meeting the instructional needs of students with reading disabilities: issues in prevention and...
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Meeting the Instructional Needs of Meeting the Instructional Needs of Students with Reading Students with Reading
Disabilities: Issues in Prevention Disabilities: Issues in Prevention and Remediationand Remediation
Dr. Joseph K. TorgesenDr. Joseph K. TorgesenFlorida State University and Florida State University and
Florida Center for Reading ResearchFlorida Center for Reading Research
Council for Exceptional Children, South Carolina, January, 2005Council for Exceptional Children, South Carolina, January, 2005
First ReaderFirst ReaderBy Billy CollinsBy Billy Collins
I can see them standing politely on the wide pages that I was still learning to I can see them standing politely on the wide pages that I was still learning to turn, Jane in a blue jumper, Dick with his crayon-brown hair, playing with a ball turn, Jane in a blue jumper, Dick with his crayon-brown hair, playing with a ball or exploring the cosmos of the backyard, unaware they are the first characters, or exploring the cosmos of the backyard, unaware they are the first characters, the boy and girl who begin fiction.the boy and girl who begin fiction.
Beyond the simple illustrations of their neighborhood, the other protagonists Beyond the simple illustrations of their neighborhood, the other protagonists were waiting in a huddle: frightening Heathcliff, frightened Pip, Nick Adams were waiting in a huddle: frightening Heathcliff, frightened Pip, Nick Adams carrying a fishing rod, Emma Bovary riding into Rouen.carrying a fishing rod, Emma Bovary riding into Rouen.
But I would read about the perfect boy and his sister even before I would read But I would read about the perfect boy and his sister even before I would read about Adam and Eve, garden and gate, and before I heard the name Gutenberg, about Adam and Eve, garden and gate, and before I heard the name Gutenberg, the type of their simple talk was moving into my focusing eyes.the type of their simple talk was moving into my focusing eyes.
It was always Saturday and he and she were always pointing at something It was always Saturday and he and she were always pointing at something and shouting, “Look!” pointing at the dog, the bicycle, or at their father as and shouting, “Look!” pointing at the dog, the bicycle, or at their father as he pushed a hand mower over the lawn, waving at aproned mother framed he pushed a hand mower over the lawn, waving at aproned mother framed in the kitchen doorway, pointing toward the sky, pointing at each other.in the kitchen doorway, pointing toward the sky, pointing at each other.
They wanted us to look but we had looked already and seen the shaded They wanted us to look but we had looked already and seen the shaded lawn, the wagon, the postman. We had seen the dog, walked, watered and lawn, the wagon, the postman. We had seen the dog, walked, watered and fed the animal, and now it was time to discover the infinite, clicking fed the animal, and now it was time to discover the infinite, clicking permutations of the alphabet’s small and capital letters. Alphabetical permutations of the alphabet’s small and capital letters. Alphabetical ourselves in the rows of classroom desks, we were forgetting how to look, ourselves in the rows of classroom desks, we were forgetting how to look, learning how to read.learning how to read.
What is the most important What is the most important single goal of reading single goal of reading instruction?instruction?To help students acquire all the To help students acquire all the skills and knowledge they need skills and knowledge they need to comprehend text fluently.to comprehend text fluently.
What we know about the factors that What we know about the factors that affect reading comprehensionaffect reading comprehension
Proficient comprehension of text is influenced by:Proficient comprehension of text is influenced by:
Accurate and fluent word reading skillsAccurate and fluent word reading skills
Oral language skills (vocabulary, linguistic comprehension)Oral language skills (vocabulary, linguistic comprehension)
Extent of conceptual and factual knowledgeExtent of conceptual and factual knowledge
Knowledge and skill in use of cognitive strategies to Knowledge and skill in use of cognitive strategies to improve comprehension or repair it when it breaks down.improve comprehension or repair it when it breaks down.
Reasoning and inferential skillsReasoning and inferential skills
Motivation to understand and interest in task and Motivation to understand and interest in task and materialsmaterials
In other words, student’s reading In other words, student’s reading comprehension depends on:comprehension depends on:
How well they read the words on the How well they read the words on the pagepage
How much they know, and how well How much they know, and how well they thinkthey think
How motivated they are to do “the How motivated they are to do “the work” of comprehensionwork” of comprehension
Reading is a multifaceted skill, gradually acquired over years of instruction and practice.
The Many Strands that are Woven into Skilled Reading(Scarborough, 2001)
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES VERBAL REASONING
LITERACY KNOWLEDGE
PHON. AWARENESS
DECODING (and SPELLING) SIGHT RECOGNITION
SKILLED READING: fluent execution and coordination of word recognition and text comprehension.
LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
WORD RECOGNITION
increasingly
automatic
increasingly
strategic
1. Difficulty learning to 1. Difficulty learning to read wordsread words accurately and fluently accurately and fluently
2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and 2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and reasoning skills to support reasoning skills to support comprehensioncomprehension of of written languagewritten language
3. Absence or loss of initial 3. Absence or loss of initial motivationmotivation to read, or failure to read, or failure to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of reading.reading.
