medieval english literature

Medieva

Literature

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Tch.Dinçer AYDİÇ

Medieva

Literature

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MEDIEVAL ENGLISH PERIOD


History ünümüzde İngiltere olarak bilinen adanın 75 mil kadar doğu tarafında yer alan eski kıtanın o bölgesi Normandiya olarak bilinir. Anglo - Saxons ile Normanların ilişkileri istiladan çok öncesine 1000'li

yılların başına kadar uzanmaktadır. Unready (Tedariksiz) Aetherald --- Neden bu lakap? Abisinin öldürülmesinde parmağı olduğu düşünüldüğü için halk genelinde şüpheyle karşılanmış verdiği emirlerin bir kısmı yerine getirilmemiş ve Danlara karşı sıkıntı yaşanmıştır.--- Danlara yenilince Normandiya'ya kaçmış sonrasında tahta geri dönmüştür. Nice sonra yerine oğlu Edward the confessor (Günah çıkartıcı) tahta geçmiştir. Lakin daha sonra çocuğu olmadan öldüğü için taht noktasında sıkıntı yaşanmıştır. 1065 yılı sonlarında İngiltere kralı Günah Çıkartıcı Aziz Edward kendisinden sonra kimin

tahta çıkacağına dair bir belirsizlik içinde komaya girer. Kralın ölümünü ardından toplanan Witenagemot - akil heyet- , tahta Harold'un geçmesine karar verir. Harold Westminster Abbey'de 6 Ocak günü taç giyer. Yalnız Harold'un tahta çıktığını öğrenen Normandiya Dükü William İngiltere'yi işgal etme planını yürürlüğe koyar. ynı günlerde yine İngiltere tahtında hak iddiasında bulunan Norveç kralı Harald Hardrada adayı işgal eder. Yeni bir işgal girişimiyle karşı karşıya kalan Harold yine bir olağanüstü çabayla ordusunu 386 kilometre yürütüerek William'ı karşılamak için bölgeye gider. William'ın yaklaşık olarak 7 bin Norman savaşçıyla çıkartmayı gerçekleştirdiği sanılmaktadır. Harold büyük bir muharebeden çıkmış yorgun ordusunu Hastings'deki hakim bir tepenin üzerinde mevzilendirir. Bugün Battle adı verilen kasabanın olduğu yerde 14 Ekim günü yapılan Hastings Muharebesinde saatler süren çarpışmanın ardından Normanlar galip gelecek ve Harold öldürülecektir.

William the conquerer tahta oturduktan sonra özellikle kendisiyle beraber savaşa katılan Normanlara geniş topraklar vermiş ve yeni bir aristokrat kesiminin ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Fransızcanın etkisinin giderek arttığı o dönemde fransızca soylular arasında yaygın ve kabul edilir bir hal almış. İngilizce ise halk arasında konuşulmaya devam etmiştir. Daha sonra Fransızlarla King John döneminde yaşanan anlaşmazlıklar yüzyıl savaşlarına dönüşecek -- Normanlar Fransız tahtınada hak iddia edeceklerdir -- İngiltere'de kırsal nüfus 1348-1350 döneminde ortaya çıkan Kara Ölüm adı verilen büyük veba salgını dolayısıyla kırılıp azalmıştı ve bu nedenle bu salgından sağ çikanlar eskiden çok yüksek ücretler isteyecek ve bu istekleri karşılanmazsa imtiyaz sahiplerine kafa tutabilecek güç kazanmışlardı. Köylũler soylu malikane sahiplerine ve kiliseye serflik yapmaktaydı ve onun için bu toprak ağalarına vergi gibi ürünün bir kısmını ("aşar vergisi" gibi) vermekteydi. II. Richard tahta geçtiğinde bu kırsal işçi toplumu palazlanmıștı. Richard'ın Fransa'ya karşı giriştiği savaştan ve bu

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King Harold King Harold

Hastings Castle


savaşı finanse etmek için ekstradan genç ihtiyar; fakir zengin arasında hiç fark gözetmeksizin her İngiliz'den üç defa acil ve sabit olarak merkezi hükümetin "kafa vergisi" toplaması yeniden güçlenmeye başlayan köylülere ve fakirlere büyük bir yük olmaktaydı. Bu gruplar bu kafa vergisini (poll box) vermemek istemekteydiler. 1381'de en son "kafa vergisi" (Wycliffe attacked the Church's power in his sermons and other writings, advocating that the state take over the vast landholdings of the Church.) salgılanması dolayısıyla bu tedirginlik bir isyan şekline dönüştü. Köylüler isyanı ilk defa kırsal güneydoğu İngiltere'de Kent ve Essex'de ortaya çıktı ve bu isyan çok hızla tüm İngiltere yüzeyine yayıldı.

