medicine in ancient egypt
TRANSCRIPT
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ContentsChapter1 ................................................................................................................................................8
Ailment dissection......................................................................................................................................... 9
Anatomy in Ancient Egypt...................................................................................................................10
Introduction: ...........................................................................................................................................10
Possible sources of anatomical knowledge: ...........................................................................................10
Evidence from medical papyri: ...............................................................................................................11
Ebres Papyrus: The Ebres papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a treatise on the heart. It notes thatthe heart is the source of blood vessels. They were aware that the blood vessels were hollow, having amouth which opens to absorb medications, eliminate waste elements, distribute air and body secretionsand excretions, in confusion between bloovessels and other passages. ......................................................12
Edwin smith papyrus: There are passages in the Edwin smith papyrus which offer quite remarkableinsight into knowledge of anatomy. These are mostly in the glosses that must have been addedsubsequently to the original composition (1930) which was believed to have been written during the oldkingdom, since the only extant copy of the papyrus works systematically downwards from the head andstops at the chest. These glimpses of anatomical knowledge are unfortunately limited to certain sectionsof the upper part of the body. ......................................................................................................................12
The vessels (metu) book .........................................................................................................................15
Diseases and Diagnosis .......................................................................................................................17
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................17
Causes of diseases...................................................................................................................................19
The human body was believed to be born in a healthy state, and could not fall ill or die exceptthrough the influence of a foreign agent. In case of wounds or intestinal worms, that agent wasvisible and the treatment prescribed was hence rational. As they were not aware of microbiology,internal diseases were thought to be due to an occult force attributed to evil gods, a divinepunishment or magical procedures. The physician was obliged to neutralize this evil before turninginto actual treatment............................................................................................................................19
Hypoglycemia .....................................................................................................................................21
Diabetic Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome ............................................................................21
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Diabetic Ketoacidosis .........................................................................................................................21
Bilharzias .................................................................................................................................................22
Bone disorders ........................................................................................................................................22
Dwarfism ....................................................................... It was not a physical handicap in Ancient Egypt....................................................................................................................................................................22
Tumors ....................................................................................................................................................23
Club foot..................................................................................................................................................23
Elephantiasis ...........................................................................................................................................24
Eye infections..........................................................................................................................................24
Wounds and injuries ...............................................................................................................................24
Plague......................................................................................................................................................24
Poliomyelitis............................................................................................................................................24
DISEASES IN ANCIENT EGYPT: .............................................................................................................25
A) Congenital Disorders: .........................................................................................................................25
B) Acquired disorders:.............................................................................................................................27
Patients in ancient Egypt.....................................................................................................................41
The kings of New Kingdom .....................................................................................................................41
The kings of 18th Dynasty: .......................................................................................................................41
Kings of 19th Dynasty...............................................................................................................................47
The Twentieth Dynasty ...........................................................................................................................51
Priests in ancient Egypt...........................................................................................................................51
Now we will turn into another class of people who was the priest in ancient Egypt to know what is themost disease affected them?....................................................................................................................51
A lot of studies made by many scholars concerning the famous diseases which attacked the ancientEgyptians priests .....................................................................................................................................51
It can be notice that the ancient Egyptians priests considered to be an independent category becausethey had their own traditions, customs and they also practiced a special way of treatment ...................51
Priest’s famous diseases: .......................................................................................................................51
Commoners in ancient Egypt ..................................................................................................................52
Women and children's diseases in ancient Egypt...................................................................................54
Ancient Egyptian diet ..............................................................................................................................57
Chapter2 ..............................................................................................................................................60
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Remedies in Ancient Egypt .........................................................................................................................61
The Health care practitioners in Ancient Egypt ..................................................................................62
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................62
The House of Life ....................................................................................................................................62
The house of life means in hieroglyphics pr ankh it is institution of learning attached to the temple wherepriests were taught to read copy and compose sacred texts as well as being instructed in astronomy andastrology geography medicine mathematics law theology and the interpretation of dreams. ....................62
The house of live would also have included scribal school for the children of the elite and it may haveplayed a role in supervising temple workshops a closely linked institution was the house of books (thetemple library).............................................................................................................................................62
House of life are known to have existed at many places such as................................................................62
1-Memphis 2-Akhmim 3-Coptos 4-Abydos 5 -Esna 6-Edfu ....................62
Per-ankh: The House of Life ......................................................................................................................62
Location .................................................................................................................................................62
Functions................................................................................................................................................64
Library ...............................................................................................................................................64
According to tradition, time and again people went to the House of Life to consult ancient writings,when they needed answers to problems of their day. Thus Imhotep, the 3rd dynasty sage, did notsend an expedition to the sources of the Nile to find the causes for a great drought, but–according tothe Ptolemaic Famine Stele–rather studied the sacred texts, House of Life libraries were sizableand encompassing, and it was also used as an Institute of higher learning .....................................64
School .................................................................................................................................................65
Literature...............................................................................................................................................66
The Practioners .......................................................................................................................................66
The specialists .........................................................................................................................................70
True and Less True Stories ......................................................................................................................87
Egyptian physicians abroad.....................................................................................................................89
Medicine and pharmaceuticals...........................................................................................................95
Medicine .................................................................................................................................................95
Surgery in Ancient Egypt.......................................................................................................................127
Mummification .....................................................................................................................................138
Materials Used During the Mummification Process .............................................................................145
Chapter3 .................................................................................................................................149
Religion in Medicine..................................................................................................................................150
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'Anuqet..................................................................................................................................................151
MEDICAL PILGRIMAGE ............................................................................................................................177
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................177
Chapter4 ............................................................................................................................................182
Magic in Medicine.....................................................................................................................................183
Overview Of Ancient Egyptian Magic ...............................................................................................184
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................184
Ancient Egyptian Magic: “HEKA” ..........................................................................................................185
The Process of using magic ...................................................................................................................187
Uses of Magic in Ancient Egypt.............................................................................................................188
Therapeutic Value of Magic “Heka”:.....................................................................................................194
Medical Amulets ...................................................................................................................................196
Medical Spells .......................................................................................................................................199
Magical Wands in Ancient Egypt: .........................................................................................................201
ApendixA ...........................................................................................................................................203
Mummy Analysis...............................................................................................................................204
Introduction: .........................................................................................................................................204
Mummies: from collection to CAT scan:...............................................................................................204
First steps in analysis: ...........................................................................................................................205
X-ray: the new technology: ...................................................................................................................206
The next steps in technology: ...............................................................................................................207
Methods for calculating the ages of the mummies: .............................................................................210
Skeletal examination:............................................................................................................................211
The royal mummies: .............................................................................................................................212
Injury and violence................................................................................................................................213
What do mummies reveal about heredity diseases? ...........................................................................214
Mummy Projects around the world......................................................................................................217
ApendixB ...........................................................................................................................................228
Medical Papyri in Ancient Egypt .......................................................................................................229
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................229
Kahun papyrus ......................................................................................................................................251
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Hearst Papyrus ......................................................................................................................................251
Ramesseum Papyrus .............................................................................................................................252
Chester beatty papyrus.........................................................................................................................252
AppendixC ........................................................................................................................................254
Farmed and Domesticated Animals......................................................................................................255
Ancient Egyptian domesticated animals. OK: Old Kingdom MK: Middle Kingdom NK: New Kingdom..................................................................................................................................................................255
LP: Late Period Sheep [1], goats, cattle, pigs [2] and geese were raised from earliest times and suppliedrepectively milk, wool, meat, eggs, leather, skins, horn and fat. Even the dung had its uses [7]. There islittle evidence that mutton was consumed, while domesticated pigs were eaten at least since the beginningof the 4th millennium BCE [8], but pork had no place in religious ceremonies. Goat meat on the other handwas acceptable even to upper class Egyptians. Goat skins served as water containers and floating devices.
The Egyptian farmers, in their early experimental phase, also tried to domesticate other animals such ashyenas, gazelles and cranes, but abandoned these attempts after the Old Kingdom. The domesticchicken didn't make its appearance until the New Kingdom, and then only in isolated places. It becamemore common in the .................................................................................................................................255
Late Period. By then the Egyptians seem to have mastered artificial incubation. Diodorus Siculus (1stcentury BCE) reports in his Historic Library ...........................................................................................255
Fattening ...............................................................................................................................................255
Force feeding a goose Saqqara, 1st Intermediate Period Source: W.S.Smith, Country Life in AncientEgypt, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.....................................................................................................255
Cattle.....................................................................................................................................................255
Sheep and goats....................................................................................................................................256
Horses ...................................................................................................................................................257
Beasts of burden ...................................................................................................................................257
Fish ........................................................................................................................................................258
Sacrificial animals..................................................................................................................................258
Smaller animals and pets ......................................................................................................................259
Veterinary medicine..............................................................................................................................260
The Tale of a Herdsman ............................................................................................................................262
Animals divine, wild, domestic and imaginary......................................................................................262
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PrefaceAncient Egyptian medicine had a very good reputation- as the Greek writer Homer remarked inhis epos Odyssey: "In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind". Itwas not unusual that sovereigns from other countries asked the pharaoh to send his physicians tocure them. A wall-painting found in a Theban grave depicts Neb-Amun, the royal physicianbeing rewarded for his work with gifts by a Syrian prince.
We can trace all this skill and proficiency in the field of medicine, to several factors that werefound in Ancient Egypt. Firstly, Egypt’s location; as Egypt was flooded every year with the Nilemaking its land fertile and cultivable, inorder to keep the land good for crops the irrigationchannels had to be kept unblocked (From this came the idea that the body must have channels(Metu) that shouldn’t be blocked otherwise an ailment occurs). Secondly, Trade; as Egypt usedto trade with Punt, Nubia and with cities in Asia from where they brought different spices thathelped them develop their medications and pharmaceuticals. Thirdly, Communications, as theAncient Egyptians used Hieroglyphics and Hieratic in writing that helped them transfer theirmedical knowledge from one generation to the other; such evidence is found in the differentmedical papyri such as the Ebres and the Edwin Smith papyrus. Fourthly, the Egyptiangovernment; because a settled community was in place that’s why different jobs were at place(among which was the occupation of a Doctor or a “SWNW”, not to mention the presence of astate law that organized the relation between doctors and patients. Fifthly, Religion; because ofthe Ancient Egyptian belief in the afterlife, they performed the process of mummification thatdemanded the extraction of the deceased’s guts and that made the embalmers in Ancient Egyptthe first anatomists, not to mention that priests worked as physicians specially those of goddessSekhmet. Finally, technology; as due to the settled community technology in Ancient Egyptrelatively advanced faster than its neighboring civilizations, such development in technology ledto better and more precise tools to be used in medical surgeries.