Three potential stumbling blocks to Three potential stumbling blocks to becoming a good readerbecoming a good reader (NRC Report, 1998)(NRC Report, 1998)
The majority of children who The majority of children who experience reading problems in experience reading problems in elementary school have early elementary school have early
difficulties acquiring accurate and difficulties acquiring accurate and fluent word reading skills beginning in fluent word reading skills beginning in
kindergartenkindergarten
Difficulties mastering the use of “phonics” skills Difficulties mastering the use of “phonics” skills as an aid to accurate, independent readingas an aid to accurate, independent reading
• difficulties learning letter-sound correspondencesdifficulties learning letter-sound correspondences• difficulties with the skills of blending and analyzing difficulties with the skills of blending and analyzing
the sounds in words (phonemic awareness). the sounds in words (phonemic awareness).
Slow development of “sight vocabulary” Slow development of “sight vocabulary” arising from:arising from:
•limited exposure to textlimited exposure to text•lack of strategies to reliably identify words in textlack of strategies to reliably identify words in text
By third grade, children who experience difficulties By third grade, children who experience difficulties acquiring accurate and fluent word reading skills show two acquiring accurate and fluent word reading skills show two kinds of difficulties when reading grade level textkinds of difficulties when reading grade level text
When asked to read grade level text:When asked to read grade level text:
1. The child cannot recognize a sufficiently high 1. The child cannot recognize a sufficiently high proportion of the words easily, at a single glance, proportion of the words easily, at a single glance, to support fluent reading. Too many of the words to support fluent reading. Too many of the words fall outside the child’s “sight vocabulary.”fall outside the child’s “sight vocabulary.”
2. The child does not employ efficient strategies to 2. The child does not employ efficient strategies to accurately and quickly identify unknown words. Use accurately and quickly identify unknown words. Use of phonemic decoding strategies is particularly of phonemic decoding strategies is particularly impaired. impaired.
December, 3rd Grade
Correct word/minute=60
19th percentile
The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party
My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses on them….. return addresses on them…..
December, 3rd Grade
Correct word/minute=128
78th percentile
The Surprise PartyThe Surprise Party
My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom My dad had his fortieth birthday last month, so my mom planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with planned a big surprise party for him. She said I could assist with the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I the party but that I had to keep the party a secret. She said I couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. couldn’t tell my dad because that would spoil the surprise. I helped mom organize the guest list and write the I helped mom organize the guest list and write the invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was invitations. I was responsible for making sure everyone was included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and included. I also addressed all the envelopes and put stamps and return addresses on them….. return addresses on them…..
The nature of the underlying difficulty for most The nature of the underlying difficulty for most children who have problems acquiring children who have problems acquiring
accurate and fluent word reading abilityaccurate and fluent word reading ability
Weaknesses in the phonological area of language Weaknesses in the phonological area of language abilityability
Expressed in Expressed in kindergartenkindergarten by poor development of by poor development of phonemic awareness and letter-sound knowledgephonemic awareness and letter-sound knowledge
lack of certain types of language experiencelack of certain types of language experienceinherent, or intrinsic, disabilityinherent, or intrinsic, disability
Expressed in Expressed in 11stst and 2 and 2ndnd grade grade by poor by poor development of phonemic decoding skillsdevelopment of phonemic decoding skills
Phonological Language Ability is not highly Correlated with General Verbal Ability as measured by IQ tests
Verbal Intelligence
Pho
nolo
gica
l A
bilit
y
Low High
High
Low
Dyslexic
Phonological Language Ability is not highly Correlated with General Verbal Ability as measured by IQ tests
Verbal Intelligence
Pho
nolo
gica
l A
bilit
y
Low High
High
Low
Dyslexic
1. Children with reading problems not discrepant 1. Children with reading problems not discrepant from their intelligence appear to have the same from their intelligence appear to have the same type of problems with early reading as children type of problems with early reading as children whose reading is discrepant from their IQ: they whose reading is discrepant from their IQ: they both have difficulties resulting from weaknesses in both have difficulties resulting from weaknesses in the phonological domain.the phonological domain.
3. Discrepant and non-discrepant children require the 3. Discrepant and non-discrepant children require the same type of instruction in basic reading skills in same type of instruction in basic reading skills in order to acquire critical beginning reading skills.order to acquire critical beginning reading skills.
What is the fundamental conceptual error in using IQ-What is the fundamental conceptual error in using IQ-achievement discrepancies to identify young children with achievement discrepancies to identify young children with reading disabilities?reading disabilities?
2. “Slow learners” have difficulties learning to read, not 2. “Slow learners” have difficulties learning to read, not because of low IQ, but because of weaknesses in because of low IQ, but because of weaknesses in the phonological language domain. the phonological language domain.
