mental representation of spatial movement parameters …€¦ · doi: 10.1080/13875868.2011.626095...

Spatial Cognition & Computation, 12:111–132, 2012

Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1387-5868 print/1542-7633 online

DOI: 10.1080/13875868.2011.626095

Mental Representation of Spatial Movement

Parameters in Dance

Bettina Bläsing1 and Thomas Schack1

1Neurocognition and Action Research Group & Center of Excellence Cognitive

Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany

Abstract: Via training, dance experts develop special experience-based embodied

representations of body and movement. Professional dancers, amateurs and novices

sorted central functional nodes of two dance movements according to their spatial

equivalence. Results of a hierarchical cluster analysis and classification probabilities

revealed movement-specific differences in mental representations related to skill-

level. Cluster solutions of experts reflected functional structures, with adequate spatial

parameters associated to the main movement phases. Amateurs achieved similar results

only for the less complex movement, whereas novices showed nonfunctional results.

The findings suggest that only dance experts’ distinct embodied representations of

dance movements include information about body-centered spatial parameters.

Keywords: dance expertise, mental representation, movement concepts, spatial pa-

rameters, motor imagery

1. INTRODUCTION

Dance expertise has recently become an increasing field of study amongcognitive and neuroscientists (see Bläsing, Puttke, & Schack, 2010). Thereare several aspects of dance expertise that make this field worthwhile for thoseinterested in action-perception coupling and movement expertise. Orientationin space is one of the crucial cognitive skills required in dance, and it has beensuggested that spatial awareness, body representation and perception of timeare the main cognitive abilities in which dancers are trained (Jola, 2010). Eventhough dancers are not specifically skilled in spatial tasks in general (Jola& Mast, 2005), evidence exists that dancers have a more accurate positionsense based on proprioceptive information than non-dancers, and that dance

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Bettina Bläsing,

Neurocognition and Action Research Group & Center of Excellence Cognitive

Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, PB 100131, 33501 Bielefeld,

Germany. E-mail: [email protected]

111

112 B. Bläsing and T. Schack

training can increase the relative influence of proprioception on multimodalintegration (Jola, Davis, & Haggard, 2011).

Movement learning and memory are other domains dance experts areparticularly skilled in, as there is hardly any other movement discipline inwhich the learning of complex novel movement patterns plays such a crucialrole. As a consequence, dancers’ memory for movement has been investigatedby many authors (e.g., Cross, Hamilton, Kraemer, Kelley, & Grafton, 2009;Opacic, Stevens, & Tillmann, 2009; Stevens, Ginsborg, & Lester, 2011).Based on their rich repertoire of movements and body configurations stored inlong-term memory, dancers are better than nondancers at anticipating visuallypresented dance movements, they can remember movements for a longer timethan novices (Smyth & Pendelton, 1994) and are especially good at recallingchoreographically structured sequences (Starkes, Deakin, Lindley, & Crisp,1987).

Allard and Starkes (1991) emphasized the importance of skilled memoryin dance experts, mentioning that dancers use unique memory techniquesto encode movement sequences, such as marking body movements withthe hands or using motor imagery (Golomer, Bouillette, Mertz, & Keller,2008). For dancers, mental representations in long-term memory providea vital basis for learning novel movement sequences and for adapting andrefining movements corresponding to aesthetic and expressive requirements(see Bläsing, 2010). Such cognitive movement representations are based onspatial and temporal features of movement concepts that are acquired duringtraining and repeated movement performance (see Schack, 2010).

Dance expertise arises due to an optimised cooperation of cognitive con-trol and sensorimotor processing. There is much evidence that the cognitiveside of motor expertise is characterised by hierarchical networks of concepts(Ericsson & Smith, 1991), and that highly versatile human movements arebuilt up from individual movement segments in a modular way (e.g., Flash& Hochner, 2005; Schack & Ritter, 2009). In classical dance, the modularand hierarchical structure of complex movements is clearly reflected by amovement repertoire that is in itself modular and hierarchical, which isreflected by its specific movement vocabulary and grammar.

Human movements in general have been described as being based ona hierarchical structure of cognitive and motor-driven building blocks (seeEricsson, 2003; Schack, 2004; Rosenbaum, Cohen, Jax, Van Der Wel &Weiss, 2007). Schack’s architecture model (Schack, 2004; Schack & Ritter,2009) postulates four levels of action control: a level of sensorimotor controlproviding an interface to sensors and effectors, two intermediate levels ofsensorimotor (effect) representations and mental representations, accommo-dating basic action units at different levels of abstraction, and a topmost levelof mental control shaping purposeful behavior.

According to this model, Basic Action Concepts (BACs) are major rep-resentation units for complex movements on the level of mental represen-tations. They tie together functional and sensory features. Their functional

Spatial Movement Parameters in Dance 113

features are derived from movement goals; this connects BACs to the levelof mental control. BACs also integrate sensory features of submovementsthrough chunking, and thereby refer to the perceptual effects of the movement.This connects BACs with sensorimotor representations and perceptual effects.Finally, the connection between BACs and sensory effect representationspermits the intentional manipulation of the cognitive framing conditions ofsensorimotor coordination.