Society: n Norman England the Church became increasingly strong, as evidenced by the construction of cathedrals. Through the Church,

the culture of Greece and Rome was disseminated, manuscripts copied, and universities established at Cambridge and Oxford. In medieval thought. the Church and the King were "the two swords of God" in maintaining order in society. But Wycliffe attacked the Church's power in his sermons and other writings, advocating that the state take over the vast landholdings of the Church.

Literature: fter the Norman Conquest, when aristocrats embraced the Norman French dialect, literary works were written in Latin or French. It was not until early in the 14th century that English again emerged as a literary and political language. In the mouths of ordinary citizens, English

became richer; more than 10,000 French words were added, and principles were established that made English evolve in ever-freer adaptations. Dreams are sources of works. DIFFRENCES BETWEEN OLD AND MEDIEVAL: Principal differences between Old and Middle English: The grammar was simplified and the vocabulary greatly enlarged.

• The inflections (special word endings showing relationships between sentence parts) virtually disappear in Middle English.

• The word order in Chaucer's time was like that of Modern English, with the subject coming before the predicate and the modifier before the word modified. Example: H oure fadir," not "Faeder ure."

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Edward the Confessor


• The vocabulary of Old English was primarily Germanic, but Middle English was enriched by borrowed words.

• Middle English spelling is less uniform because it incorporates several regional dialects, each with its own system of representing sounds in writing.

• The "natural gender" evolved in Middle English. We uniformly refer to male beings as masculine. female ones as feminine, unlike other European languages.

• The pronunciation of Old English guttural sounds was softened in Middle English. but with no consistent system. leading to varied pronunciations of words with the same ending.

Literature Works:

• LYRICS -- short, melodic poems; usually expressing intense personal emotion rare in Old English poetry. But are fairly common in medieval literature with religious lyrics greatly outnumbering secular ones.

• Religious lyrics (Dini): The extensive cult of the Virgin in the Middle Ages accounts for many songs about the Madonna. The lyric beginning "Lullay, my child, and wepe no more" (usually entitled" A Sacred Lullaby") and "Jesus Christ's Mild Mother" are typical.

• Secular lyrics (Dünyevi): The best-known lyric in Middle English is Cuckoo Song (c.1300), with its joyous outburst in the opening lines; "Sumer is i-cumen in, Lhude sing, cucco!" Also well known is the love lyric "Alysoun" (c. 1300), in which the poet praises her fair hair, brown eyes, and "middel smal."

• ROMANCES -- short melodic poems • BALLADS -- Ballads poems that tell stories. often folk origin-are found in great numbers.

Both lyrics and ballads were originally written to be sung.

These romances include chivalry, hero-knight, his love for his lady, usually derive from mystery and suspense from supernatural elements.

• DRAMA -- Church origin and it shows power of church on literature like all other fields in

daily life. Churches were first home of dramas and plays so that they were planned to teach Christianity of church itself; but later, as the dramas placed more strain on the services and the audiences became more unruly, the plays were moved outside, first to the church porch and then to the surrounding grounds and graveyards.


MYSTERY PLAYS: The "mysteries" (from the Latin "misterium" meaning "occupation") or plays performed by the craft guilds. Medieval mystery plays focused on the representation of Bible stories in churches as tableaux with accompanying antiphonal song. They developed from the 10th to the 16th century, reaching the height of their popularity in the 15th century before being rendered obsolete by the rise of professional theatre.

MIRACLE PLAYS: They based upon the lives of saints and were the only dramatic fare. MORALITY PLAYS: Morality plays are a type of allegory in which the protagonist is met by personifications of various moral attributes who try to prompt him to choose a Godly life over one of evil. (Personifications represent evil or others) The plays were most popular in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. Having grown out of the religiously based mystery plays of the Middle Ages, they represented a shift towards a more secular base for European theatre.