Very simply putVery simply put, we have two broad classes of children , we have two broad classes of children who experience difficulties learning to read in school:who experience difficulties learning to read in school:
Children who enter school with adequate general verbal Children who enter school with adequate general verbal ability and knowledge, but specific weaknesses in the ability and knowledge, but specific weaknesses in the phonological language domainphonological language domain
These children we have referred to These children we have referred to as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”
A new science based definition --A new science based definition --
““Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.” effective classroom instruction.” (Lyon & (Lyon &
Shaywitz, 2003)Shaywitz, 2003)
These children we have referred to These children we have referred to as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”
A new science based definition --A new science based definition --
““Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is is neurobiological in originneurobiological in origin. It is . It is characterized by difficulties with characterized by difficulties with accurate accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.spelling and decoding abilities. These These difficulties typically result from a deficit in difficulties typically result from a deficit in the the phonological component of languagephonological component of language that is often that is often unexpectedunexpected in relation to other in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.” effective classroom instruction.”
(Lyon & Shaywitz, 2003)(Lyon & Shaywitz, 2003)
These children we have referred to These children we have referred to as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”
A new science based definition --A new science based definition --
SecondarySecondary consequences may include consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”knowledge.”
Lyon, G.R. & Shaywitz, S.E. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Lyon, G.R. & Shaywitz, S.E. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1-14, 1-14
Phonological Language Ability is not highly Correlated with General Verbal Ability as measured by IQ tests
Verbal Intelligence
Pho
nolo
gica
l A
bilit
y
Low High
High
Low
Dyslexic
Must a child have intelligence in the averageMust a child have intelligence in the averagerange to be diagnosed as dyslexic?range to be diagnosed as dyslexic?
This answer was based on the following beliefs This answer was based on the following beliefs about differences between “dyslexics” and about differences between “dyslexics” and “slow learners”“slow learners”
Recent research has shown these beliefs to be Recent research has shown these beliefs to be incorrectincorrect
The traditional answer to this question has The traditional answer to this question has been been yesyes..
Their reading problems had different causesTheir reading problems had different causes
They had different prognosesThey had different prognoses
They required different treatmentsThey required different treatments
Phonological Language Ability is not highly Correlated with General Verbal Ability as measured by IQ tests
Verbal Intelligence
Pho
nolo
gica
l A
bilit
y
Low High
High
Low
Dyslexic
Very simply putVery simply put, we have two broad classes of children , we have two broad classes of children who experience difficulties learning to read in school:who experience difficulties learning to read in school:
Children who enter school with adequate general verbal Children who enter school with adequate general verbal ability and knowledge, but specific weaknesses in the ability and knowledge, but specific weaknesses in the phonological language domainphonological language domain
Children who enter school with weaknesses in the Children who enter school with weaknesses in the phonological language domain, phonological language domain, who also havewho also have weaknesses in broader language domains such as weaknesses in broader language domains such as vocabulary and verbal knowledgevocabulary and verbal knowledge
Both groups have the same phonological problem that Both groups have the same phonological problem that makes it difficult to learn to read, but only one group (the makes it difficult to learn to read, but only one group (the discrepant one) is eligible for services as learning discrepant one) is eligible for services as learning disabled.disabled.
Summary Statement: Two broad areas of weakness Summary Statement: Two broad areas of weakness in language and/or cognition can make it difficult for in language and/or cognition can make it difficult for children to acquire proficient reading skills by third children to acquire proficient reading skills by third gradegrade
Weaknesses in the phonological area of language ability Weaknesses in the phonological area of language ability Weaknesses in broad verbal ability (knowledge and/or Weaknesses in broad verbal ability (knowledge and/or verbal reasoningverbal reasoning
These weaknesses can have at least two kinds of These weaknesses can have at least two kinds of causes:causes:
Biologically based – inherent or result of disease or Biologically based – inherent or result of disease or deprivationdeprivation
Environmentally based – result of lack of certain kinds of Environmentally based – result of lack of certain kinds of language or cognitive experience in the homelanguage or cognitive experience in the home
Each of these kinds of weakness is normally distributed in the population
100
50th
85
16th
70
2nd
130
98th
115
84th
Standard Scores
Percentile Ranks
Moderate difficulties-like David
Each of these kinds of weakness is normally distributed in the population
100
50th
85
16th
70
2nd
130
98th
115
84th
Standard Scores
Percentile Ranks
Serious difficulties-probably require special interventions and a lot of extra support
30
70 75th
50th
25th
October January May
Nati
on
al
Perc
en
tile
Growth in Word Reading Ability
About 1.6% of student population
A model for preventing reading failure in A model for preventing reading failure in grades K-3: The big Ideasgrades K-3: The big Ideas
1. Increase the quality, consistency, and reach 1. Increase the quality, consistency, and reach of instruction in every K-3 classroomof instruction in every K-3 classroom
2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of 2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of reading growth to identify struggling readersreading growth to identify struggling readers
3. Provide more intensive interventions to 3. Provide more intensive interventions to “catch up” the struggling readers“catch up” the struggling readers
The prevention of reading difficulties is a The prevention of reading difficulties is a school-level challengeschool-level challenge
Three Definitions of Schools
A series of autonomous classrooms that are connected by a common parking lot.