BACs do not refer to behavior-related invariance properties of objects asthis is the case in object concepts, but to perception-linked invariance proper-ties of movements. Results from different lines of research suggest that suchmovement representations might provide the basis for action implementationand action control in skilled voluntary movements in the form of cognitivereference structures (Schack, 2009; Schack & Mechsner, 2006; Schack &Ritter, 2009). The internal structure of such representations is related to thequality of movement execution. The higher the degree of order formationin long-term memory, the better a dancer can perform a movement, andthe less attention and concentration are needed for excellent performance.The approach we take here is to investigate cognitive movement expertiseby analysing the structure of such networks of movement knowledge in ourparticipants’ long-term memory.

The aim of the present study was to investigate cognitive representationsof dance movements in long-term memory, with a focus on spatial parametersin an egocentric frame of reference. Cognitive movement structures of twodifferent basic ballet movements, the Petit pas assemblé and the Pirouetteen dehors, of three groups of participants varying in dance expertise weremeasured and compared to each other. To enable the elicitation of mentalstructures underlying movement production in ballet, the Structure Dimen-sional Analysis-Motorics (SDA-M, Lander, 1991; Lander & Lange, 1996;Schack, 2004) method was applied to measure the structure of knowledgerepresentations based on spatial features psychometrically. The SDA-M haspreviously been applied to analyze mental representations of complex move-ments in dance (Bläsing, Tenenbaum, & Schack, 2009), different kinds ofsports (e.g., Schack, 2004; Schack & Mechsner, 2006), manual action (Schack& Ritter, 2009) and rehabilitation (Braun, Beurskens, Schack, Marcellis, Oti,Schols, & Wade, 2007).

In these studies, a direct scaling of building blocks of movement (i.e.,BACs) was applied to analyse performance-based mental movement repre-sentations in memory. Bläsing, Tenenbaum, & Schack (2009) used the samematerial (i.e., the Petit pas assemblé and the Pirouette en dehors with theirrespective sets of BACs) to examine representation structures in long-termmemory of dance experts, amateurs (advanced and beginners) and novicesvia SDA-M with direct scaling. In this setup, participants had made directjudgements about the functional equivalence of pairs of BACs (BAC � BAC:pairs of BACs had to be judged as closely or not closely related to eachother).


In contrast, in the current study an indirect scaling via decisions concern-ing the functional relationship of BACs and spatial features was used (BAC �

features: BACs have to be judged as closely or not closely associated to givenspatial features). Both methods include a hierarchical cluster analysis thatreveals clusters of BACs displayed as dendrograms; the difference is that inindirect scaling features are predefined, whereas the concept dimensions indirect scaling are accessed via a factor analysis. The indirect scaling methodvia SDA-M has only been applied in one study so far, in which the mentalrepresentation of the front loop in wind-surfing based on its spatial, temporaland force parameters was examined in experts and novices (Schack, 2010).Based on the results of the previous study (Bläsing, Tenenbaum, & Schack,2009) and the consideration that dancers are especially trained in spatialorientation and memory tasks, the aim of the current study was to exploremental representations of movements based on their association to spatialparameters in the long-term memory of dancers who vary in expertise.

2. METHOD

2.1. Participants

Three groups of different expertise participated in our study. The group ofexperts (Pas assemblé: N D 15, 8 women, age: 18–36 .26:13 ˙ 5:29/ years,7–20 .14:6 ˙ 4:22/ years of training; Pirouette: N D 17, 10 women, age:18–40 .26:44 ˙ 6:76/ years, 7–35 .16:75 ˙ 6:86/ years of training) includedtrained dancers who had received professional training in classical dance andwere active members of professional classical or modern dance companiesat the time of the study. The group of amateurs (N D 18, 15 women, age:16–45 .29:44 ˙ 6:89/ years, 1–20 .8:22 ˙ 7:22/ years of training) includedindividuals who had trained classical dance mostly on a non-professionallevel. The group of novices (N D 19, 13 women, age: 22–35 .26:0 ˙ 3:42/

years) consisted of sport students who had not trained classical, modern orjazz dance, but had mainly concentrated on soccer, volleyball, basketball ortrack-and-field. All participants gave their informed consent prior to theirinclusion in the study; no financial or course credit reward was given for theparticipation in this study. The study was performed in accordance with theethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2. Movement Tasks

We chose the Petit pas assemblé and the Pirouette en dehors from thefourth position because of their high degree of familiarity among professionaland amateur dancers and their ubiquity even in beginners’ classes. Bothmovements belong to the basic movement repertoire of classical dance (see


Vaganova, 2002), both movements show a sufficient degree of complexity,but otherwise they differ essentially in nature.