Finally, it is well worth to mention that it is now more than 30 centuries since Egypt has beenunder Mohammedan sway, and even longer since Christianity was introduced, the lower classesstill retain some of the beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians. They believe that the dead can feel, andthat ghosts of the murdered prowl about in the dusk. Innumerable remedies still exist tocounteract the dreadful effects of the “EVIL EYE”. Charms and amulets are but too common.Superstitions with regard to pregnancy and child birth are numerous. They are in all probabilitiesthe outcome of ancient myths. All this has no explanation other than that the Ancient Egyptiancivilization used to be and obviously continues to influence and charm other cultures andcivilizations with its obscurity and overwhelming development.
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Chapter 1
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Ailmentdissection1- Anatomy in Ancient
Egypt.
2- Diseases and diagnosis.
3- Medicine andpharmaceuticals .
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Anatomy in AncientEgyptIntroduction:
ANATOMY as a science came tobirth in Ancient Egypt. Though sired by theAlexandrian Greek fathers of anatomy,Egypt was its womb. The brilliancy ofGreek scientific enquiry in the latercenturies of the pre-Christian era achievednothing, so far as anatomy is concerned, inits native land: for at home that enquirylacked the opportunity and material for itslegitimate exercise and was thus compelledto seek the one possible theatre of operation,Egypt. And hence Egypt, with herimmemorial, unchanging culture, standsbehind anatomical science (as behind somuch else), if not strictly as mother, at leastas foster-mother.For Egypt, accidentally, but none the lesseffectively, made possible the origin ofscientific anatomy. She provided thematerials, the opportunities and thenecessary philosophical atmosphereessential to the questing Greek mind:indeed, but for the fortuitous circumstancethat the Egyptians held uniquely distinctivebeliefs concerning existence beyond thegrave and that they gave concrete expressionto those beliefs in the mummification oftheir dead, the beginnings of anatomicalscience would not have been made (or soadequately) when they were.The precursor of the anatomist is theEgyptian embalmer. Alone among thepeoples of antiquity the Egyptians, forreligious motives, submitted their dead toextensive and elaborate techniques designedto preserve permanently the frame andlineaments of the deceased and which
necessitated a manipulation of the cadaverunparalleled in intimacy elsewhere in timeor place, productive incidentally of at least aquasi-scientific knowledge of humanstructure.It would be erroneous, in the light of presentknowledge, to regard the Egyptian
embalmer as an anatomist or indeed as ascientist of any kind. He was a sacerdotaltechnician concerned solely with preventingthe dissolution of the cadaver. Hisprocedures were purely ritual in origin andintention and his techniques were strictlyutilitarian in purpose. That anatomicalknowledge resulted was accidental.Nevertheless such fortuitous knowledge wasof the greatest importance, for it wasunrivalled elsewhere in the world. It was themost extensive and the most detailed corpusof ascertained anatomical data extant, onedenied to peoples who merely inhumed orcremated their dead. It certainly led to somespeculation as to physiological function and,imperfect as it was, it formed a basis uponwhich, in due time, a truly scientificunderstanding could be erected.
Possible sources ofanatomical knowledge:
Inspite of the obstacles placed in theway of human dissection, The Egyptiandoctor must nevertheless have had theopportunity to observe the human skeleton.Although, there was a rich Egyptianvocabulary for external parts of the body, we
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know relatively few parts few names ofbones with the exception of the skull, lowerjaw, vertebrae, ribs and clavicles (collar-bones). Battle casualties and industrialaccidents would provide an opportunity togain further anatomical insight. Sections ofthe Edwin Smith papyrus, suggest that theseopportunities were not wasted. However,Celsus rightly stressed the difficulties ofobserving internal anatomical relationshipsin the living subject.
The embalmers showed great technicalexpertise, whether or not they understoodthe details of the underlining anatomy. Theywere able to remove those internal organsmost likely to putrefy through a relativelysmall incision and transfer them, afterpreservation, to canopic jars under theprotection of the four sons of Horus and thecorresponding protective goddesses.
Canopic jars with their contents andprotectors:
Contents
Son ofHorus
Headafter18th dy
Protective goddess
Liver Imsety Human Isis
Lungs Hapy Baboon
Nephtys
Stomach Duamutef Jackal Neith
intestine Qebhsenuef
hawk serqet
However, their most remarkableachievement was the removal of the brainthrough the nose. This required a perforation
through the ethmoid bone, seldom exceeding2 cm (fig 3.2).
It is by no means clear to what extent theanatomical skills of the embalmers werepassed to the doctors. Herodotus made itvery clear that in his time, the embalmerswere regarded as unclean, which might haveprecluded dialogue with the doctors (swnw).
Evidence from medicalpapyri:
Clement of Alexandria, born aboutAD 150, was a convert to Christianity butdisplayed an extensive knowledge of paganreligion. He reported that the Egyptianspossessed a book which Manethoimprobably attributed to Djer. No such bookhas been found, although fragments mighthave survived in the Ebres and Berlinpapyri. It may also have been cited in someof the glosses of the Edwin smith papyrus.In all, we have tantalizingly little fromwhich to build a picture of the ancientEgyptian knowledge of anatomy. There isnevertheless a rich vocabulary for bothinternal and external parts of the body, someof which are shown in (fig3.3)
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EbresPapyrus:
The Ebres papyrus (c. 1550 BCE)features a treatise on the heart. It notes thatthe heart is the source of blood vessels. Theywere aware that the blood vessels werehollow, having a mouth which opens toabsorb medications, eliminate wasteelements, distribute air and body secretionsand excretions, in confusion betweenbloovessels and other passages.The Egyptians seem to have known little
about the function of the kidneys and madethe heart the meeting point of a number ofvessels which carried all the fluids of thebody – blood, tears, urine and sperm. It alsodescribes the position of the heart precisely,and illustrates some of its disorders, as
dropped beats.
Edwinsmith
papyrus:There are passages in the Edwin
smith papyrus which offer quite remarkableinsight into knowledge of anatomy. Theseare mostly in the glosses that must havebeen added subsequently to the original
composition (1930) which was believed tohave been written during the old kingdom,since the only extant copy of the papyrus
works systematically downwards from thehead and stops at the chest. These glimpsesof anatomical knowledge are unfortunatelylimited to certain sections of the upper part
of the body.The Edwin Smith Papyrus contains a
description of the brain and its pulsation.Physicians were able to correlate it withparalysis. That was affirmed 1200 yearsbefore Hippocrates, the father of medicine,who thought the brain was nothing but agland.
The physiology of blood circulation wasdemonstrated in this Papyrus, together withits relation to the heart, as well as awarenessof the importance of the pulse.
“It is there that the heart speaks”, and“It is there that every physician and everypriest of Sekhmet places his fingers …….…he feels something from the heart”.
They also knew that blood supply runs fromthe heart to all organs of the body.
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“There are vessels in him for every part ofthe body”.
“It speaks forth in the vessels of every bodypart”.
However, their inability to distinguishbetween blood vessels, nerves, tendons andchannels has limited their full understandingof the physiology of circulation.
It has the best anatomical detail related tothe skull. As a starting point for the skullthere can be little doubt that this isrepresented by the Egyptian word“djennet”.
Glosses in cases 4 &7 make it clear that thepaired parietal bones (forming the vault ofthe skull) were known as “paqyt” a wordalso used for the shell of turtle to which thesimilarity is evident. In one instant the wordmeans the frontal bone of the skull.
There is a separate word for the back of thehead or occipital “ha” and a region of theskull called the “gema” is defined in gloss bof case 18. As for (gema) it is what is inbetween the corner of his eye and the officerof his ear to the back of his lower jaw.
There is further evidence that the bones ofthe vault of the skull were recognized asseparate entities.
Gloss A of case 7 defines the term “tepu”:As for (perforating the tepu of his skull) it iswhat is between shell and (paqyt) of hisskull.
The tepu are of leather. There aresuggestions for the tepu:
The most obvious suggestion is that it refersto the flax cerebra hemispheres and could
have been seen in a major head injuryexposing the brain.
It must also have been known to theembalmers however breasted favored tepumeaning the sutures which join theindividual bones of the cranium.
These are broad and conspicuous in infancybut less obvious in the adult.
The ancient Egyptians were certainly awareof the existence of the fontanel a fibrousplate filling the gap between the parietal andfrontal bones in very young children.
Cases 6 and 8 both refer to ‘the weakness ofthe crown of the head of the child before itbecomes whole “.
A new approach is by Chapman who madethe interesting suggestion that the two(paqyt) refered to the inner and the outertables of the skull; these separate to form thefrontal sinus and he proposed that “tepau”might refer to this structure.
The word tepau also appears as an unknowndisease of the head in Ebres 712.
The contents of the skull were known notonly to the embalmer but also as a result ofobservation of head injuries.
It seems from case 6 of the Edwin smithpapyrus that the appearance of the brain wasrecognized:
If you examine a man (having) a gapingwound in his head reaching the bonesmashing his skull and breaking open hisbrain you should feel (palpate) his wound
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You find that smash which is his skull (like)the corrugation which appear on (molten)copper and something there in throbs andflutes under your fingers like the weak placein the crown of the head of the child when ithas not become whole.
The remarkable passage (duplicated in thesecond examination of the case8) is theearliest known description of the brain.
Gloss b in case 6 leaves no rooms for doubtthat the corrugations refer to the slag whichforms on molten and the copper and bearssome resemblance to the surface of thebrain.
The weak place in the crown of the head ofthe child must refer to the anterior fontanelswhich usually remains open until the secondyear of life.
Iversen and the grundriss and Faulkner takethe word (ais)to mean viscera and thereforethe viscera of the skull would be the brainhowever breasted took “ais”to mean thebrain and translated the phrase as “the brainof the skull “.
The difference is largely academic and doesnot alter our general conclusion that thepresence of the brain within the skull wasorganized.
There is another word “amem” whichmeans brain but it only appeared in themedical papyri as a remedy in the form ofthe brain of the various animals.