A place where the relatively young watch the relatively old work.
A complex organization that is built upon relationships that require individuals to work interdependently.
Evidence from one school that we Evidence from one school that we cancan do do substantially better than ever beforesubstantially better than ever before
School Characteristics:School Characteristics:
70% Free and Reduced Lunch (going up each 70% Free and Reduced Lunch (going up each year)year)
65% minority (mostly African-American)65% minority (mostly African-American)
Elements of Curriculum Change:Elements of Curriculum Change:
Movement to a more balanced reading curriculum Movement to a more balanced reading curriculum beginning in 1994-1995 school year (incomplete beginning in 1994-1995 school year (incomplete implementation) for K-2implementation) for K-2Improved implementation in 1995-1996Improved implementation in 1995-1996Implementation in Fall of 1996 of screening and Implementation in Fall of 1996 of screening and more intensive small group instruction for at-risk more intensive small group instruction for at-risk studentsstudents
Proportion falling below the 25th
percentile in word reading ability at the end of first grade 10
20
3031.8
20.4
10.96.7
3.7
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 48.9 55.2 61.4 73.5 81.7for entire grade (n=105)
Hartsfield Elementary Progress over five years
Screening at beginning of first grade, with extra instruction for those in bottom 30-40%
Proportion falling below the 25th
Percentile 10
20
30
Proportion falling below the 25th
Percentile 10
20
30
31.8
20.4
10.96.7
3.7
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Average Percentile 48.9 55.2 61.4 73.5 81.7
14.5
9.05.4 2.4
1996 1997 1998 1999
Average Percentile 58.2 67.1 74.1 81.5
Hartsfield Elementary Progress over five years
Principals, classroom teachers, and Principals, classroom teachers, and special education teachers must work special education teachers must work interdependently to leave no child behindinterdependently to leave no child behind
1. Increase the quality, consistency, and 1. Increase the quality, consistency, and reach of instruction in every K-3 classroomreach of instruction in every K-3 classroom
2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of 2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of reading growth to identify struggling readersreading growth to identify struggling readers
3. Provide more intensive interventions to 3. Provide more intensive interventions to “catch up” the struggling readers“catch up” the struggling readers
A model for preventing reading failure in A model for preventing reading failure in grades K-3: The big Ideasgrades K-3: The big Ideas
1. Increase the quality, consistency, and 1. Increase the quality, consistency, and reach of instruction in every K-3 classroomreach of instruction in every K-3 classroom
2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of 2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of reading growth to identify struggling reading growth to identify struggling readersreaders
3. Provide more intensive interventions to 3. Provide more intensive interventions to “catch up” the struggling readers“catch up” the struggling readers
A central problem in reading A central problem in reading instruction arises, not from the instruction arises, not from the absoluteabsolute level of children’s level of children’s preparation for learning to read, preparation for learning to read, but from the but from the diversitydiversity in their in their levels of preparationlevels of preparation(Olson, 1998)(Olson, 1998)
Why is good early assessment so critical?Why is good early assessment so critical?
Two kinds of assessments that are not Two kinds of assessments that are not commonly done are required in a commonly done are required in a school levelschool level system for leaving no child behindsystem for leaving no child behind
If we do these assessments well we will not If we do these assessments well we will not overlook our students who are less well overlook our students who are less well prepared and who are not making adquate prepared and who are not making adquate progress in learning to readprogress in learning to read
Screening assessmentsScreening assessments
Progress monitoring assessmentsProgress monitoring assessments
What can teachers learn from reliable screening What can teachers learn from reliable screening measures?measures?
ScreeningScreening
Which children are entering my class weak in the Which children are entering my class weak in the skills and knowledge that are required for success skills and knowledge that are required for success in my classroom?in my classroom?What are the skills and knowledge that are What are the skills and knowledge that are particularly weak in these childrenparticularly weak in these children
Decisions to be madeDecisions to be made
What children in my class are most in need of extra What children in my class are most in need of extra support in order to achieve grade level reading by the support in order to achieve grade level reading by the end of the year?end of the year?What areas of skill and knowledge are most in need of What areas of skill and knowledge are most in need of extra support?extra support?
What can teachers learn from progress monitoring What can teachers learn from progress monitoring tests?tests?Information from progress monitoringInformation from progress monitoring
Are the children actually learning what I am Are the children actually learning what I am teaching?teaching?
Is my intervention strong enough to place the Is my intervention strong enough to place the children on a growth trajectory that ends in grade children on a growth trajectory that ends in grade level performance by the end of the year?level performance by the end of the year?
Are the children ready to move forward in the Are the children ready to move forward in the curriculum?curriculum?