The Petit pas assemblé (see Figure 1) is a small jump that is commonlyperformed at quick pace within a sequence of small jumps and steps. It startswith plié (bending the knees) and sideward sliding of one foot; followed bya small jump during which the stretched legs meet in the air before landing.The Pirouette en dehors (see Figure 2) is a rotational movement that requireshighly defined coordination and constant adjustment of the body axis in orderto be performed correctly. It begins with a preparation during which thenonsupporting leg slides to the side and is then placed behind the supportingleg in the classical fourth position, supported by adequate positioning of thearms. From this position, the dancer pliés to initiate a turn on the supportingleg (placed in front) in the direction of the nonsupporting leg. While turning,the dancer remains on the vertical rotational axis with the head following andovertaking the body during each turn to maximise the time facing front. ThePirouette ends in a defined body pose adopted by placing the non-supportingleg on the ground and opening the arms.

As a reference for the results of the SDA-M, both movements, the Petitpas assemblé and the Pirouette en dehors, were broken down into theirfunctional phases. According to a functional biomechanics approach, complexmovements can be conceptualised as solutions to given movement problems

Figure 1. Petit pas assemblé; functional phases are given above the stick figure

cartoon, basic action concepts (BACs) are listed with numbers below the stick figures.


Figure 2. Pirouette en dehors; functional phases are given above the stick figure

cartoon, basic action concepts (BACs) are listed with numbers below the stick figures.

(Bernstein, 1967; Rieling, Leirich & Hess, 1967; Göhner, 1979, 1992). Eachfunctional phase of a complex movement serves the purpose of solving oneof its subordinate problems and reaching one of its subgoals.

Functional phases are characterised by their role in reaching the overallmovement goal, which leads to a differentiation between main and assistingphases. The main functional phase of a movement leads to the completionof the main goal, or solution of the main movement problem. Assistingfunctional phases lead to the completion of subgoals, with primary assistingphases being more important for reaching the main goal than secondaryassisting phases. This principle can be applied to dance movements as well asmovements from different types of sports (Göhner, 1979, 1992; Schack, 2004;Schack & Mechsner, 2006). For the two movements regarded in this study,functional phases were determined with the help of movement descriptionsfrom the literature (Tarassow, 1977) and classical dance experts, and wereconfirmed by results of a previous study (Bläsing, Tenenbaum, & Schack,2009).

The Pirouette en dehors can be separated into four functional phases.The actual turn, including its initialisation, takes place during the mainfunctional phase. It is prepared for by the plié (i.e., bending the knees), themain component of the primary assisting phase with the function of buildingup spring tension for the turn. During the first part of the preparation, thesecondary assisting phase, the body is aligned facing front, the arms open tothe sides and the non-supporting leg slides sideward; attention is focused on


the following turn. In the following primary assisting phase, the second partof the preparation, the non-supporting leg slides back to the fourth position inwhich it is placed behind the supporting leg, the corresponding arm is movedto the front and the knees are bent (plié). This starting posture, especially therelation of foot distance and weight distribution, is crucial for the dancer’sability to control the turn (Sugano & Laws, 2002). From here, the turn isinitiated by pushing the ground with the non-supporting leg and moving thefoot up to the knee of the supporting leg (where it stays throughout the turn),pushing up onto point or demi-point (the ball of the foot) with the supportingleg, and closing both arms in front. During the final assisting phase, the turnis halted, the non-supporting leg is placed on the ground, the arms open anda terminal pose is adopted.

The Pas assemblé, as a smaller and rather transient movement, can beseparated into three functional phases. The actual jump is the content of themain functional phase. The preparing plié and the landing in final plié arecontent of the assisting functional phases during which spring tension is builtup for the jump and the energy is caught again, respectively. From the plié,one foot slides to the side in such a way that leg and foot are stretched atthe beginning of the jump. Both stretched legs are joined together in the airbefore landing; therefore the Pas assemblé can be understood as a jump fromone foot onto both feet, even though the sliding action also contributes to thelift-off. If the Pas assemblé is performed within a series of jumps, as this isoften the case, the initial and the final assisting phase melt into each other,so that only two functional phases can be distinguished, resulting in a cyclicmovement structure (see Göhner, 1992). Illustrations of the movements andtheir functional phases are given in Figures 1 (Petit pas assemblé) and 2(Pirouette en dehors).

According to the cognitive architecture model (Schack, 2004; Schack &Ritter, 2009), BACs can be understood as functional units for the controlof actions on the level of mental representation, linking goals on the levelof mental control to anticipated perceptual effects of movements. Withinthe movement organization, each BAC is characterised by its typical setof sensory and functional features. As an example, the BAC “bend knees”belonging to the Pirouette en dehors relates to a demi plié in fourth positionthat takes place during the preparation, prior to the turn. It is functionallyrelated, and therefore mentally linked, to functional and perceptual aspectslike building up spring tension for the turn, aligning the shoulders abovethe hips, pulling the knees sideways while bending them and spreading theweight between both feet in a well-balanced way. Potential spatial featuresof this concept therefore are down (movement of the body centre of mass),up (antagonistic straightening and alignment of the torso), far, right and left(knees pulling to the sides).

