sampling...............................................................................4

1.5.5 Data collection Methods.....................................................................................5

1.5.6 Data Analysis......................................................................................................6

1.6 Scope and limitation of the study..............................................................................7

1.7 Thesis organization....................................................................................................7

97

CHAPTR TWO..................................................................................................................8

CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK AND REVIEW OF LITREATURE...................8

2.1 Conceptual Framework..............................................................................................8

2.2 Review of Literature................................................................................................13

2.2.1 Eucalyptus Debates...........................................................................................13

2.2.1.1 The Historical Development of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia............................13

2.2.1.2. Social Aspects...........................................................................................15

2.2.1.3. Ecological Aspects....................................................................................16

2.2.1.4. Economic Aspects....................................................................................19

2.2.1.5. Farmers Interest of Eucalyptus Planting...................................................21

CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................24

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA................................................................24

3.1 The Physical Setting................................................................................................24

3.1.1 Location and Size.............................................................................................24

3.1.2 Climate..............................................................................................................26

3.1.3Soil, Vegetation and Geographical Features.....................................................27

3.2 Cultural Setting........................................................................................................27

3.2.1 The People........................................................................................................27

3.2.2 Culture and Tradition........................................................................................28

3.2.3 Household and Social Organization.................................................................28

3.2.4 Land Use Pattern , Land Tenure and Landholding Size...................................29

3.2.5 Farming System................................................................................................30

CHAPTER FOUR...........................................................................................................31

EUCALYPTUS PLANTING IN CEREAL CROP PRODUCING AREA..............31

4.1 Socio-economic Profile of the Study Area..............................................................31

4.2 Introduction and Expansion of Eucalyptus in Womberema Woreda......................32

4.2.1. Farmer’s preference to Eucalypts Tree............................................................33

4.3 Land Allocated to Eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs................................34

4.4 Land Converted to Eucalyptus Plantation...............................................................37

4.5 Patterns of Eucalyptus Planting...............................................................................38

4.6 Eucalyptus Trees as Annual Source of Income.......................................................40

98

4.7 Tree Species Diversity of the study area.................................................................42

4.7.1 Eucalyptus Tree Holding Size in the Surveyed Households............................44

CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................46

5. METHODS OF EUCALYPTUS PLANTATION AND MANAGEMENT..........46

5.1. Sources of Eucalyptus Seedlings............................................................................47

5.1.1 Problems related to Eucalyptus Plantation.......................................................48

5.2 Gender Difference and Eucalyptus Plantation.........................................................51

5.3 Farmers’ Interest on Eucalyptus Plantation.............................................................53

5.3.1 Preferable sites to Eucalyptus plantation..........................................................54

5.4 Extension Workers and Eucalyptus Plantation........................................................57

5.4.1 Preferred Sites of Extension Workers for Eucalyptus Plantation.....................58

5.5 Eucalyptus Diameter Frequency Distribution across Wealth Categories................59

5.6 Relative Share of Eucalyptus per Niche..................................................................62

5.7 Farm Size versus Eucalyptus Planting.....................................................................63

CHAPTER SIX................................................................................................................64

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................64

6.1 Summary..................................................................................................................64

6.2 Conclusion...............................................................................................................68

6.3 Recommendations....................................................................................................69

Reference

Appendices

99

List of Tables

Page

Table 1.1 House hold population of the surveyed KPAs………………………...……….5

Table 4.1 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm practices in surveyed

KPAs ………………………...………………………………...………………...31

Table 4.2. Number of farmers involved in eucalyptus plantation………………………..33

Table 4.3. Farmers reason for preferring eucalyptus to other indigenous trees. ………...34

Table 4.4 Average proportion of land allocated to different farm crops in surveyed

KPAs………………………...………………………………...………………....35

Table 4.5 Average percentage of land allocated to eucalyptus out of the total farm land

holdings across wealth categories. ………………………...…………………….36

Table 4. 6. Number of plots converted to woodlots within the last 15 year……………..37

Table 4. 7. Average density of eucalyptus per niches per household……………...….....38

Table4. 8 Different sources of income in the survey area………………………...……..40

Table 4. 9. Eucalyptus as a source of income across different wealth categories...……..41

Table 4.10. Species composition of the average tree holding in surveyed KPAs...……..42

Table 5.1. Method of eucalyptus planting in the surveyed KPAs…………………….…46

Table5.2. Source of eucalyptus seedlings planted in the study area. ……………………47

Table 5.3. Problems of farmers related to eucalyptus plantation in the surveyed

KPA………………………...………………………………...……………….....49

Table5.4. Farmers preferred sites for eucalyptus planting………………………...…….54

Table 5.5 Extension workers preferred site for eucalyptus planting…………………….58

Table 5.6 Relative share of eucalyptus per niche in the surveyed KAPs………………..62

100

List of Figures

Fig 1. Map of the study area………………..……………..……………………………..25

Fig 2. Seasonal Patterns of Rainfall (mm) distribution at Shendi Meteorological station.

………………..……………..……………………………………………26

Fig.3 A wood lot as cause for block plantation. (Filed photo, 2008) …….……………..39

Fig 4. Planting eucalyptus on the road side. (Field Photo, 2008) …….……………..…..55

Fig 5.Planting eucalyptus as farm boundary. (Field photo, 2008) …….……………..….56

Fig 6.Diameter Frequency Distribution of Eucalyptus Tees in Marwoled and Wogdadyayshal

KPAs.………………..……………..……………………………………………….60

Fig 7. Diameter Frequency distribution of eucalyptus trees in Markuma and SebadarAbabkalo

KPA’s..………………..……………..…………………………………………..…61

Fig.8. the relationship between eucalyptus planting and farm size………………..…………..63

101

Apendix4

SPSS data analysis result(SPSS Version 14 and accessories)

Correlations

Total number of eucalyptus

trees per household

Land size possessed by

the respondents

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

Pearson Correlation 1 .382(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120Land size possessed by the respondents

Pearson Correlation .382(**) 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000N 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Correlations

Age of the

respondents

Total number of eucalyptus

trees per house hold

Age of the respondents Pearson Correlation 1 .175

Sig. (2-tailed) .056

N 120 120Total number of eucalyptus trees per house hold

Pearson Correlation .175 1Sig. (2-tailed) .056

N 120 120

Correlations

102

Distance of kebeles from

the town

Total number of eucalyptus

trees per household

Distance of kebeles from the town

Pearson Correlation 1 .417(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

Pearson Correlation .417(**) 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

ANOVA

Total number of eucalyptus trees per household

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.Between Groups 34608911.

6151

34608911.6 15

36.755 .000

Within Groups 111111581.510

118 941623.572

Total 145720 119

Correlations

Total number of eucalyptus trees planted

per household

Economic status of

respondentsTotal number of eucalyptus trees planted per household

Pearson Correlation 1 .455(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 120 120Economic status of respondents

Pearson Correlation .455(**) 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000N 120 120

** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Correlations

103

Totalnumber of eucalypyus

trees planted per hhousehold

Educational Status of

respondantsTotalnumber of eucalypyus trees planted per hhousehold

Pearson Correlation 1 -.148

Sig. (1-tailed) .054

N 120 119Educational Status of respondants

Pearson Correlation -.148 1Sig. (1-tailed) .054N 119 119

104

105