Finally in this section we note that theEgyptian recognized that the brain wascovered by a fibrous membrane “netnet”
probably the durable mater and wassurrounded by fluid.
We are left in no doubt by gloss A of case 6;As for “a smash of his skull exposing thebrain” the smash is a large opening to theinterior of his skull to the membrane (netnet)enclosing the brain it breaks into his in theinterior of his head.
The word “netnet” is very rare but itsdeterminative as the skin of the cow and themeaning seems certain.
The fluid in the interior of the head wouldappear to be the cerebrospinal fluid but itwould surely be difficult if not impossible torecognize in the presence of the bleedingwhich accompanies a head injury.
There are 2 words for the lower jaw “wegyt&aret” which are used interchangeably andsometimes in the same sentence.
The determinative is an excellent anatomicaldrawing of the mandible. The vertical part ofthe mandible has its own name “amat” andthe articulation with temporal bone is welldescribed in gloss A of case 22.
As for (the end of his ramus) it means theend of the mandible.
The ramus, the end of it is in his temple(gema) like the claw of the (ama)bird whenit grasps an object.
The particular process of the mandible doesvaguely resemble one claw of a two clawedbird although unfortunately the ama bird hasnever been identified.
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Insight into this area is enhanced by a cleardescription of the temporalis muscles in acase of lockjaw (gloss B of case 7).
This gloss sets out to explain the unfamiliaranatomical use of the old kingdom word forcord.
As for “the cord of his mandible iscontracted” it means a stiffening of the(metu) at the back of his ramie fastened intothe temple (gema) that is the back of his jaw(wegyt) without moving to and from
It is not easy to open his mouth because ofthe pain.
As for “a fracture of the chamber “shetyt” ofhis nose “it means the middle of nose fromthe bottom to the back extending to betweenthe eyebrows.
This gives a clear indication of theconformation of the nasal cavity informationwhich must have been familiar to theembalmers for the removal of the brainthrough the nose.
These few examples are sufficient to showthat where we have documentary evidencethe anatomical knowledge of the swnw wasremarkably good for the second and thethird millennium B.C.
If this level of the knowledge was attainedfor the skull & lower jaw &nose we cansurmise that it would probably have reacheda similar level for other parts which are notcovered by the Edwin papyrus
What we certainly accords with thestatement of clement that an anatomical
book was in existence and it highlights thetragedy of its loss.
The vessels (metu) bookThis refers to parts of paragraphs 854 and856 of the Ebres papyrus and paragraph 163of Berlin papyrus which parallels paragraph856 of the Ebres.
Each is divided in to a number of subparagraphs designated by letters theydescribe the connections of the” metuvessels” which is the plural of “met” a wordhaving no direct equivalent in English.
Its meanings include blood vessels &variousducts &and also tendons and musclesparticularly those which are long and thin
It may also include nerves but it is unclearwhether the ancient Egyptians had anyconcept of the blood in two instances: air,mucus and urine bearing entities and alsomalign or benign spirits
It is hardly surprising that those metu whichwould appear to be arteries were thought tocontain air.
This was the general belief until the time ofGalen who on the latter part of the secondcentury had opened a dog artery betweenligatures under water and showedconclusively that it contained blood and notair
Misconception arose because arteriesusually contract after death and contain littleif any blood when opened at postmortem ordissection
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Once pierced their natural elasticity causesthem to open giving the impression that theyoriginally contained air
The Latin word arteria means windpipe aswell as artery
gloss A of case 34 in Edwin smith papyrusmentions two metu beneath the (collarbones) one on the right and one on the left ofthe throat which lead to the lung .
It is just possible that these refer to thetrachea dividing into two bronchi
There would appear to be two separatesystematic descriptions of the metu withsome overlap for the ears, arms and legs
The first listing is Ebres papyri 854 andsecond ebres 856 with its parallel text Berlin163.
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Diseases and DiagnosisIntroduction
An alteration in the state of the bodyor of some of its organs, interrupting ordisturbing the performance of the vitalfunctions, and causing or threatening painand weakness; malady; affection; illness;sickness; disorder; -- applied figuratively tothe mind, to the moral character and habits,to institutions, the state, etc .
Ancient Egyptians suffered from a variety ofdiseases, both;
Congenital Disorders- Egypt is a majorsource of skeletal evidence forachondroplasia. One poignant specimen isan achondroplastic woman with herundeliverable fetus; in our day, a Caesareansection is necessary for a live birth. Twoembalmed fetuses were recovered fromTutankhamun's tomb in 1926. One had acongenital defect-spinal bifida. Whetherthey were children of his wifeAnkhesenamun is unknown. Club foot, cleftpalate, and hydrocephalus have also beenfound.
Acquired Disorders- Ancient Egypt givesus some of the earliest evidence fortuberculosis from the ancient world. Thereare several related types of the tuberclebacilli. The bovine and human strain is whatthreatened the health of the ancientEgyptians. It is extremely contagious.Overcrowding in many households providedthe ideal conditions for the spread ofdisease. Tuberculosis is believed to havebeen acquired by humans from livestock.
This developed as a result of their culturalpractices and environment. Although rare,achondroplasia has been depicted in manybas reliefs and ornaments. Two of the finestexamples were in the sarcophagus of Djehor(late period) on which was depicted anachondroplasiac dancer, and fromTutankhamen's tomb an alabaster boat sailedby an achondroplasiac. Such was thefascination these individuals inspired thattheir unique forms were defied as the god-Bes who became the divine protector ofpregnant women from the New Kingdomonwards.The results of consanguineous mamrageswere often evident within the Pharaonichousehold. Autopsy of Amenophis III'smummy demonstrated gynaecomastia andsigns of feminization, includinghypogonadism probably as a result ofinbreeding, and although the father of sixdaughters he would almost certainly havesuffered from a degree of infertility. Two ofhis granddaughters, Meretatim andAnkhsenpaatin, married close cousins, theformer Smenkhkare and the latter the nowfamiliar name of the future Pharaoh,Tutankhaten. Noteworthy is Howard Carter'sexcavation of Tutankhamen’s tomb thatrevealed a mummified still born whichsuffered from Sprengel's disease: a conditionmost likely a result of the genetic stagnationdue to the consanguineous practices of theRoyal court. Acquired conditions werenumerous, and resulted in significantmorbidity among the population, althoughironically by the time of the Greek periodtravel to Egypt to enjoy its dry sunnyclimate was hailed as a remedy for a
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multitude of ailments. Leprosy(Mycobacterium leprae) is believed to havearisen in China in the first millennium BC,with the armies of Alexander the Greatbringing the disease, via India, to Egyptaround 350 BC27. In 1980, four skeletonsdating from the Greek period werediscovered with leprosy. A far more prolificcondition afflicting the Nile valleyinhabitants, also caused by amycobacterium, was prevalent as early as3300BC during the initial herding period ofFayium A, namely tuberculosis(Mycobacterium tuberculosum). Manystatuettes demonstrate Potts disease andtuberculosis has been isolated from manymummies, notably that of Nesperhen (XXIDyn) whose death was most probablyattributable to that disease. Little else isrecorded in literature about the extent ofinfectious diseases although it is thought thatRamesses V suffered from smallpox, on thebasis of skin lesions found on themummified skin of his face and trunk.Like modern day inhabitants of Egypt thepopulous suffered greatly from parasiticinfections. In 1910 Sir Marc Ruffer, aneminent Egyptologist, discovered mummiesdating to the XX dynasty which stillcontained their kidneys, unusual consideringmost mummies of this period wereeviscerated and from which were isolatedcalcified Bilharzia eggs. Furtherdemonstration of Bilharzia infection and itsconsequences were found at autopsy of themummy of Ramesses V who, apart fromskin damaged by smallpox, demonstratedgynaecomastia, enlarged scrotal sac and anumbilical hernia; all complications of long-term Bilharzia infection.The ancient Egyptians suffered numerousepidemics and often tomb art describedpestilence and death in years when the Nile'sinundation failed. The use of genetictechniques such as polymerase chainreaction (PCR) has enabled medico-
Egyptologists to determine the types ofinfection that afflicted this ancientpopulation and so build a picture of diseasemigration and prevalence during almost theentire Dynastic period33'34. Furtherparasitic infestations have come to light;Hydatid disease in the lung cavity of themummy of Asru and a space-occupyingcranial lesion, thought to be a tapewormcyst, in mummy 22940 of the ManchesterMuseum Mummy collection. The mummyof the XX Dynasty weaver Nakht, in thereign of Smenkhkare, was shown to havebeen infested with Taenia, Trichenellaspiralis and Bilharzia; a situation that musthave been commonplace other prevalentafflictions in ancient Egypt were arthritis,osteomyleitis and periostitis; of 133mummies screened in 1961, 30% wereshown to have Harris's lines. A further studyof 185 Nubian skeletons dating from 1500-1000 BC, showed that women were by farthe greatest sufferers from disease, probablyas a result of poorer nutrition and thedemands of childbirth. Unlike most Westernsocieties, ischaemic heart disease and cancerwere both rare as neither the diet nor therelative shortness of their lives predisposedto such conditions. However, the mummy ofRamesses II was reported to have lived 90years (after Manetho) and had calcifiedtemporal arteries and that of Lady Teye(XXI Dyn), entombed at Deir el-Bahri, wasshown to have atheroma of the coronaryarteries and mitral valves. Perhaps the moreluxurious diet and sedentary lifestyle of thePharaohs and their court set them apart fromthe average Egyptian and increased their riskof ischaemic heart disease. Examples ofneoplasia are few but some cases ofosteochondroma have come to light as wellas a case, dated to 835 BC, of a femalemummy shown to have left breastfibroadenoma41. Finally, an unusual case ofmultiple basal cell naevus was diagnosedafter the discovery that two skeletons from
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Asyut (approx 1000 BC) had multiplecysticlesions of the jaw and bifid ribs. Thegreat diversity of disease provides some idea
as to the clinical problems faced by theancient Egyptian 'Swnw',
The management of which was often basedon remedies devised by the physician andpassed down from generation to generationin papyri and by word of mouth.
Causes of diseasesThe human body was believed to be
born in a healthy state, and could not fall illor die except through the influence of aforeign agent. In case of wounds orintestinal worms, that agent was visible andthe treatment prescribed was hence rational.As they were not aware of microbiology,internal diseases were thought to be due toan occult force attributed to evil gods, adivine punishment or magical procedures.The physician was obliged to neutralize thisevil before turning into actual treatment.