As anchor concepts in our experimental design, BACs of the Pirouetteen dehors and the Pas assemblé were defined in the form of verbal labels,which is common practice for classical dance. The BACs were defined and


phrased with the help of experienced teachers and dancers as well as stan-dard reference books on classical dance training (Lörinc & Merenyi, 1995;Tarassow, 2005; Vaganova, 2002). The set of BACs for each movement wasarranged in such a way that was valid for experts and amateurs and couldalso be understood by novices after explanation and video demonstration.

Twelve spatial parameters were presented as features that had to berelated to the BACs, namely front, back, left, right, front-left, front-right,back-left, back-right, up, down, close and far. These spatial parameters weredefined in an egocentric frame of reference, from the first person’s perspec-tive, as cues used by the dancers to improve movement stability and qualityof performance, not in an allocentric frame of reference linked to the externalspace in the salle de ballet or the stage. BACs of the Pas assemblé and thePirouette en dehors are displayed in Figures 1 and 2, respectively, togetherwith the stick figure illustrations and functional phases of the movements.

3. PROCEDURE

The experiment took place in a lab at the university or in a quiet officein the theatre. Initially, the movements were demonstrated via a video clipand explained verbally by the experimenter, and the BACs were explainedseparately to assure that the participants had understood their content. Datacollection was conducted using a paper-and-pencil task. For each movement,participants were handed sheets of paper displaying a table with one row foreach BAC and with two columns. In the right column, one BAC was printedin each cell, whereas in the left column, the 12 spatial parameters weredisplayed in the same way for each BAC (see Figure 3). The order of BACswas randomly varied and was different for each participant. Participants wereinstructed to mark with a pencil the spatial parameters that they personallyassociated to performing the part of the movement described by the BAC;this task had to be repeated for each cell.

Participants thereby assigned those spatial features to each individualBAC that they judged as positively associated to it, without being informedabout the position or role of the BAC in the overall movement structure.The experimenter explained that the spatial parameters were explicitly tobe understood in an egocentric frame of reference, from the first person’sperspective, not in an allocentric frame of reference linked to the salle deballet or the stage, where the front is marked by the mirror or the audience,respectively. This was important to mention because in classical dance it iscommon to work with external (allocentric) spatial cues to define directionsfor (partial) movements and to align the dancers’ bodies in space. In thiscase, we were rather interested in the associated (egocentric) spatial cues thatare used by the dancers to improve the stability and quality of movementperformance and that are therefore closely linked to movement structure.During data collection, participants were allowed to stand up and mark or


Figure 3. Example of questionnaire for paper-pencil task. Participants were instructed

to mark as many of the space concept labels as they whished for each BAC, but at

least one and not all of them. BACs appeared in random order, varying for each

participant.

try the movements in order to facilitate their decisions if they wished. Afterthe participants had finished the task, they handed the sheet back to theexperimenter.

Subsequent to the data collection, the experimenter analysed the datausing the Structure Dimensional Analysis-Motorics (SDA-M, Lander &Lange, 1996; Schack, 2004). This method has been used to analyse mentalrepresentations of movements in long-term memory of dancers (Bläsing,Tenenbaum, & Schack, 2009) and athletes (e.g., Schack, 2004; Schack &Mechsner, 2006). The SDA-M consists of four steps: First, a special splittingprocedure involving a multiple sorting task delivers a distance scaling betweenthe BACs of a suitably predetermined set. Second, a hierarchical clusteranalysis is used to transform the set of BACs into a hierarchical structure.Third, a factor analysis reveals the dimensions in this structured set of BACs,and fourth, the cluster solutions are tested for invariance within- and between-groups (for psychometric details, see Schack, 2010). In the present study, themethod was applied to elicit the relational structure of BACs of the two dancemovements in the participants’ long-term memory based on spatial featuresof performance.

The experimental procedure started by collecting information on the rep-resentational distance between selected BACs (step 1) through the application


of a special splitting technique in which participants judged each featurefrom the given set as associated or not associated to each of the BACs. Inthis study, this was achieved here via the paper-and-pencil task describedabove. The set of spatial features was thereby split into a group of associateditems (marked by the participant) and a group of not associated items (notmarked by the participant) for each anchor (BAC). In the tables handed outto the participants, each BAC was presented as anchor with the full set ofspatial features, and participants had to assign the features to each of theanchors.

From this procedure resulted a matrix of partial quantities (BACs �

features; i.e., a 16 � 12 matrix for the Pirouette, and a 9 � 12 matrix for thePas assemblé). In this matrix, values took either a negative or positive signdepending on whether the feature was judged as belonging to or not belongingto the anchor (e.g., if 4 out of the 12 features were judged as belonging to aBAC, these items were each given the value C4, whereas the remaining eightfeatures judged as not belonging to the BAC were each given the value �8).The resulting values were then z-transformed and subsequently transformedinto Euclidian distances.