Sept Dec Feb May
2nd Grade Growth in Oral Reading Fluency
16
32
64
48
80
96
Co
rre
ct w
ord
s p
er m
inu
te
What can teachers learn from these What can teachers learn from these assessments?assessments?Information from progress monitoringInformation from progress monitoring
Are the children actually learning what I am Are the children actually learning what I am teaching?teaching?
Is my intervention strong enough to place the Is my intervention strong enough to place the children on a growth trajectory that ends in grade children on a growth trajectory that ends in grade level performance by the end of the year?level performance by the end of the year?
Decisions to be madeDecisions to be made
Should I reteach the last unit to some of my children?Should I reteach the last unit to some of my children?
Should I move the child to a smaller group, or program Should I move the child to a smaller group, or program more instructional time?more instructional time?
Are the children ready to move forward in the Are the children ready to move forward in the curriculum?curriculum?
Should I seek help to implement a more powerful Should I seek help to implement a more powerful instructional strategy?instructional strategy?
In order to monitor progress adequately, we need In order to monitor progress adequately, we need two different kinds of information about progresstwo different kinds of information about progress
Information from curriculum embedded tests or teacher Information from curriculum embedded tests or teacher obs.obs.
Are the children actually learning what I am Are the children actually learning what I am teaching?teaching?
Information from “index” tests like the DIBELSInformation from “index” tests like the DIBELS
Are the children ready to move forward in the Are the children ready to move forward in the curriculum?curriculum?
Is my instruction powerful enough to place the child Is my instruction powerful enough to place the child on a trajectory for grade level achievement by the end on a trajectory for grade level achievement by the end of the year?of the year?
Involves progress monitoring assessments 3-4 times a yearInvolves progress monitoring assessments 3-4 times a year
Progress monitoring with an “index” test— the Progress monitoring with an “index” test— the DIBELS subtestsDIBELS subtests
Development of phonemic awareness and phonics skills Development of phonemic awareness and phonics skills is monitored 3-4 times a year from kindergarten is monitored 3-4 times a year from kindergarten through first grade. Oral reading fluency is monitored through first grade. Oral reading fluency is monitored from first through third gradefrom first through third grade
11stst sound sound fluencyfluency
Letter naming Letter naming fluencyfluency
Phoneme Phoneme Seg. fluencySeg. fluency
Nonsense Nonsense Word fluencyWord fluency
Oral Oral Reading Reading Fluency Fluency – one – one minute minute timed timed passagespassages
The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Success DIBELS: Basic RationaleSuccess DIBELS: Basic Rationale
Data from many thousands of students has shown that Data from many thousands of students has shown that how children perform on certain “index” skills is very how children perform on certain “index” skills is very predictive of whether they will be reading on grade predictive of whether they will be reading on grade level by third gradelevel by third grade
In kindergarten, these areas of skill and knowledge In kindergarten, these areas of skill and knowledge are:are:
phonemic awareness, letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, letter knowledge, vocabularyvocabularyIn 1In 1stst grade, these areas of skill and knowledge are: grade, these areas of skill and knowledge are:
phonemic awareness, phonemic decoding, phonemic awareness, phonemic decoding, vocabulary,vocabulary,
reading fluency, comprehension strategiesreading fluency, comprehension strategiesIn 2In 2ndnd and 3 and 3rdrd grade, these areas of skill and knowledge grade, these areas of skill and knowledge are:are:
vocabulary, reading fluency, comprehension vocabulary, reading fluency, comprehension strategiesstrategies
The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Success DIBELS: Basic RationaleSuccess DIBELS: Basic Rationale
The DIBELS tests are valid and reliable The DIBELS tests are valid and reliable measures of most of these constructs, measures of most of these constructs, but not all of them.but not all of them.
In kindergarten, these areas of skill and knowledge In kindergarten, these areas of skill and knowledge are:are:
phonemic awareness, letter knowledgephonemic awareness, letter knowledge, , vocabularyvocabularyIn 1In 1stst grade, these areas of skill and knowledge are: grade, these areas of skill and knowledge are:
phonemic awareness, phonemic decodingphonemic awareness, phonemic decoding, , vocabularyvocabulary,,
reading fluency, reading fluency, comprehension strategiescomprehension strategiesIn 2In 2ndnd and 3 and 3rdrd grade, these areas of skill and knowledge grade, these areas of skill and knowledge are:are:
vocabularyvocabulary, , reading fluency, reading fluency, comprehension comprehension strategiesstrategies
At the end of second grade, we still have more than 20% of our students who have not achieved the first grade benchmark in phonemic decoding
At the beginning of 2nd grade, most of our students had not achieved the 1st grade benchmark for phonemic decoding
Assess 4 ORF
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Std. Dev = 36.87
Mean = 105.3
N = 29745.00
Oral Reading Fluency – Assess4, Third Grade
29,475 students
Ave. WPM = 105 35th percentile
22% high risk
35% moderate risk
Principals, classroom teachers, and Principals, classroom teachers, and special education teachers must work special education teachers must work interdependently to leave no child behindinterdependently to leave no child behind
1. Increase the quality, consistency, and 1. Increase the quality, consistency, and reach of instruction in every K-3 classroomreach of instruction in every K-3 classroom
2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of 2. Conduct timely and valid assessments of reading growth to identify struggling readersreading growth to identify struggling readers
3. Provide more intensive interventions to 3. Provide more intensive interventions to “catch up” the struggling readers“catch up” the struggling readers
Intervention is MOREMORE:
-Explicit
-Systematic
-Intensive
-Supportive
How does intervention differ from core reading Instruction?