• Everyman (c.1470): In the best known of the morality plays, the character Everyman (representing all humankind) is summoned by Death to the day of judgment. Everyman tries to find a companion for his journey, but all forsake him. Only Good Deeds goes with him into the grave and helps present his case. The play is intensely dramatic as Everyman is deserted by Fellowship, Kindred, Goods, etc. and becomes increasingly terrified.

• The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1425): This oldest complete morality play has a plot similar to that of Everyman. The Bad Angel and Good Angel struggle for the soul of man, and the latter places him in the Castle of Perseverance. Hell's forces cannot prevail against the Castle, but Greed lures him outside, where he dies repentant. Mercy, Peace, Truth, and Righteousness complete in a debate for the man's soul; Mercy wins.

• Mankind (c. 1475): In this unusual comic morality play, the vices compete for the soul of man, delighting medieval audiences with their lewd antics. Titivullus, a devil who collects words mumbled or skipped in divine services, was a favorite medieval character. He seduces Mankind from Mercy at first, but Mercy triumphs at last.

• Magnyfycence (1516): This is the earliest English drama whose authorship is certain. Written by John Skelton (c.1460-l529), it depicts mankind being deceived by vices, but later redeemed by the virtues of Goodhope and Perseverance.

Açıklama [F1]: KARŞILIKLI OKUMAK

Açıklama [F2]: Alegori (Yerine); bir görüntü, bir yaşantı veya bir davranışın daha iyi kavranmasını sağlamak için göz önünde canlandırıp dile getirme sanatıdır. Soyut bir düşünceyi heykel ya da resim ile göstermek, örneğin adalet düşüncesinin gözü bağlı ve elinde terazi bulunan bir kadınla(Themis) anlatılması gibi. Kutadgu Bilig (Yusuf Has Hacib) Türk yazınındaki alegorik yapıtlardandır. "Adalet", "Saadet", "Devlet" ve "Akıl" iyi bir devletin nasıl olması gerektiğini tartışır. Bu soyut kavramların insan niteliği ile verilmesi "yerine"dir. Daha çok fabl'larda görülür.

Açıklama [F3]: BAŞKARAKTER

Açıklama [F4]: KİŞİLEŞTİRME


• Ane Pleasant Satire of the Thrie Estaitis (1540): Written by Sir David Lindsay, it depicts the temptation of Rex Humanitas by Sensuality, Wantonness, Solace, and other undesirable companions. At the same time, Good Counsel is hurried away, Verity is put in stocks, and Chastity is warned to stay away. Correction arrives to save the day.


WORKS & WRITERS:


SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT: This elegantly constructed, vivid narrative poem. Attributed by some to the Pearl Poet, is one of the

greatly admired works of medieval literature. • The Challenge: The giant Green Knight appears in King Arthur's court on New Year's Day, daring anyone to chop off his head and receive a similar stroke a year and a day hence. Gawain accepts the challenge and severs the head of the giant. who picks up his head and dashes away. • The Knightly Quest: Gawain sets out to fulfill his pledge. but loses his way and comes to a castle where he is welcomed by the lord, his beautiful lady, and a hideous old hag. The host plans three days of pleasant activity; the two lords vow to exchange each night tokens won during the day. • The Temptation: The lady forces her attentions on Gawain, kissing him. When the lord returns from the hunt. Gawain receives that day's kill and responds with a kiss. On the second day he receives and exchanges two kisses. on the third, three. But Gawain withholds another gift from the lady: a magic green baldric (belt) that is

supposed to preserve the wearer's life. • The Return Blow: When Gawain faces the Green Knight on New Year's Day, he flinches from the first two blows and sustains a slight gash on the neck from the third. Then he learns that the Green Knight is really his generous host and that the old hag is Arthur's fairy sister. Morgan-Le-Fay, who had devised this strategy to corrupt Gawain and shame King Arthur's court. Medieval Meaning of Gawain: This allegory, intended to teach the virtues of chivalry and knighthood, may be associated with the founding of England's Order of the Garter. Except for his weakness in the baldric episode, Gawain's behavior is above reproach. FEATURES:

• Alliterative Revival style Metrical syllabic count (Gawain is typical of Middle English alliterative poems in that it is written in alliterative long lines, following the basic metrical principles of Old English verse. )

• Bob and wheel

First page of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Açıklama [F5]: Bob and wheel is the common name for a metrical device most famously used by the Pearl Poet in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The feature is found mainly in Middle English and Middle Scots poetry, where the bob and wheel occur typically at the end of a stanza.