The individual representation structure was determined by means of ahierarchical cluster analysis in Euclidian workspace (step 2). For the clusteranalyses, alpha-levels of ˛ D 0:05 for the Pas assemblé and ˛ D 0:01 forthe Pirouette were used, resulting in probabilities of error of dcr i t D 3:49 forthe Pas assemblé and dcr i t D 4:59 for the Pirouette en dehors. To determineclassification probabilities of features in relation to BACs, the initial z-matrixwas transformed into a probability matrix; this p-matrix consists of p-valuesthat indicate the classification probabilities of features to individual BACsbelonging to clusters. In this study, only p-values above a critical value ofpcr i t D 0:7 were considered as relevant. The factor analysis (step 3) thatcan be applied for direct scaling methods (BAC � BAC) to reveal conceptsdimensions was not relevant in this case and was therefore not used here,because spatial features were already predetermined as scaling criteria in thecurrent study.

Finally (step 4), a pair-wise between-group comparison of the clustersolutions was performed using an invariance measure � to determine theirstructural invariance (Lander, 1991; Schack, 2010).

The structural invariance measure � was determined based on threedefined values, the number of constructed clusters of the pair-wise clustersolutions, the number of elements (concepts) within the constructed clusters,and the average quantities of the constructed clusters. The � value was cal-culated as the square root of the product of the weighted arithmetic means ofthe relative average quantities of the constructed clusters and the proportionalnumber of clusters in the compared cluster solutions. In the present analysis,two structures were declared invariant if they possessed a higher � value thanthe defined differential threshold �cr i t D 0:68.


4. RESULTS

4.1. Petit Pas Assemblé

The cluster solutions of the experts’ group included three clusters, whereasthe amateurs’ and the novices’ cluster solutions included two clusters each.Both the experts and the amateurs defined a cluster for the main functionalphase that included the movement concepts 3 (right foot slides to side), 4(lift right leg), 5 (jump from left leg) and 6 (stretch left leg in air). Bothgroups associated this cluster mainly with the spatial concepts up and right,and partially with far. In both groups, BAC 3 was also associated with down.

The experts combined the remaining BACs in two clusters, one consistingof BACs 1 (stand, left foot in front) and 7 (join legs) associated with up,front and close, and the other one consisting of BACs 2 (bend knees) and 8(land on both feet) mainly associated with down. Amateurs combined all fiveremaining BACs in one cluster associated with front, and partially with closeand down. Novices defined two clusters including BACs 2, 8 and 9 (bendknees, stretch) associated with down and close, the other one including BACs3 and 4 associated with right and far. Results of the invariance analysis showedthat cluster solutions of all experimental groups differed significantly fromeach other (experts vs. amateurs: � D 0:51, amateurs vs. novices: � D 0:61,experts vs. novices: � D 0:42). Cluster solutions for the Pas assemblé arepresented as dendrograms in Figure 4 on the left, and clusters associated withdirection concepts are presented in Table 1.

4.2. Pirouette en Dehors

The cluster solution of the experts’ group included two clusters, the largerone consisting of BACs 9 (close arms), 10 (push left leg into ground), 11(right foot up to left knee) and 12 (turn head), the smaller one consisting ofBACs 2 (open arms for preparation) and 3 (right foot slides to side). Thelarger cluster was associated with the spatial features up and close, whereasthe smaller one was associated with up, front, right and far. The amateurs’cluster solution included three clusters, a large one consisting of BACs 1(stand, right foot in front), 4 (move right arm to front), 7 (locate eye focus),9 and 13 (relocate eye focus) and two pairs, BACs 6 (bend knees) and 16(bend knees, stretch) and BACs 10 and 11.

The large cluster was strongly associated with the spatial concept front,the pairs were mainly associated with down and front and with up andfront, respectively. The results of the novices’ group did not contain anycluster. Results of the invariance analysis revealed that the cluster solutionsof amateurs and experts differed significantly from each other .� D 0:34/.Cluster solutions for the Pirouette en dehors are presented as dendrograms


Figure 4. Results of the cluster analysis via SDA-M for the Petit pas assemblé (left

column) and the Pirouette en dehors (right column) displayed as dendrograms. Top

panel: experts (Pas assemblé: N D 15; Pirouette: N D 17); middle panel: amateurs

(N D 18); bottom panel: novices (N D 19). Numbers on the bottom line mark BACs,

boxes indicate clusters; numbers on the right (relating to links between items, i.e.,

horizontal bars in the dendrogram) indicate Euclidean distances between BACs (the

lower the link between items, the shorter is the distance between the corresponding

BACs in long-term memory). The horizontal dashed line indicates the dcr i t value

for the given ˛ probability; only structural links below this value are considered

relevant (Petit pas assemblé: ˛ D 0:05, dcr i t D 3:49; Pirouette en dehors: ˛ D 0:01,

dcr i t D 4:59). BACs of the Petit pas assemblé (left): (1) stand, left foot in front;

(2) bend knees; (3) right foot slides to side; (4) lift right leg; (5) jump from left leg;

(6) stretch left leg in air; (7) join legs; (8) land on both feet; (9) bend knees, stretch;

BACs of the Pirouette en dehors (right): (1) stand, right foot in front; (2) open arms

for preparation; (3) right foot slides to side; (4) move right arm to front; (5) move

right foot back; (6) bend knees; (7) locate eye focus; (8) stabilize body axis; (9) close

arms; (10) push left leg into ground; (11) right foot up to left knee; (12) turn head;

(13) relocate eye focus; (14) close right foot behind left; (15) open arms after turn;

(16) bend knees, stretch.