Features of Scientifically Based Reading Interventions
Explicit
Nothing is left to chance; all skills are taught directly.
Always involves:
Direct explanations
Modeling of correct responses
Opportunities for student responses with corrective feedback
It takes a great deal more knowledge and skill to teach explicitly
Systematic
Instruction is purposeful and sequential.
A scope and sequence of instruction that is well organized and hierarchical
Always involves:
Students being well prepared for each new task they are asked to do
Programmatic Scaffolding
Oral blending skills before blending printed words
Awareness of phonemes before learning how they are represented in print
Grapheme-phoneme knowledge before decoding
Vocabulary instruction before reading for meaning
Strategies for oral language comprehension that support reading comprehension
Intensive
The most direct way to increase learning rate is by
increasing the number of positive, or successful, instructional interactions (pii) per school day.
Intensity can be accomplished in two waysdecreasing group size (3-5)
Increasing the amount of time in instruction
Small group instruction can be just as effective as 1:1 instruction for prevention
Supportive
At-risk/struggling readers benefit from a supportive environment, both emotionally and cognitively.
Responsive Scaffolding
Students need encouragement, feedback and positive reinforcement.
Teaching children to identify the first phoneme in words
“fan begins with /f/, which one begins with /s/? Child chooses can
“Listen, I’m going to say the names of the pictures very slowly- see which one begins with /s/ - “f-an, f-ire, c-an, s-ack” which one?
After telling child the names of the pictures, teacher says,”which one begins with /s/?” child chooses fan
Two kinds of scaffolding are Two kinds of scaffolding are importantimportant
Word reading error – “let’s check this word. Can Word reading error – “let’s check this word. Can you read it for me?you read it for me?
Responsive ScaffoldingResponsive Scaffolding
Child reads “side”.Child reads “side”.
Teacher says, “you’re right that the word begins Teacher says, “you’re right that the word begins with the /s/ sound. What letter do you see coming with the /s/ sound. What letter do you see coming right after the right after the ss in this word?” in this word?”
Child says “l”Child says “l”
Teacher says, “what sound does “l” make?”Teacher says, “what sound does “l” make?”
Child says “/l/”Child says “/l/”
Teacher says, “if you say the /l/ sound right Teacher says, “if you say the /l/ sound right after /s/ in this word, what word does that make?”after /s/ in this word, what word does that make?”
How should our interventions be How should our interventions be focused?focused?They should target reading skills that are deficient, They should target reading skills that are deficient, and that will make a long-term difference to reading and that will make a long-term difference to reading outcomesoutcomes
Taught by methods Taught by methods that are…that are…
engaging & motivatingengaging & motivating
Effective early reading interventions must build Effective early reading interventions must build reading skills in five important areas by providing reading skills in five important areas by providing instruction that is both engaging and motivating.instruction that is both engaging and motivating.
Phonemic AwarenessPhonemic Awareness
PhonicsPhonics
FluencyFluency
VocabularyVocabulary
Comprehension strategiesComprehension strategies
Identifying words Identifying words accurately and accurately and fluentlyfluently
Constructing Constructing meaning meaning once words once words are identifiedare identified
How should our interventions be How should our interventions be focused?focused?They should target reading skills that are deficient, and They should target reading skills that are deficient, and
that will make a long-term difference to reading outcomesthat will make a long-term difference to reading outcomes
No child should leave first grade without being proficient in No child should leave first grade without being proficient in phonemic decoding, because it is critical for reading accuracy, phonemic decoding, because it is critical for reading accuracy, and early accuracy is critical for eventual fluencyand early accuracy is critical for eventual fluency
Children should accelerate rapidly in fluency during second Children should accelerate rapidly in fluency during second and third grade in preparation for the complex text they will and third grade in preparation for the complex text they will encounter by the end of third grade and laterencounter by the end of third grade and later
From the beginning of reading instruction, students low in From the beginning of reading instruction, students low in vocabulary must accelerate rapidly to be ready for complex vocabulary must accelerate rapidly to be ready for complex text by the end of third gradetext by the end of third grade
For example:For example:
Combining Art and Science to Combining Art and Science to produce powerful interventions produce powerful interventions
Contributions from scienceContributions from science
Based on reliable and valid assessment of Based on reliable and valid assessment of student needsstudent needsFocused on critical areas of reading growth that Focused on critical areas of reading growth that will have long term impactwill have long term impactEmploys explicit instructional routines-students Employs explicit instructional routines-students are directly taught what they they need to are directly taught what they they need to knowknow
Uses proven methods for motivating student Uses proven methods for motivating student engagementengagement
Uses evidence-based instructional methods – Uses evidence-based instructional methods – modeling, corrective feedback, etc.modeling, corrective feedback, etc.