Despite such limitation in their knowledgeof the causes of diseases, their study ofanatomy and physiology was so advanced.No doubt, this was due to their embalmingof the dead, when other nations at that timeused to burn them. For instance, the processof emptying the skull through the nostrils bymeans of a long hook could have never beendevised without a good knowledge of theanatomy of the head and brain. In ourmodern medicine, many brain surgeries arenowadays performed through this route.They obtained a good knowledge of themeanings, the cerebrospinal fluid, and thetwitches and pulsations, and were aware thatthe brain was the seat of the body control.
"If thou examine a man having a gapingwound in his head penetrating to the bone,smashing his skull, and rending opens thebrain of his skull, thou should palpate his
wound. Should thou find that smash whichin his skull like those corrugations whichform in molten copper, and somethingtherein throbbing and fluttering under thyfingers, like the weak place of an infant'scrown before it becomes whole- when it hashappened there is no throbbing andfluttering under thy fingers until the brain ofhis skull is sent open and he dischargesblood from both his nostrils, and he sufferswith stiffness in his neck."
The Ebers Papyrus describes the position ofthe heart precisely, and illustrates some ofits disorders, as dropped beats. Egyptianphysicians recognized the heart as the sourceof blood vessels. They were aware that theblood vessels were hollow, having a mouthwhich opens to absorb medications,eliminate waste elements, distribute air andbody secretions and excretions, in confusionbetween blood vessels and other passages.
The physiology of blood circulation wasdemonstrated in the Edwin Smith Papyrus,together with the relation to the heart, aswell as awareness of the importance of thepulse.
“It is there that the heart speaks” and “It isthere that every physician and every priestof Sekhmet places his fingers …….… hefeels something from the heart”.
They also knew that blood supply runs fromthe heart to all organs of the body.
“There are vessels in him for every part ofthe body”.
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“It speaks forth in the vessels of every bodypart”.
However, their inability to distinguishbetween blood vessels, nerves, tendons andchannels has limited their full understandingof the physiology of circulation.
Malaria
A bite from a parasite-infectedmosquito causes malaria. There are fivespecies of Plasmodium (P.) parasites thatinfect people.
Infection with P. Falciparum:
P. falciparum isfound mostly inthe tropics andsubtropics (nearthe equator).
Infection with P.falciparum canlead to life-threateningcomplicationsafter the firstfew days.
P. falciparum isoften resistant toa popular antimalarialmedicine(chloroquine)and needstreatment withother medicines.
Infection with P. vivax, P. malaria, P. ovale,or P. knowlesi:
P. vivax and P.malaria occur allover the tropical
regions of theworld. P. ovaleis found inwestern Africa,and P. knowlesiis found inSoutheast Asia.
Infection with P.vivax, P.malaria, or P.ovale is usuallynot life-threatening, anda person mayrecover in amonth withouttreatment. Butinfection with P.knowlesi may befatal.
P. vivax, P.malaria, P.ovale, and P.knowlesi aregenerally not asdrug-resistant asP. falciparum.
P. vivax P.ovale, and P.knowlesi maystay in the liver,requiring furthertreatment withmedicine toprevent relapses.
How the disease spreadsMalaria is spread when an infectedAnopheles mosquito bites a person. This isthe only type of mosquito that can spreadmalaria. The mosquito becomes infected bybiting an infected person and drawing bloodthat contains the parasite. When thatmosquito bites another person, that personbecomes infected.
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Diabetic Comas
A diabetic coma is a life-threateningcomplication affecting people with type I or typeII diabetes. Diabetic comas are typically causedby complications from either extremely high orlow blood sugar levels. Careful management ofblood glucose can prevent this problem fromoccurring.
HypoglycemiaHypoglycemia is a condition in which thelevel of glucose in your bloodstream isabnormally low. Among diabetics, this canoccur if you do not eat frequently enough orskip meals, drink too much alcohol, engagein intense exercise or take too much insulin.Without enough sugar, your organs, tissuesand brain may not have the energy they needto be able to function normally. Severehypoglycemia that comes on acutely cancause blood sugar to drop by a large amountso quickly that it causes loss ofconsciousness. If you do not get treatment,or if treatment is not able to raise your bloodsugar to normal before a significant amountof time has passed, you may lapse into adiabetic coma.
Diabetic Hyperglycemic HyperosmolarSyndromeDiabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolarsyndrome is a condition that occurs whenyour blood sugar level rises to significantlyhigh levels--more than 600mg/dl. Commonamong older people with type II diabetes,diabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolarsyndrome causes a thickening of the blood,increased urinary output of sugar and othervital fluids from the body, severedehydration, nausea, weakness, fatigue,diminished alertness, feelings of confusion
and convulsions. If the condition is nottreated promptly, it can lead to more severeimpairments in movement, sensation andspeech and life-threatening dehydration thataffects blood pressure and heart rate. Notonly can diabetic hyperglycemichyperosmolar syndrome lead to a diabeticcoma, it may also cause a swelling of thebrain, potentially fatal circulatory problemsand a buildup of acid in the bloodstream.
Diabetic KetoacidosisDiabetic Ketoacidosis occurs as acomplication of diabetes when the bodybegins to break down fat for energy becauseit has insufficient insulin to break downglucose. Ketones are toxic byproducts thatare released when fat is broken down. Ashigh levels of ketones accumulate in thebody, they become poisonous, resulting in anumber of symptoms such as a fruity breath,nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, rapidbreathing, dry skin, headache and frequentthirst and urination. As the conditionprogresses, it can cause increased difficultyin breathing while lying down, musclestiffness and confusion that may quicklyprogress to loss of consciousness or coma.Diabetic Ketoacidosis is a potentially life-threatening condition.
Other important causes include urolithiasiswith subsequent obstruction and infection,long-term drug abuse, and possiblyenvironmental pollution. The magnitude ofpollution's contribution remainsquestionable: an association has beendocumented only for occupational exposureto lead, cadmium, and mercury.
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BilharziasThe parasite was discovered in 1851
by Bilharz, so it is unlikely that the ancientEgyptians ever identified it.
Larval forms of the worm strongyloides inthe intestines of the mummy ASRU
Hematuria was probably common in ancientEgypt schistosomiasis has certainly beenvery common in Egypt in twenty century.
The mummy of ROM II has been shown toharbor the ova of schistosoma haematobiumand to display change in the liver that manyhave resulted from the schistosomalinfestation
Evidence of schistosomiasis infection inEgyptian mummies may now be adducedfrom presence of specific antigens in theirtissues using immunological tests.
Infections with the worm strongyloides likeschistosomiasis , in acquired by immatureforms of the worm penetrating unprotectedparts of the body , so it's perhaps notsurprising that larval forms of this worm wefound in the intestines of the mummy ofASRU.
To show the evidence of schistosomiasis ,the mummy of ROM I was found to harbor atape worm of taenia species .
Hydatid cysts have been found in the brainof one Egyptian mummy and in the lungs ofanother... a common cause of anemia,female infertility, a debilitating loss ofresistance to other diseases and subsequentdeath. Example - Ramses II, and Pasmatik'sdaughter Nitocris.
Bone disordersThe Non specific bone inflammation
isn't rare in human remains from oldersocieties.
The evidence of this is over whelming andphenomenon is of interest in view ofopinions formerly phenomenon held bysame morbid anatomists that theinflammatory processes are also seen infossil animals.
But their causes are likely to remainobscure.
It has been suggested that many specificinfections were probably rare or absent.
Might have been caused by a wide range oforganisms such nonspecific changes are ofsignificant frequency in early cemeteries,but are difficult to interpret.
It divided bone inflammation into;periostitis , osteitis , ostesmyelitis .
DwarfismIt was not a physical handicap in
Ancient EgyptA team of Georgetown University studiedbiological remains and remnants thatshowed that dwarfism in ancient Egypt wasnot seen as a handicap, but as respectedindividuals in this society that Egypt moralsteachings and wisdom writings commandedrespect for dwarfs as well as others withdisabilities. Amenemope who wrote in abook of moral teachings said, “Man is clayand straw, the God is his builder. The WiseMan should respect people affected byreversal of fortune.”
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Today, there are currently 100 medicalconditions that we know of today that causeshort stature. The most common cause iscalled achondroplasia and causes severelyshortened limbs. Around 75% of dwarfs areborn from parents of normal height.
Some dwarfs were part of households withhigh official and were respected enough tobe buried lavishly in royal cemeteries closeto the pyramids. There are numerousartifacts of artwork of images of dwarfsfound on tomb walls and vases, among otherrelics. The researchers say there werenumerous representations of dwarfs in atleast 50 tombs, which made them, believethat dwarfs were well integrated intosociety. The pictures showed dwarfs wereworking as personal attendants; they raisedanimals, were jewelers, dancers,entertainers, and also managers of theproduction of linen.
TumorsWell differentiated. An aneurysm
was described as a hemispherical tumor ofthe vessel, which increases in volumebeneath the fingers at each pulsation. Itceases to throb if one exerts pressure withthe finger in the direction of the “current”. Askill practiced nowadays by physicians.
An inguinal hernia was described as a tumorabove the genitalia, which appears oncoughing, and could be restored by heatapplication.
“If thou examines a swelling of the coveringof his belly’s horns above his pudenda (sexorgans) then thou shalt place thy finger on itand examine his belly and knock on thefingers (percuss) if thou examinst his thathas come out and has arisen by his cough.Then thou shalt say concerning it: it is a
swelling of the covering of his belly. It is adisease which I will treat”.
That impulse on cough is the firstmanifestation of a hernia in modern surgicalteachings. Heat application is one of themethods to reduce a strangulated hernia. Themummy of Meren-Ptah (19th dynasty) showsa sign of an open wound resulting fromsurgical interference.
The ancient physician also knew percussion,as the third step in examination modernphysicians practice.
“And examine his belly, and knock on thefinger” and “place thy hand on the patientand tap”.
Following diagnosis, the decision was in oneof three forms: “An ailment which I willtreat”, “An ailment which I contend” or“An ailment not to be treated”. In only 3 outof 49 cases discussed in the Smith Papyruswas the verdict hopeless.
Simple bed-side diagnostic tests were thenperformed:
“Say to the patient: ‘Look at thy shoulder,then thy breast, then look upwards anddownwards’. If he is not able to do this, he issuffering from a dislocation of the vertebraeof the neck”.