Table 1. Petit pas assemblé: cluster solutions (SDA-M) and associated space

direction concepts

Group Clusters Basic action concepts Associated space direction concepts

Experts I 1. stand, left foot in front up (.88), front (.84), close (.72)

7. join legs up (.96), front (.73), close (.82)

II 2. bend knees down (.92), up (.77)

8. land on both feet down (.95), close (.77)

III* 3. right foot slides to side up (.77), right (.91), far (.70), down (.76)

4. lift right leg up (.92), right (.95), far (.73)

5. jump from left leg up (.97), right (.81)

6. stretch left leg in air up (.98), right (.74)

Amateurs I 1. stand, left foot in front front (.96), close (.88)

2. bend knees front (.87), down (.96)

7. join legs front (.85), close (.80), up (.73)

8. land on both feet front (.89), close (.85), down (.95)

9. bend knees, stretch front (.92), close (.81), down (.92), up (.70)

II* 3. right foot slides to side up (.73), right (.95)

4. lift right leg up (.92), right (.95), far (.81)

5. jump from left leg up (.97), right (.84), far (.77), front (.70)

6. stretch left leg in air up (.97), right (.73), far (.76)

Novices I 2. bend knees down (.99), close (.73)

8. land on both feet down (.97), close (.81), front (.79)

9. bend knees, stretch down (.99), close (.71)

II 3. right foot slides to side right (.94), far (.80)

4. lift right leg right (.92), far (.86), up (.87)

Numbers in the last column mark probability values (only p-values above a critical value of

pcrit D 0:7 are considered); *cluster corresponding to the main functional phase.

in Figure 4 on the right, and clusters associated with direction concepts arepresented in Table 2.

5. DISCUSSION

Before we turn to the general discussion, results for each of the two move-ments will be discussed separately. For the Petit pas assemblé, experts andamateurs defined one cluster that corresponded directly to the main functionalphase. Both groups associated this phase mainly to the spatial concepts up andright. Amateurs combined all other BACs into one cluster, associated withfront and close. This cluster solution might reflect the following situation:if the Pas assemblé is performed in a series of small steps and jumps, thetwo assisting functional phases melt into each other, comparable to those ofa cyclic movement. According to Göhner (1992), initial and final assistingphases of cyclic movements, such as turns in alpine skiing, melt into eachother if the movement is performed in the usual fluent way (i.e., not separatedartificially, e.g., for demonstration purposes).


Table 2. Pirouette en dehors: cluster solutions (SDA-M) and associated space

direction concepts

Group Clusters Basic action concepts Associated space direction concepts

Experts I 2. open arms for preparation up (.88), front (.84), right (.76), far (.75), left (.71)

3. right foot slides to side up (.80), front (.79), right (.83), far (.81)

II* 9. close arms up (.89), close (.87), front (.81)

10. push left leg into ground up (.96), close (.82)

11. right foot up to left knee up (.95), close (.76)

12. turn head up (.87), close (.84), front (.94)

Amateurs I 1. stand, right foot in front front (.96), close (.87)

4. move right arm to front front (.97)

7. locate eye focus front (.98), far (.70)

9. close arms front (.95), close (.94)

13. relocate eye focus front (.98)

II 6. bend knees down (.95), front (.79)

16. bend knees, stretch down (.92), front (.79), up (.76), close (.76)

III 10. push left leg into ground up (.96), front (.87)

11. right foot up to left knee up (.93), front (.78), right (.76)

Numbers in the last column mark probability values (only p-values above a critical value of pcrit D 0:7

are considered); * cluster corresponding to the main functional phase.

This also applies to the Pas assemblé in the case that it is performedas part of a sequence of jumps. It seems therefore plausible to assumethat mentally structuring the movement in this way facilitates the executionof the Pas assemblé in its usual form, as part of a sequence. The expertsalso combined BACs of the two assisting phases, but they appeared in twopairs of clusters characterised by different associated spatial features; onewas most strongly linked to the upward direction, whereas the other wasrather linked to the downward direction. This result might reflect a moredifferentiated spatial representation, but violates the correct time structure ofthe movement. Novices formed two clusters; one of the clusters containedtwo BACs belonging to the main functional phase, but associated them withthe spatial features right and far instead of up, which would have beenfunctionally adequate for a jump. The other cluster combined BACs from theassisting phases in a similar way as in the amateurs and experts and associatedthem with down and close. In general, the upward direction was hardly presentin the novices’ results, whereas it clearly dominated the representation ofthe main functional phase in the amateurs and experts, as expected for ajump.