Combining Art and Science to Combining Art and Science to produce powerful interventions produce powerful interventions
Contributions from the art of teachingContributions from the art of teaching
Responsive scaffolding when neededResponsive scaffolding when needed
Appropriate pacingAppropriate pacing
Warm and supportive atmosphereWarm and supportive atmosphere
Simultaneous monitoring of each student’s Simultaneous monitoring of each student’s responsesresponses
Fluent mastery of all instructional routinesFluent mastery of all instructional routines
The top five myths about interventions The top five myths about interventions for struggling readersfor struggling readers
1. If a child is a “visual” learner, they should be taught to read 1. If a child is a “visual” learner, they should be taught to read using a visual, not an auditory strategyusing a visual, not an auditory strategy
2. If a child has not learned “phonics” by the end of first grade, 2. If a child has not learned “phonics” by the end of first grade, they need to be taught to read in some other waythey need to be taught to read in some other way
3. Children who struggle with phonemic awareness, 3. Children who struggle with phonemic awareness, vocabulary, or phonics in kindergarten and first grade will vocabulary, or phonics in kindergarten and first grade will frequently “catch up” if given time.frequently “catch up” if given time.
4. We should take guidance from theories of “multiple 4. We should take guidance from theories of “multiple intelligences” or “learning styles” to help us adapt our reading intelligences” or “learning styles” to help us adapt our reading instruction for different childreninstruction for different children
5. A little quality time with an enthusiastic volunteer tutor can 5. A little quality time with an enthusiastic volunteer tutor can solve most children’s reading problemssolve most children’s reading problems
What about interventions What about interventions for older students who for older students who continue to struggle in continue to struggle in
reading?reading?
ShouldShould phonics be taught to students beyond phonics be taught to students beyond early elementary school who still do not have early elementary school who still do not have proficient skills in this area?proficient skills in this area?
Can phonics be successfully taught to Can phonics be successfully taught to students who still struggle in this area as students who still struggle in this area as fourth graders?fourth graders?
A study of intensive, highly skilled intervention with A study of intensive, highly skilled intervention with 60 children who had severe reading disabilities60 children who had severe reading disabilities
Children were between 8 and 10 years of ageChildren were between 8 and 10 years of age
Had been receiving special education services for an average of Had been receiving special education services for an average of 16 months16 monthsNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade levelNominated as worst readers: at least 1.5 S.D’s below grade level
Average Word Attack=69, Word Identification=69, Verbal IQ=93Average Word Attack=69, Word Identification=69, Verbal IQ=93
Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both Randomly assigned to two instructional conditions that both taught “phonics” explicitly, but used different procedures with taught “phonics” explicitly, but used different procedures with different emphasisdifferent emphasisChildren in both conditions received 67.5 hours of one-on-one Children in both conditions received 67.5 hours of one-on-one instruction, 2 hours a day for 8 weeksinstruction, 2 hours a day for 8 weeks
Children were followed for two years after the intervention was Children were followed for two years after the intervention was completedcompleted
Interval in Months Between Measurements
P-Pretest Pre Post 1 year 2 year
75
80
85
90
95
LIPS
EP
Growth in Total Reading Skill Before, During, and Following Intensive Intervention
Sta
ndar
d S
core
75
86
96
89
Outcomes from 67.5 Hours of Intensive intervention
70
80
100
Sta
nd
ard
Sco
re
90
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
68
7473 71
30%
83
91
Oral Reading Fluency was much improved on passages for which level of difficulty remained constantAbsolute change in rate from pretest to 2-year follow-up.Most difficult passage
Prestest -- 38 WPM, 10 errors
Posttest -- 101 WMP, 2 errors
Next most difficult passage
Pretest -- 42 WPM, 6 errors
Posttest -- 104 WPM, 1 error
A School-based, treatment control study of 40 studentsA School-based, treatment control study of 40 students
60% Free and reduced lunch 60% Free and reduced lunch
Mean Age 12 years (range 11-14)Mean Age 12 years (range 11-14)
45% White, 45% Black, 10% other45% White, 45% Black, 10% other
53% in special education53% in special education
Received 94-108 hours (mean=100) hours of instructionReceived 94-108 hours (mean=100) hours of instruction
Intervention provided in groups of 4-5Intervention provided in groups of 4-5
Remedial Methods:Remedial Methods:
Mean Word Identification Score = 83Mean Word Identification Score = 83
Children begin with word level skills around 10th percentileChildren begin with word level skills around 10th percentile
Spell Read P.A.T.Spell Read P.A.T.