Club footThere are different causes for
clubfoot depending on what classification itis given. Structural TEV is caused bygenetic factors such as Edwards's syndrome,a genetic defect with three copies ofchromosome 18. Growth arrests at roughly 9weeks and compartment syndrome of theaffected limb are also causes of StructuralTEV. Genetic influences increase
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dramatically with family history. It waspreviously assumed that postural TEV couldbe caused by external influences in the finaltrimester such as intrauterine compressionfrom oligohydramnios or from amnioticband syndrome. However, this is counteredby findings that TEV does not occur morefrequently than usual when the intrauterinespace is restricted. Breech presentation isalso another known cause. TEV occurs withsome frequency in Ehlers Danlos Syndromeand some other connective tissue disorders.TEV may be associated with other birthdefects such as spina bifida cystica.
ElephantiasisMosquitoes also spread filarial
worms which caused the disfiguringelephantiasis. This disease was not veryprevalent but caused immense suffering toits victims Smallpox, measles, and cholerawere easily propagated in the relativelydensely populated Nile valley, wherepractically the whole population lived withina narrow strip of land, sometimes only a fewhundred meters wide, along the river.
Eye infections
Their causes may have beenenvironmental, nutritional or social.Inbreeding, not infrequent among the royals,was probably also not rare among thecommon people largely bound to the soil:the occurrence of a sixth finger or toe inmummies, interpreted by some as the resultof inbreeding, has been noted a number oftimes; but there is no evidence that the unionof healthy close relatives would result indefective offspring.
Wounds and injuries
Open wounds were often treatedwith honey, but sepsis was one of thecommonest causes of death. When lockjawset in due to a tetanus infection, physiciansknew they were powerless against thisaffliction: Thou should say regarding him:"One having a gaping wound in his headpenetrating to the bone, perforating thesutures of his skull; he has developed 'ty’,his mouth is bound, (and) he suffers withstiffness in his neck. An ailment not to betreated."
PlagueHistory has been punctuated with
catastrophic epidemics of plague caused bythe organism pasteurella pesris, normallycarried by rats and transferred to humans bythe fleas with which the rats are usuallyinfested.
Pneumonic plague was rapidly fatal and onewould hardly expect evidence in mummies.Bubonic plague was characterized byinflammation and enlargement of lymphglands, draining the area where the rat fleahad bitten the human host.
PoliomyelitisSome favor the view that this is
poliomyelitis contracted in childhood,before completion of growth of leg bones.
The equines would then be a compensationfor walking on the shortened leg.
Alternatively, it has been suggested that wasprimarily an equines variety of club foot,with secondary wasting and shortening ofthe leg. Much depends on the accuracy withwhich the artist portrayed the condition.
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Since club foot does not usually cause suchextreme shortening of the leg.
It is interesting that Roma appears with thestick which could be used as a crutch.Despite his disability he was able to attain
high office, marry and have at least onechild.
DISEASESINANCIENTEGYPT:A) Congenital Disorders:
1- Dwarfism:
Some congenital abnormalities may beinherited genetically or they may be causedby factors adversely affecting the fetusduring pregnancy. Sometimes theabnormality may be obvious immediatelyafter birth or the symptoms may presentthemselves some time after birth during theinfants growing period. Achondroplasia is aform of dwarfism which is easilydistinguished in skeletal remains and,although a rare condition, has beenportrayed in Egyptian art more often thanany other congenital deformity. Thiscondition may be inherited or may occur asthe result of a gene mutation inhibiting thegrowth of cartilage. The fastest growingbones of the body are the most affected and
so the femur and humerus are mostnoticeably squat and shortened; the forearmsand lower leg limbs also affected. The skullis relatively large with a bulging foreheadand in many cases the nasal bridge isdepressed. Sometimes there may be somecurvature of the spine. The beautifullysculpted dwarf steerswoman on the calciteboat-shaped ‘center piece’ from the tomb ofTutankhamen shows that the Egyptians wereaware that the condition affected women aswell as men.
One of the most famous statues of dwarfs isthe statue of the dwarf Seneb and his family(which is now exhibited in the Cairomuseum).
God Bes had the stature of a dwarf. Hewas depicted mustachioed with a lion’smane. The figure of god Bes was oftenincorporated into furniture as it wasbelieved by the Egyptians that hebrought good luck to the home. Bes hadthe stature of a dwarf.
2- Sprengel deform
In sprengel deformity, the shoulderblade is pushed up or elevated and it mayaffect one or both shoulder blades. It canhappen to the embryo during pregnancyperiod. The condition can recur in severalgenerations of a family but most cases occursporadically. This case appeared in the fetusin Tutankhamen’s tomb.
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3- Osteogenesis imperfecta:
It is a condition arising from aninadequate formation of bone tissue. Thisresults in brittle and delicate bones and isoften referred to in modern times as ‘brittlebone’ disease.
In one of its forms, Osteogenesis imperfectfetalis, the condition develops within thewomb and before the fetus is born it mayalready have fractured many or all the bonesin its body. In ancient times many survivedthe trauma of birth.
The second form of it, Osteogenesisimperfecta tarda, appears during childhoodor adolescence and leads to many fractures.
4- Anencephaly:
It is a fatal malformation of the skull.In this condition the skull does not developduring fetal growth, and the neural canalmay not close so any rudimentary brain isexposed and life after birth is not possible.The cause of this condition is likely to begenetic but other factors cannot be ruled.
Perhaps the best known example ofanencephaly comes from the catacomb ofHermopolis in Egypt.
5- Clubfoot (talipes equinovarus ):
It is a condition where one or bothfeet are congenitally formed into an invertedposition causing difficulty in walking.Experts differ in opinion as to the frequencyof clubfoot in antiquity as the defect isdifficult to identify. It is often confused withpost-paralytic deformities such as thoseassociated with poliomyelitis.
Tomb paintings at Beni Hassan from theeleventh and twelfth dynasties depict twopeople with clubfeet. Drawing from tombsat Deshasha also show figures with invertedfeet.
6- Cleft palate:
Cleft palate develops in the wombwhen the two halves of the palate fail tounite, leaving an opening (which may occurunilaterally or bilaterally) connecting theoral and the nasal cavities. This condition isnot genetic in origin and there are
a variety of environmental factors whichmay lead to its occurrence. Unlike the cleftpalate, the combined occurrence of cleftpalate with cleft ( or hare ) lips is genetic inorigin in seventy-five percent of cases. Thecleft lip defect occurs between the literalincisor and the canine tooth and has anincidence of one in six hundred live births.
There is a skull exhibiting a deformed palatewas excavated by Brunton in a cemetery onthe east bank of the Nile, some thirty milessouth of Asyut.
7- Hydrocephalus:
Hydrocephalus occurs when thefluid-containing spaces within the brainexpand, resulting in an abnormality largehead. This condition is commonly known as‘water on the brain’. The vault increases inall directions and takes on a globular shape.In antiquity the enlarged head of an afflictedinfant would have obstructed labour andboth mother and child were likely to die inchildbirth.
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B) Acquired disorders:Not all diseases leave evidence of
their existence on human remains. Certaintypes of illness, such as fever, resolvethemselves quickly, by subsiding or killingthe patient, and leave no identifiable traceson the body. Chest infections, boils andmany serious skin problems which affect thesoft tissues of the body remain unrecorded,it is important not to underestimate theoccurrence of such conditions in ancienttimes.
1-Tuberculosis:
Ancient Egypt gives us some of theearliest evidence for the tuberculosis fromthe ancient world. People were vulnerable todisease caught from domesticated animals,and as the people of Near East were the firstto bring animals into domestic life, it is herethat we would expect to find the earliestevidence of such diseases. One of theearliest examples of spinal tuberculosis hasbeen found at excavations at the pre-dynastic site of Adaima, 8 km south of Esna.
Bovine tuberculosis spreads secondarily tohumans through infected milk or meat. Thehuman strain of tuberculosis is extremelycontagious. The infected person coughs andspreads bacilli from an active area ofinfection, which are often the lungs. In thebody the bacilli can travel to other parts ofthe system causing tuberculosis of the lymphnodes, kidney, intentions and other organs,but evidence of diseases soft tissue from thepast is rare. In some cases the bacilli enterthe growth centers of the bone, affecting itsdevelopment, and many archaeologicalexamples of this type of tuberculosis may be
found. The infection causes aninflammatory reaction, bone is destroyed,and between two and four vertebrae in thelower throtic area can collapse producing anangular hump. Several clay statues, thoughtto be predynastic in date, show an emaciatedbody, a drawn face and a humped back.
A nineteenth dynasty depiction of a gardenerraising water with a shaduf is considered tobe a case of spinal tuberculosis.
Probably the most famous case from Egyptis that of Nespahera, an adult malediscovered by Grébaut amongst a group ofmummies found at Thebes in 1891. Theywere the well-preserved bodies of priestsand priestesses of Amun from the 21st
dynasty.
2- Leprosy:
Leprosy is caused by a bacillusclosely related to tuberculosis. Leprosy is achronic infectious disease caused by thespread of the leprosy bacillus. Leprosy andtuberculosis are of the same genus butunlike tuberculosis, leprosy attacks the bodyin specific areas.
Leprosy is known as one of the mostterrifying diseases of the ancient world. Itcauses tumors to grow beneath the skin,fester, and then ulcerate. It also causesneurological damage, leading to a loss offeeling in the extremities of the body.Mummified remains showing signs ofleprosy are rare. It is possible that lepersseeking mummification were turned awaydue to the fear of infection.
Characteristic symptoms are mutilated handsand feet with the fingers and toes reduced to
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stumps, collapse the nasal bridge, missingupper central incisors and ulcerated eyeswhich will eventually go blind.
It is known to be infectious, yet someresearchers now suggest that it is relativelydifficult to transmit the disease. The diseasecan be contracted by inhaling droplets whichthe sick person has sneezed out of his nose.Once contracted, the bacilli travel along thenervous system causing areas of anesthesia.Then they invade the skin, nodules form andas they invade the bloodstream thecirculation is inhibited.
3- Poliomyelitis:
It is also an infectious disease. It wasshown on a limestone funerary stele fromthe 18th dynasty in Copenhagen shows theright leg of Roma, doorkeeper for the ladyYamia, was atrophied after paralyticpoliomyelitis.