Results of the Pirouette en dehors differ profoundly from those of the Pasassemblé. Crucially, novices did not produce any cluster at all, and clustersolutions of experts and amateurs differed more obviously than for the Pasassemblé. Comparing the cluster solutions of the experts and the amateurs,it stands out that one of the clusters defined by the experts clearly reflectedthe main functional phase of the Pirouette en dehors, and the second clusterincluded two BACs that belonged to the secondary assisting phase of thepreparation. In contrast, none of the amateurs’ clusters clearly reflected anyof the functional phases, even though the third cluster contained two BACs


belonging to the main functional phase. Both experts and amateurs associatedthe cluster corresponding to the main functional phase with the spatial conceptup. The amateurs also associated it with front, whereas the experts associatedit with close, which is likely to reflect an active tightening and pulling inorder to stabilize the turning axis and increase turning speed. The latteraspect is specifically important during the turning phase in which bodyrotation is mainly based on inertia and no active motion of body parts occursexcept for isolated turns of the head (see Sugano & Laws, 2002). Dynamicstability during whole body rotations requires stabilization of the turning axis,especially of the supporting leg, as well as stable alignment of shoulders andhips. In a study by Golomer, Touissant, Bouillette, and Keller (2009), dancersmaintained shoulders and hips en bloc for turns in both directions, whereasin untrained controls, shoulder hip angles deviated depending on the turningdirection, supporting leg and phase of the turn. Empirical findings like thissuggest that control of dynamic equilibrium during whole-body rotations isbased on learned strategies that are highly sensitive to training effects, andmental association of adequate spatial parameters such as up and close mostlikely belongs to these strategies.

Taking the presented results of both movements into account, we wouldlike to emphasize three major aspects. First, the study revealed differencesbetween professional dancers, amateurs and novices regarding their mentalrepresentations of the two movements based on associated spatial parameters.Secondly, the way in which cluster solutions of professional dancers, amateursand novices differed was in a remarkable way movement-specific. For the Pasassemblé, similar representations referring clearly to the functional phasesemerged in amateurs and professional dancers, with the main functional phasebeing characterised by adequate spatial parameters, and a less functionalrepresentation emerged in the novices. For the Pirouette, the experts’ structurewas the only one that contained functional clusters based on adequate spatialparameters, whereas the amateurs‘ cluster solution was not functional, andnovices did not produce any cluster. These results suggest that well definedspatial parameters in long-term memory might be specific for highly skilledexperts, especially for complex movements such as the Pirouette. Therefore,the approach taken here could represent a rather sensitive measure of move-ment expertise.

A third aspect arises when we look at a former study by Bläsing, Tenen-baum, and Schack (2009) and compare the results to those of the cur-rent study. This comparison shows that cluster solutions obtained via directand indirect scaling differ in a way that is specific not only for the levelof expertise and movement type, but also for the criteria on which thescaling is based. In the previous study, the same two dance movements,the Petit pas assemblé and the Pirouette en dehors, were analysed usingthe SDA-M method based on direct scaling (BAC � BAC), without thedefinition of concept features as scaling criteria (Bläsing, Tenenbaum, &Schack, 2009).


In the results for the Pirouette en dehors, professional dancers’ andadvanced amateurs’ representational structures reflected the complete fourfunctional phases, whereas the beginners’ cluster solution showed only asmall consistency with the functional phases, and the novices’ results didnot show any structure at all. For the Pas assemblé, only the experts’ groupincluded the main functional phase into one cluster, whereas amateurs andnovices separated the main functional phase in a way that reflects a non-functional integration of this part of the movement. In contrast, in the currentstudy functional clusters occurred almost exclusively for the main functionalphases of the movements, and for the more complex movement, the Pirouette,this was only the case for the experts.

This finding might be explained by the assumption that the spatial pa-rameters used here as scaling criteria did not suffice for characterizing theconcept features completely, and that other (e.g., temporal) features wouldbe needed to determine the complete cluster solutions that were obtainedin the previous study via direct scaling. In another previous study, mentalrepresentations of the front loop in wind surfing were determined by directscaling (BAC � BAC) and by indirect scaling (BAC � feature) via temporal,spatial and force features. Cluster solutions of both approaches showed a highsimilarity, suggesting that the set of features in this case was sufficient to spanthe feature space of the movement concepts (Schack, 2010). This was notthe case in the current study, however, it can be concluded from the currentresults that, at least for dance experts, spatial parameters in an egocentricreference frame are a major factor determining movement organisation onthe level of the main movement goal.

Dancers’ extensive and specific movement experience evidently shapestheir cognitive representation of movement-related spatial information. Thepresented findings shall therefore be regarded in the context of research inves-tigating the role of motor expertise and kinaesthetic experience for knowledgerepresentation. According to the embodiment perspective, cognitive processesare strongly influenced by sensory and motor processes. This implies thatsimilarities in frequently performed motor actions generate similar mentalrepresentations of movement and space.