A Brief Description of the Spell/Read P.A.T. programA Brief Description of the Spell/Read P.A.T. program
Distribution of activities in a typical 70 minute session:Distribution of activities in a typical 70 minute session:
40 minutes -- Phonemic awareness/phonics40 minutes -- Phonemic awareness/phonics
20 minutes -- shared reading20 minutes -- shared reading
7 minutes -- writing about what was read7 minutes -- writing about what was read
3 minutes -- wrap up3 minutes -- wrap up
Systematic instruction in phonic elements beginning Systematic instruction in phonic elements beginning with mastery of 44 phonemes at single syllable level with mastery of 44 phonemes at single syllable level through multi-syllable strategies. Fluency oriented through multi-syllable strategies. Fluency oriented practice from beginning of instruction. Discussion and practice from beginning of instruction. Discussion and writing to enhance comprehension.writing to enhance comprehension.
79
96
111
96
Outcomes from 100 Hours of Small Group Intervention--Spell Read
70
80
100
Sta
nd
ard
Sco
re
90
Word Attack
Text Reading Accuracy
Reading Comp.
Text Reading
Rate
88
77 77
65
110
30%
Disparity in outcomes for rate vs. accuracy in five remediation studies
70
80
90
100
Sta
nd
ard
Sco
r e
2nd 2nd 10th 10th 30th
Accuracy
Rate
Beginning level of Word Identification Skill
Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap
Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.
By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their “sight word vocabulary” is By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their “sight word vocabulary” is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age
A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can recognize by sightrecognize by sight
These are iNTirEStinG and cHallinGinG times for anyone whose pRoFEshuNle responsibilities are rEelaTed in any way to liTiRucY outcomes among school cHilDRun. For, in spite of all our new NaWLEGe about rEeDiNg and reading iNstRukshun, there is a wiDE-SpReD concern that public EdgUkAshuN is not as eFfEktIve as it sHood be in tEecHiNg all children to read.
Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap
Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.
By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age
After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up with their peers because 4with their peers because 4thth and 5 and 5thth grade good readers are continuing grade good readers are continuing to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.
A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can recognize by sightrecognize by sight
Projected growth in “sight vocabulary” of normal readers and disabled children before and after
remediation
Normal
InterventionSiz
e o
f “s
igh
t voca
bu
lary
Grade in School
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Dyslexic
2nd Year follow-up
Our current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gapOur current hypothesis about the difficult fluency gap
Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many Children who struggle initially in learning to read miss out on many hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual hundreds of thousands of opportunities to learn to recognize individual words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.words because they read inaccurately and they don’t read very much.
By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is By the time they reach 3-4 grade, their sight word vocabulary is severely restricted compared to good readers of their same ageseverely restricted compared to good readers of their same age
After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in After they become more accurate readers, there is still a huge gap in the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up the number of words they can recognize by sight. They can’t catch up with their peers because 4with their peers because 4thth and 5 and 5thth grade good readers are continuing grade good readers are continuing to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.to add words to their sight vocabulary at a very fast rate.
A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a A very important factor in determining how fluently a child will read a passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can passage involves the proportion of words in the passage the child can recognize by sightrecognize by sight
Unless poor readers who have received strong remediation can add Unless poor readers who have received strong remediation can add words to their “sight vocabulary” at a words to their “sight vocabulary” at a fasterfaster rate than their peers, the rate than their peers, the “fluency gap” will continue“fluency gap” will continue
What happens to accuracy and fluency of What happens to accuracy and fluency of reading scores when children receive reading scores when children receive
powerful preventive instruction?powerful preventive instruction?
Disparity in outcomes for rate vs. accuracy in remediation and prevention studies
70
80
90
100
Sta
nd
ard
Sco
r e
2nd 2nd 10th 10th Prev 1 Prev 2 30th
Accuracy
Rate
Beginning level of Word Identification Skill
4th grade
2nd grade
Summary and qualification:Summary and qualification:
Older children with reading disabilities Older children with reading disabilities cancan be be successfully taught to become more accurate and successfully taught to become more accurate and independent readersindependent readers
As with younger children, the focus of intervention As with younger children, the focus of intervention must depend on the critical reading skills that are must depend on the critical reading skills that are most deficientmost deficient
With With skillful instructionskillful instruction of of sufficient intensitysufficient intensity, we , we should expect rapid acceleration of relative reading should expect rapid acceleration of relative reading accuracy, but less rapid acceleration of reading accuracy, but less rapid acceleration of reading fluency– comprehension attainments will depend fluency– comprehension attainments will depend partially on existing language comprehension skills partially on existing language comprehension skills and knowledgeand knowledge
A final concluding thought….A final concluding thought….
There is no question but that “leaving no There is no question but that “leaving no child behind in reading” is going to be a child behind in reading” is going to be a significant challenge…significant challenge…
It will involve professional development for It will involve professional development for teachers, school reorganization, careful teachers, school reorganization, careful assessments, and a relentless focus on the assessments, and a relentless focus on the individual needs of every child…individual needs of every child…
But, its not the most difficult thing we could But, its not the most difficult thing we could be faced with…be faced with…