Polio is a viral infection of the centralnervous system which manifests itself in theparalysis of one or more muscle groups.Polio occurs more frequently during earlylife and so it often known as infantileparalysis. The paralysis of an upper or lowerlimb results in muscle wasting and impairedgrowth.
4- Tumors:
Modern opinions might suggest that tumor isa disease of advanced industrial societiesonly. Tumors are uncontrolled expansions oftissue cells within the body. Usually thesetumors are not restricted to any particularage or sex.
Sometimes a tumor may produce a reactionin the bone which resembles a neoplasm.Bone tumor types are either benign ormalignant. Benign tumors remain at the siteof origin and spread only locally, but cansometimes look quite formidable as in afamous fifth dynasty femur, where thecartilage has developed in the growingperiod of the skeleton into an irregular bonymass with a dry-bone appearance.
The other type is the malignant bone tumorswhich are usually fatal and are characterizedby an uncontrolled spread of a primarylesion via the bloodstream into other areas(or organs) of the body. P.Podzorskimentions a possible case of malignant tumorwhere destruction was seen on the left sideof skull of a woman from predynastic Naga-ed-der. She may have been blind in her lefteye as a result of this lesion.
Textual evidence of the tumors may befound in the Ebers papyrus, which include areferences to such symptoms ‘as eatinglesions’ and ‘a glandular swelling’. TheHearst papyrus contains similar references.Turning to artistic evidence several relief inold kingdom mastaba tombs at Saqqarashow various types of ‘swelling’. The tombof the vizier Mehu has depictions ofumbilical hernias and gynaecomastia(swellings of the breast area). Ptah Hetep’stomb chapel shows a similar range ofumbilical and genital hernias.
5- Endocrine and Metabolic disorders(such as Graves’ disease):
Endocrine diseases result from abnormalactivity of the glands. There is a chemicalchange in the hormones they secrete. An
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iodine deficiency produces under-activity inthe thyroid gland resulting in cretinism anddwarfism. Over activity of the thyroidglands, however, leads to Graves’ disease,also known as exophthalmia. The face of thestatue from the old kingdom, now in theCairo museum, seems to show the featuresof the disease {a full thick neck, protrudingeyes and a strained expression}.
The dysfunction of the pituitary gland alsoproduces disorders, some of which candamage the skeleton. The most famous andmost controversial example of a possiblepituitary disorder is that of PharaohAkhenaton. There is a suggestion that hesuffered from acromegaly (an overgrowth ofthe hands, feet and face), resulting from apituitary problem but without the king’sbody we can only speculate.
6- Joint diseases:
Joint diseases are a group ofabnormalities which are related but havedifferent causes, some of which areunknown.
* Septic arthritis:
It is caused by blood-borne bacteria enteringthe joint cavities (usuallthe hip or kneejoints) or through a wound. Infection sets inand cartilage is destroyed and bone becomesdamaged.
* Rheumatoid arthritis:
The causes of rheumatoid arthritis are stillnot fully understood. This disease is knownto inflame and disfigure joints and tends to
occur in the 4th and 5th decades of life.Evidence for rheumatoid in antiquity is inshort supplies but a 5th dynasty skeleton of amiddle-aged man excavated by Petrie atDeshasha shows some arthritic changes tothe spine.
* Ankylosing spondylitis (Bamboo spine):
It is a severely crippling degenerativedisease whose cause is not known. Onset ofthe disease is usually during the second orthird decade of life, and after the joints havebecome inflamed, the spine becomesprogressively fixed until the whole vertebralcolumn becomes immobile. Sometimes eventhe joints of the pelvis and ribs are affected,resulting in severe disability, ever increasingback pain and stiffness. It more commonlyaffected men than women.
* Osteoarthritis:
It is mainly associated with ageing, but thestudy of the joints commonly affected inancient times may provide insights into theoccupation of the sufferers. Like theagricultural worker, for example who wascontinually bending and lifting. But itshould be stressed that an associationbetween osteoarthritis and types of work isdifficult to prove.
* Osteophytosis:
Stress on vertebral column causes the discsbetween them to rupture, stimulating thegrowth of bone from the edges of thevertebral body, allowing the load to beredistributed over a wider area.
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7- Malaria:
A variety of parasites can attack thehuman body. There are internal parasitesand external parasites. One of the world’soldest external human parasites is themesquites, which infect man with malariawhen feeding on his blood. Malariainfection is caused by the female Anophelesmosquito transmitting the plasmodiumparasite when withdrawing human blood.The usual pattern of the disease involves theperiodic destruction of thousands of redblood cells which results in intermittentfevers in the human host as a response to theplasmodia moving through the bloodstream.
The most famous evidence of the existing ofmalaria in ancient Egypt is KingTutankhamen.
8- Vascular diseases:
With regard to vascular diseases, weare on firm ground and have direct evidence.Blood vessels are often well preserved inEgyptian mummies and dried bodies.
The physiology of blood circulation wasdemonstrated in the Edwin Smith Papyrus,together with its relation to the heart, as wellas awareness of the importance of the pulse.They also knew that blood supply runs fromthe heart to all organs of the body. However,their inability to distinguish between bloodvessels, nerves, tendons and channels haslimited their full understanding of thephysiology of circulation.
Elliot Smith in 1912 described calcificationof the temporal arteries in Ramsses II.Sandison examined and photographedmummy arteries using modern histological
method and he found that arteriosclerosisand elastic lamina could readily be seen.
9- Kidney diseases:
Available studies on preservedmummies indicate that kidney disease wasnot uncommon. The kidneys and the heartwere the only organs not removed during theprocess of mummification. In a 18th to 20th
dynasty mummy, the kidney showedmultiple abscesses. In 1909, Shattockanalyzed renal calculi from a 2nd dynastytomb.
10- Psychiatry and Mental diseases:
Egypt regarded mental illness asmagical or religious in nature. Egyptianpsychiatric theory was deeply rooted in theEgyptian conception of the self - the Ghet(the body), the Ka (the sole companion) andthe Ba (the soul), all playing their part in thecyclical nature of life and death. Theobsession with death and life after deathmeant that the health of the mind or soulplayed an essential part in one’s overallhealth.
Limited notes in an ancient Egyptiandocument known as the Ebers papyrusappear to describe disordered states ofconcentration and attention, and emotionaldistress in the heart or mind. Some of thesehave been interpreted as indicating whatwould later be termed hysteria andmelancholy. Somatic treatments typicallyincluded applying bodily fluids whilereciting magical spells. Hallucinogens mayhave been used as part of healing rituals.Religious temples may have been used as
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therapeutic retreats, possibly for theinduction of receptive states to facilitatesleep and the interpreting of dreams.
In Ancient Egypt exists the first knownpsychiatric text (written around 20th centuryBC which explains the causes of "hysteria"), the first known mental hospital (a templecomplex near modern Saqqara which isthought to be meant for the treatment of thementally ill), and the known mentalphysician are found in history. The Egyptianfocus on the well-being of the soul isembodied in the Temple of Imhotep atMemphis in the 29th century BC, a popularcenter for the treatment of mental illness.Methods used to attempt to cure thementally ill included using opium to inducevisions, performing rituals or deliveringprayers to specific gods, and "sleeptherapy," a method of interpreting dreams todiscover the source of the illness. Egyptiansociety, with its fixation on the health of thesoul, is the first major example of mentalhealthcare as a major priority for a society inhistory.
Psychiatric diseases had their share inancient Egyptian medicine. Depression wasdescribed as: “fever in the heart”, “drynessof the heart”, “falling of the heart”, “debilityof the heart” and “kneeling of the mind”.The heart and mind were synonymous.Hysterical disorders were described in theKahun Papyrus.
11- Ears and nose diseases:
Viruses, not bacteria, cause thecommon cold. Colds were known to maneven in ancient Egypt where they weredepicted in hieroglyphs.
Deafness was well understood. Uncleardiseases of the ears were also mentioned inthe Ebers Papyrus and in the Berlin Papyrus.
Remedies for the nose are offered in theEbers Papyrus; rš and ḥnt are thought tomean “coryza” or “catarrh.” Paragraph 762provides a remedy for the unknown nἰʒ-disease of the nose.
Cough was treated by honey and milk. Sometreatment of is mentioned in the EbersPapyrus that is thought to be for asthma.The common cold plagued the ancientEgyptians, and their remedy (the milk of amother who has given birth to a boy) wasprobably as effective. Moreover they had atried and true spell to go with it:
“May you flow out, catarrh, son of catarrh,who breaks the bones, who destroys theskull, who hacks in the marrow, who causesthe seven openings in the head to ache”.-Ebers Papyrus
12- Diabetes:
Diabetes mellitus is a group ofdiseases characterized by high levels ofglucose in the blood resulting from defectsin insulin production, insulin action (insulinresistance), or both. Insulin is a hormoneproduced by the pancreas. When eaten,foods are converted to a type of sugar calledglucose that enters the bloodstream. Insulinis needed to move glucose into the bodycells where it is used for energy. Insufficientamounts of working insulin cause bloodsugar levels to rise and large amounts ofglucose are excreted in the urine.Consistently high levels of glucose in thebloodstream damage the nerves and blood
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vessels, and can lead to heart disease, stroke,high blood pressure, blindness, kidneydisease, amputations, and dental diseases.
The first reference to diabetes mellitus isattributed to the Ebers Papyrus, whichmentions remedies for the treatment ofexcessive urination (polyuria). The EbersPapyrus contains remedies “to eliminateurine which is too plentiful”.
Urinary troubles in the adult were alsocorrected with rectal injections.
The ancient Egyptians did not call itdiabetes in ancient Egypt but some sufferedfrom it. In 1552 BC Dr. Hesy-Ra tried totreat a patient who had to go to the bathrooma lot. He did not know what was wrong withthe man but he tried a special diet of honey,grains and fruits. It helped but did not curethe man. After this, most physicians haveknown that diabetics have too much sugar inthe urine. So they started testing the urinebut they did not have the modern way wenow have, not until the 11th century. Insteadthe assistants had to taste the urine and tellthe doctor if it was sweet.
Hatshepsut had diabetes which affected herteeth and gum.
13- Trauma:
Trauma can include a variety ofconditions which provide a ‘shock’ to thebody. Internal violence, accidents andsurgical operations all have a profoundeffect on an individual.