Dance experts represent a valuable group of individuals to study thisprinciple; trained dancers differ from other individuals in terms of theirphysical configuration, motor experience and cognitive control of movementtasks. Recently, several authors have turned to expert and novice dancers toinvestigate how motor expertise shapes brain activity in action observation,and how the brain links action with perception in learning coordinated full-body movements. Studies using fMRI revealed that expert dancers showincreased activity in specific brain areas including inferior parietal and pre-motor cortices while watching movements from their own motor repertoire,compared with similar movements from a different discipline they had notperformed before (Calvo-Merino, Glaser, Grèzes, Passingham, & Haggard,2005; Cross, Hamilton, & Grafton, 2006). In an EEG study, dancers showed


stronger de-synchronization of the motor cortex (indicating motor simulation)than non-dancers while watching dance movements (Orgs, Dombrowski, Heil,& Jansen-Osmann, 2008).

Subsequent studies were carried out to further dissociate how brain re-sponses during action observation are modified by visual or motor experience.In a study by Calvo-Merino and colleagues, male and female dancers watchedcommon gender-neutral movements as well as gender-specific movementsthat are exclusively performed by either males or females (Calvo-Merino,Grèzes, Glaser, Passingham, & Haggard, 2006). The authors found that pre-motor and parietal regions responded specifically to movements the observershad practiced compared to movements that were only visually familiar. In astudy with novice dancers learning movement sequences by either physicalpractice or passive observation, Cross and colleagues demonstrated similari-ties between physical and observational learning within parietal and premotorregions, supporting the notion that physical and observational learning shapebrain and behavior in a similar way (Cross, Kraemer, Hamilton, Kelley, &Grafton, 2009). Evidence from these studies suggests that motor experienceinfluences the brain processes involved in action observation, implying thatexperts differ from novices in their perception and subjective experience ofmovement tasks.

Empirical evidence also exists for the notion that the nature and vividnessof embodied representations is influenced by dance training. A special toolused strategically by dancers for learning and optimizing movements is themental imagery of movement. Dancers use mental imagery to exercise thememorization of long complex phrases and to improve movement qualityin terms of spatiotemporal adaptation and artistic expression. Dance traininghas been found to increase the amount and efficiency of kinaesthetic imageryand to enhance the imagery of kinaesthetic sensations, making images morecomplex and vivid (Golomer, Bouillette, Mertz, & Keller, 2008; Nordin &Cumming, 2007).

Empirical findings have corroborated that motor imagery is based onsimulation processes that recruit motor representations, and that imagery,observation and execution of movement have been found to share a major partof their neural correlates (Jeannerod, 1995, 2001; Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz,2007a, 2007b). Motor imagery in the absence of sensory input was found tospecifically necessitate internal motor attention processes (Munzert, Zentgraf,Stark, & Vaitl, 2008). Increased beta activity in a broad range of corticalareas also indicated states of high concentration (Blaser & Hökelmann, 2004,2009).

The flexible and adaptive deployment of spatial and temporal movementcharacteristics in imagery is a cognitive tool used by dancers who train ona high level. Specifically, associating spatial parameters in an egocentricreference frame to movement representations in order to improve the stabilityand quality of movement performance is common practice in various dancedisciplines. Based on the findings that execution, performance and imagery of


movements share neural correlates, and that dance experts use motor and ki-naesthetic imagery in their training, including imagery of body-centred spatialparameters, results of the current study suggest that dance experts developspecific cognitive representations of dance movements via a combinationof extensive motor experience and strategically applied techniques. Thesemental representations involve spatial features of movement concepts in away that is empirically accessible and that is likely to play a major role insupporting dancers’ high-level performance. Dance experts evidently differfrom novices in the way they use embodied processes, specifically spatialinformation associated to movement tasks.

6. CONCLUSION

Dance experts, compared with novices and amateurs, have special embodiedrepresentations of dance movements that include information about spatialparameters in an egocentric frame of reference. The analysis of mental rep-resentations of classical dance movements via their associated spatial param-eters revealed representation structures that differentiated the three expertise-based groups in a movement-specific way. Main phases of both movementtasks were represented in the cluster solutions obtained via adequate spatialfeatures; for the more complex movement, this was only the case for thegroup of professional dancers. The results differed from those obtained in aprevious study (Bläsing, Tenenbaum, & Schack, 2009) in which no spatialconcept features had been predefined as scaling criteria; in this case experts’and advanced amateurs’ results reflected the complete movement structuresrepresented as functional phases.

It can be concluded that expert training in dance results in mental repre-sentations of embodied tasks that can be empirically differentiated from ama-teurs’ and novices’ representations via the spatial features of their movementconcepts. Findings support the general perspective that embodied processesin spatial cognition can be strategically applied to reach goals, adding thenotion that this might require specialist training, extensive motor experienceand a high performance level as it is found in professional dancers. Danceexperts evidently represent a valuable group to investigate in how far motorexperience plays a crucial role in shaping differences in embodiment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the dancers and the management of the aaltoballett theater essen, Ballett Dortmund, Tanztheater Bielefeld, and all otherparticipants. Specifically, we thank Martin Puttke for fruitful discussions andprofessional advice on classical dance technique.


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