(bob) full clean. (wheel) Great wonder of the knight Folk had in hall, I ween, Full fierce he was to sight, And over all bright green.

PIERS PLOWMAN: It is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem by William Langland. It is written in unrhymed alliterative verse divided into sections called "passus" (Latin for "step"). Piers is considered by many critics to be one of the greatest works of English literature of the Middle Ages, along with Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and the Pearl poet's Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. • Basic content: The poet dreams of a tower on a hill. a dungeon in the valley, and a "'fair field full of folk" in between. Symbolically, God lives in the tower, the devil in the dungeon. In the so-called B-text of the poem, there are eight separate visions, described by a narrator called Will. The themes are primarily religious, and the poem ends with Conscience setting out to find Piers, who will lead them, it is hoped, on a perfected search for Salvation. • Importance of the poem: It is second only to the Canterbury Tales in giving vivid scenes of medieval life that depict a famine, the evils of gluttony, and the greed of unscrupulous landlords, officials, friars, lawyers, and merchants. The tone is satirical and angry, but in the words of a sincere and religious common man. Many of the sayings in Piers Plowman became slogans shouted by the protesters in the Peasants' Revolution. FEATURES:

• Dream vision • allegory • alliterative verse • strong criticism to church

Açıklama [F6]: The "bob" is a very short line, sometimes of only two syllables, followed by the "wheel," longer lines with internal rhyme.

Açıklama [F7]: The "bob" is a very short line, sometimes of only two syllables, followed by the "wheel," longer lines with internal rhyme.


CANTERBURY TALES: The Canterbury Tales (Middle English: Tales of Caunterbury) is a collection of over 20 stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer at the end of the 14th century, during the time of the Hundred Years' War. The tales (mostly written in verse, although some are in prose) are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from Southwark to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. It is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution that this work made to English literature was in popularizing the literary use of the vernacular, English, rather than French or Latin. FEATURES:

• Vernacular • Verse • ironical characters

PEARL: Pearl is a late 14th-century Middle English poem by an unknown author. With elements of medieval allegory and dream vision genre, the poem is written in a North-West Midlands variety of Middle English and highly—though not consistently—alliterative; there is a complex system of stanza linking and other stylistic features. FEATURES:

• allegory • dream vision genre • alliterative • Bob and wheel

(bob) full clean. (wheel) Great wonder of the knight Folk had in hall, I ween, Full fierce he was to sight, And over all bright green.

Açıklama [F8]: ANADİL Belli bir bölgede hakim olan dil. / YÜZYIL SAVAŞLARI ESNASINDA OLDUĞU İÇİN DAHA MİLLİYETÇİ BİR HAL ALMIŞLARDIR.


MALORY'S MORTE DARTHUR Malory's Morte Darthur, a gathering the main body of legends about King Arthur into one narrative, is the best-known work fifteenth-century English literature. Le Morte d'Arthur (originally spelled Le Morte Darthur, Middle French for “the death of Arthur”) is a compilation by Sir Thomas Malory of romance-era tales about the legendary King Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, and the Knights of the Round Table. First published in 1485 by William Caxton, Le Morte d'Arthur is today perhaps the best-known work of Arthurian literature in English. Many modern Arthurian writers have used Malory as their principal source, including T. H. White in his popular The Once and Future King and Tennyson in The Idylls of the King. Influence: Malory's simple, forthright telling of the Arthurian lore is still enjoyed by modern readers and the work has long inspired other writings, such as Tennyson's Idllys the King. Malory's reputation-myth or fact? For many years scholars have identified the author of Morte Darthur with a Warwickshire knight who was charged with extortion, robbery. and rape and who spent the last twenty years of his life in prison. Recent investigations have discovered other Thomas Malory's, indicating that the actual author may not have had a criminal record. Sources of Morte Darthur: Malory used 13th century French versions of Arthurian legends, skillfully condensing and rewriting them. Another source was a medieval alliterative poem in English called Marte Arthure. Malory omitted minor episodes found in these sources. Malory's prose style: The conversion of the wordy, long-winded French originals into short, firm sentences with a natural rhythm of speech gives Malory's work its greatest distinction. A blunt. practical man of action who admired knighthood but did not romanticize it, he presented the Arthurian material in a work uniquely his own. FEATURES:

• Prose

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