The ancient skull of Meryrahashetef at theBritish museum is a clear case of trauma inancient Egypt. On the left side of the adult
male’s head is a severe injury and it is likelythat the injury contributed to his death.
Head (or cranial) injuries commonlyoccurred in most ancient populations, butnot always as a result of intentionalviolence.
In 1923, excavations at Dier el-Bahari nearthe Valley of the Kings under earthed agroup of bodies. It was realized that thebodies, about sixty in number, were theremains of archers from the early middlekingdom. Many of them, some with older,healed wounds, had serios skulled injuriesconsistent with being pierced by arrowsbeing hit by an axe or sword. Some of thewounds had been caused by rocks andstones being hurled down into the men fromabove. Fifteen of the men had been clubbedrepeatedly about their head, neck and face,and one archer had the weapon whichcaused his injury still in place: the woodentip of the arrow was still embedded in hisleft eye socket, penetrating deeply into hisskull.
A skull brought to England from Giza andnow in Cambridge has an extensive butwell-healed injury to the left side of thehead, running from the top of the skull downthrough the mastoid area. It is highlyprobable that as a result of his injury thisadult male suffered a hearing loss. He mayalso have suffered bouts of dizziness due todamage of the middle ear, were the organsof balance are situated.
Probably the most famous case of headinjury is that of Seqenenre Ta, a king of theseventeenth dynasty who took part in thewar to rid his country of the Hyksos. His
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mummified body is now in the Cairomuseum has six wounds to the head, faceand neck which were all made by weaponsof a type used by the Hyksos. It was thoughtthat all six injuries were inflicted on thebattlefield and that the king died as a resultof them. However, X-ray analysis ofSeqenenre’s skull by E.Metzel has shownthat the bone around one of the wounds tothe forehead had partially re-grownindicating that the king had sustained thisinjury some months before the others whichkilled him. It is possible that this first injurycaused the paralysis evident in one of theking’s arms. As an infirm individual hewould surely not have returned to thebattlefield and so the second and fatal set ofinjuries may have been sustained elsewhere.It has led to the suggestion that Seqenenredied as a result of a palace intrigue.
Fractures of the femur are common inancient Egypt human remains.
It is suggested that the relatively lowincidence of fractures to the tibia (shin bone)may be due to people going barefoot,especially when cultivating the land.
The recommended treatment for a fractured(or broken) nose was to insert rigid rolls oflinen into the nostril like a splint. A numberof long bones with splints attached to themhave been found in graves, several fromwhich come from the Old kingdom. Somesplints were made from bark, others frombundles of wooden sticks tied closer withcloth. Some splints included padding oflinen and vegetable fibre. In a paintingfrom the tomb of Ipuy, Ramsess II’ssculptor, a person is depicted setting the
shoulder of a prostrate workman which isreminiscent of the Kocher
Method for reducing dislocated shoulder(another form of Trauma).
14- Female disorders and Miscarriage:
Women's diseases occupy a fair proportionof the medical writings. Healing substanceswere introduced into the vagina by tamponsand also by fumigation, a technique wherebya woman straddled hot stones on which amedicated solution was poured to producevapors that could enter her vagina.
An exceptional method was offered fordiagnosing pregnancy. A woman wouldurinate over a mixture of wheat and barleyseeds combined with dates and sand. If anygrains later sprouted, the woman was sure togive birth. If only wheat grew, the childwould be a boy; if only the barley, a girl.This fanciful-sounding ritual may have hadsome success because of the hormonalcontent of urine, a factor in contemporaryurine examination for pregnancy. Of course,fantastic and magical means of diagnosingpregnancy were also followed by theEgyptians.
Although contraceptive methods weredescribed in the medical papyruses, fertilitywas most desirable. In addition to prayersand offerings to fertility deities, an infertilewoman might have symbolic intercoursewith a bull to open the pathway toconception. The necessary contribution ofsemen to fecundation was appreciated, butthe understanding of sexual physiology wasminimal. The people, and probablyphysicians as well, believed thatimpregnation could occur through the mouthas well as the vagina. Dung, honey, and acarbonate salt made up one contraceptivecombination. Vaginal insertion of acacia
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leaf-tips was another method, and that planthas been found to produce lactic acid—acommon ingredient of modern vaginaldouches.
Miscarriage is the loss of the embryo in thepregnancy period or before the time ofdelivery.
The Egyptians knew that infertility could bedue to the woman as well as the man.Couples who did not get the child theywished for tried to influence their fate withprayers presented to a god or goddess, lettersto the dead, or prescriptions of medicinesand magic. When a woman became pregnantshe tried all types of medicine and magic toprevent a miscarriage. Various mixtureswere poured into a woman's vagina toprevent miscarriage.
Tutankhamen’s tomb contained two fetusesembalmed and enclosed in miniatureanthropoid coffins. It is likely that thesewere Tutankhamen’s own children by hiswife Ankhesenamun. The first fetus,probably a female, was of no more than fivemonths’ gestation, the second, a female, wasof about eight or nine months’ gestation.
15- Cuts and burns:
The ancient Egyptians used honeyfor burns and wounds. Honey has uniqueability to fight pathogens and aid healing.Since honey has an acidic PH, it makes thesite unsuitable to pathogenic infections. Italso keeps the wound site moist, which helpsin early healing of the wounds. The highsugar content pulls out water from thewound sites by a process of osmosis thusreducing swelling and pain.
16- Tetanus:
Tetanus is a rare but often fataldisease that affects the central nervoussystem by causing painful and often violentmuscular contractions. The earliestdescriptions of the disease can be found inthe medical papyri of ancient Egypt. Thedisease begins when the tetanus bacterium(Clostridium tetani) enters the body, usuallythrough a wound or cut that has come incontact with the spores of the bacterium.Tetanus spores are commonly found in soil,dust, and animal manure. Tetanus is not acommunicable disease, meaning that itcannot be passed directly from one person toanother.
Evidence of tetanus, a bacterial infection, isnot to be expected in human remains. YetCase 7 of the Edwin Smith Papyrus,describes lockjaw and distortion of the face,suggesting tetanus.
17- Sepsis and abscesses:
Sepsis (a toxic state of infection that entersthe bloodstream) must have been common inancient Egypt, but there is no convincingevidence in mummies. There are, however,highly suggestive descriptions of sepsis andabscesses (pus-filled swellings) in themedical papyri.
18- Skin diseases:
Mummies have shown a fewexamples of skin diseases but paragraphs ofthe Ebers Papyrus, paragraphs of the HearstPapyrus, and the verso of the Edwin SmithPapyrus list remedies for skin complaintsthat are difficult to identify and which maybelong to the realm of beauty care.
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19- Smallpox:
Diagnosis of this viral infection restsupon the appearance of the skin of well-preserved mummies. If correct, the mostdistinguished victim would be Ramesses V.Nothing in the medical papyri can be relatedto smallpox.
20- Gastrointestinal system
Pale pathology has shed little lighton ancient diseases of the stomach andbowels. Although there remains uncertaintyin the translation of r-ἰb as “stomach” (as inthe Ebers Papyrus, paragraphs 188–208),much attention was devoted to itsobstruction (šn). The ancient Greek historianHerodotus noted that the Egyptians wereobsessed with their bowels, and much oftheir pharmacopeia was devoted tofacilitating bowel movements, withaperients “to drive out feces (ḥs)” and “toevacuate (fgn or wsš)”.
There are also many remedies to “cool orrefresh (sḳb) the anus (pḥwt)” and to “driveout heat (ṯʒw), suggesting an infection. TheEbers Papyrus, paragraph 161, specificallyrefers to “the vessels (mtw) of the anus,”which may mean hemorrhoids.
Diarrhea was stopped by (Green onions,freshly cooked Gruel, oil and honey, wax,water, cook and take for four days).
21- Eye diseases:
Due to the constant exposure to thesun, ancient Egyptians suffered from eyedisease and damage to a high degree. Thisissue was quite pronounced as it was often acause of blindness amongst Egyptians in
ancient times. It led to the evolution of anancient Egyptian remedy which comprisedof using bad blood due to their power ofnight vision. A remedy was created andinjected into the ears of the blind person,however the physician was not to be blamedif he followed the remedy accurately and thetreatment failed.
There are many representations of blindnessin ancient Egypt, particularly of harpists(example- tomb of Ramesses III. The bestsource of information is from the EbersPapyrus. The Egyptian word for “blindness”(špt) is well attested, but most of the causesremain unclear. The šʒrw disease of the eyeswas treated with liver, suggesting thepossibility of night blindness. Althoughcooked or even raw liver, applied locally,would be ineffective for a condition causedby vitamin A deficiency, the KahunPapyrus, Case 1, recommends raw liver bymouth for “a woman who cannot see”.
The Ebers Papyrus refers to a wide range ofeye diseases that cannot be identified withany certainty, but kkw (“darkness”) and ḥʒty(“cloudiness”) might refer either to opacitiesin the cornea or in the lens (cataract); ḏfḏft(“drip”) may well mean excessive tearing(lacrymation), from a variety of causes.Cataract (loss of eye lens transparency) wasso named as the Latins thought it was due toa liquid flowing from the brain into the eyes.The Egyptians called it “rise of water”, itwas treated by a mixture of tortoise brainand honey. Perhaps nḥʒt (in paragraphs 350,383, and 407) is “trachoma,” since theadjective nḥʒ has various meanings,including “uneven” and “terrible”. Night
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blindness was cured by roasted and crushedox liver.
Paragraph 424, in the papyrus, describestroublesome eyelashes, growing inward toirritate the cornea.
22- Bilharzias:
While some Egyptians lived to a ripeold age like Ramesses II or Psmatik I'sdaughter, Nitocris, who reigned as God'sWife for more than sixty years. The age atdeath was rarely above thirty-five years,with bilharzias is a common cause ofanemia, female infertility, a debilitating lossof resistance to other diseases andsubsequent death. The Ebres Papyrusaddresses some of the symptoms of thedisease and in two columns discussestreatment and prevention of bleeding in theurinal tract.
23- Snake bites:
Snakes were found throughoutancient Egypt, including the desert sands, inold walls, in fields, by the Nile and in itsswamps. Poisonous snakes would haveposed a threat to humans and domesticanimals alike. Hence, the Egyptians hadsomewhat of a love/hate relationship withsnakes. While they were dangerous, theywere also viewed, for example, as aprotector to the King and he was depictingthe ureas on his foreheads (in royal statues).
A papyrus in the Brooklyn Museum thatserved as a manual for a doctor treatingsnakebite reveals that the Egyptians had anintimate knowledge of snakes. Although thebeginning of the papyrus is lost, it wouldhave listed the names of some thirty-seven
types of snakes. At least thirty-six specieshave been identified in modern Egypt, butthe ancient typology most likely did notcorrespond exactly to the modern ones. Thepapyrus gives a physical description of eachsnake and its habitat, along with precisedescriptions of the symptoms produced byeach snake's venom, whether or not the biteis mortal, and the name of the god orgoddess of which the snake is considered tobe a manifestation. Following the list ofsnakes is a list of remedies to cure bitevictims. Some of the remedies are specificfor certain types of snakes, while otherswere for specific symptoms. These remediesincluded emetics, compresses, unctions,massages, incision of wounds andfumigations. There were also magicalincantations that were spoken over theremedies. The ingredients in the remediesinclude liquids and substances of mineral,animal and vegetable origin. The mostcommon ingredient is onion, still usedfrequently in Egyptian folk medicine todayto treat snakebite.
One of the poisonous snakes the Egyptiansfeared most was the horned viper (alsoknown as the sand viper). When the hornedviper attacks, it rasps its coils togetherbefore springing forward. The raspingsounds like the letter f, and (fy is theEgyptian word for "viper" as well).
24- Dentistry and Teeth diseases:
Teeth are the hardest and the mostindestructible of human tissues. Their shapeis determined genetically, and in theircalcification, they record importantnutritional information. Wear patterns and
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dental caries ('cavities') tell much aboutancient living and eating habits.
In ancient Egypt, the greatest single problemwas attrition (wear). The teeth were rapidlyworn down throughout life by theconsumption of a course diet. This is true ofboth pharaohs and common farmers. In time,the wear becomes so extensive that theenamel and dentin are worn away, exposingthe pulp. Painful chronic infection is theresult. Dental surgeons of that time woulddrain the abscesses through a hollow reed.
The second greatest problem of both ancientand modern Egyptians is periodontal (gum)disease. Calculus (tartar) deposits on teethwere often so extensive that they held theteeth in place after death for 2,000 years.The result of these deposits is early boneloss, loose teeth, infection, and tooth loss.
Dental caries (cavities were far lessfrequently seen amongst ancient Egyptiansand Nubians than in today's populations. Wecan cite two reasons. First, rapid wearliterally wore away the sites of pit andfissure cavities. Second, is the absence theof refined carbohydrates.
Some orthodontic observations are ofinterest here. Ancient Egyptians andNubians rarely had the dental crowding andabnormal molar relationships that areobserved in Western cultures today. Manyanthropologists and some dentists tell us thatvigorous chewing encourages developmentof robust, full sized lower jaws and somedegree of tooth wear minimized joint painand tooth crowding that are prevalent today.
Some restorative dentistry from that periodhas been seen. In one mummy with missingteeth, three substitute teeth were in placeskillfully threaded together to the abutmentteeth with fine gold wire.
Why so much dental wear? Sand infiltratedtheir diet, especially by way of corn groundbread. Modern experiments have shown thata single grinding of corn produces a courseof flour. The more desired finely groundfloor is produced by adding sand to thecourse flour which exacerbates the toothwear process.
As their diet included much abrasivematerial (sand and small stone particles fromgrinding the corn) the teeth of elderlyancient Egyptians were often in a very poorstate.
Caries and the destruction of the enamelcaused the loss of teeth at an early age andoften killed as well. Mutnodjmed, pharaohHoremheb's second wife and sister ofNefertiti, had lost all her teeth when she diedin her forties. Djedmaatesankh, a Thebanmusician who lived around 850 BCEsuffered from 13 abscesses, extensive dentaldisease and a huge infected cyst, whichprobably killed her aged about 35 [4].
On the other hand, if there was noabrasion due to lucky circumstances, aperson of the people would have a minimalincidence of caries and thus a perfect set ofteeth, [61][73] thanks to the paucity of sugar inthe diet of the ancient Egyptians. The well-to-do, whose food was more refined, seemto have suffered more from caries than thepoor.
The Ebers Papyrus lists a number ofremedies dealing with teeth, though thecomplaint at times is a bit obscure.
Another remedy for treating an itching toothuntil the opening of the flesh: cumin, 1 part;resin of incense, 1 part; DAr.t-fruit, 1 part;crush and apply to the tooth.
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Caries was rare during the predynasticand became prevalent among upper classEgyptians as early as the Old Kingdom. Bythe end of pharaonic Egypt it was a diseasewhich affected all social strata.[72] It wasreferred to as a worm gnawing a tooth whichis at least comprehensible to us, and it hasbeen suggested that they were sometimestreated by fillings made of resin andchrysocolla, a greenish mineral containingcopper. There were also remedies forstrengthening a tooth, for expelling achesfrom the mouth, and for treating the bloodeater - whatever that was.[60]
From the head of the mummy of AmenhotepIII, we deduce that he had lost some of hisfront teeth due to alveolar abscesses ofwhich he was still suffering at the time ofhis death.(The matter filling the mouth cavity is resinused during mummification)G. Elliot Smith, plate XXXVSwollen gums were treated with aconcoction of cumin, incense and onion.Opium, the toxicity of which was wellknown, might be given against severe pain.At times holes were drilled into the jawbonein order to drain abscesses. But extraction ofteeth, which might have saved the lives ofmany a patient, was rarely if ever practised.For most of ancient Egyptian history therewas little or no effective dental treatmentavailable and sufferers mostly could onlyhope that the maxim in The Instruction ofAnkhsheshonq: "There is no tooth that rots
yet stays in place" would come truespeedily.
A few examples of restorative dentistryare known. One mummy had three substituteteeth skillfully tied to the abutment teethwith fine gold wire, but it has beensuggested that this was done post-mortem.
Evidence of dental disorders is plentifulbecause usually teeth are among the bestpreserved parts of a body. Worn teeth,periodontal diseases, abscesses and cavitiestormented the ancient Egyptians, accordingto the first systematic review of all studiesperformed on Egyptian mummies in the past30 years. Later on, we will discuss the dentalhealth in details.
25- Heart diseases:
The Ebers Papyrus describes the position ofthe heart precisely, and illustrates some ofits disorders.
Atherosclerosis is ubiquitous among modernday humans and, despite differences inancient and modern lifestyles, we found thatit was rather common in ancient Egyptiansof high socio-economic status living. Thenameplate of the Pharaoh Merenptah in theCairo Museum of Egyptian Antiquities readsthat, when he died at approximately age 60,he was afflicted with atherosclerosis,arthritis, and dental decay. As a result,atherosclerosis may have been widespreadamong ancient Egyptians.
26- Obesity:
Many of the inscriptions and pictures ofpeople in ancient Egypt are svelte Pharaohs,
nobles, and gods. But was this the reality?!Actually when the mummy of Hatshepsuthas been found Dr Zahi Hawass was hesitantto identify that particular body with Egypt'sgreatest female Pharaoh becauseHatshepsut's mummy was obese to the
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extent that she was likely diabetic. ZahiHawass described the mummy as a "verylarge, fat body with huge pendulous breast”.
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Conclusion:
It will be seen in the reports mentioned in this chapter that many diseases of thepresent day occurred also in ancient Egypt. Apart from, Leprosy, which has notbeen found before Roman times. The Egyptians before Christ suffered many of
the ailments of modern civilized persons.
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Patients in ancientEgyptThe kings of New KingdomNow we are talking about an importantera in ancient Egypt which is the Newkingdom which is considered to be themost powerful empire in ancientEgypt. This empire extended from theEuphrates at the east to Napata inSudan at South. This empire wascreated by very powerful kings whoruled Egypt during the New kingdom.Through this Empire, Egypt had greatpower, great authority, and a greatwealth.
But the question here, why did thisgreat kings suffer from severaldiseases?
Kings in the ancient Egypt used tomarry their sisters, half- brothers oreven their fathers, thus any recessivedeformity becomes dominant andappears on the body. Also the diseases
were inherited from one generation tothe other.
Some scholars believes that the kingsinherited this habit from their religiousas (Geb) a land married (Nut) a skyand the couple has two male (Osiers)and (Set) and two females (Isis) and(Nephthys). Osiers married his sisterIsis and Set married his sisterNephthys. The royal familiesscrupulously as there gods did.
Now we will show some examples fromthe New kingdom's kings suffered fromdifferent diseases specially the kingsfrom 18th and 19th dynasties.
The kings of 18th Dynasty:Thutmose II
Introduction:
Thutmose II (sometimes readas Thutmosis, or Tuthmosis II andmeaning Born by Thout probablypronounced during his lifetime asDjhutymose) was the fourth Pharaoh ofthe 18th dynasty. He built some minormonuments and initiated at least twominor campaigns but he did little else
during his rule and was probablystrongly influenced by his wifeHatshepsut. His reign is generallydated from 1493 to 1479. ThutmoseII's body was found in the Dire- elBhari cache above the mortuary templeof queen Hatshepsut and can beviewed today in the Egyptian museumin Cairo.
His mummy:
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Thutmose II's mummy wasdiscovered in the cache, was revealedin 1881. He was interred along withother 18th and 19th dynasty leadersincluding Ahmose I, Amenhotep I,Thutmose I, Thutmose III, Ramesses I,Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX.
The mummy was unwrapped byGaston Maspero on July 1, 1886.There is a strong familial resemblanceto the mummy of Thutmose I, hislikely father, as the mummy face andshape of the head are very similar. Thebody of Thutmose II suffered greatly atthe hands of ancient tomb robbers,with his left arm broken off at theshoulder-joint, the forearm separated atthe elbow joint, and his right armchopped off below the elbow. Hisanterior abdominal wall and much ofhis chest had been hacked at, possiblyby an axe. In addition, his right leg hadbeen severed from his body. All ofthese injuries were sustained post-mortem, though the body also showedsigns that Thutmose II did not have aneasy life, as the following quote byGaston Maspero attests:
He had scarcely reached the age ofthirty when he fell a victim to a diseaseof which the process of embalmingcould not remove the traces. The skinis scabrous in patches, and coveredwith scars, while the upper part of theskull is bald; the body is thin andsomewhat shrunken, and appears tohave lacked vigor and muscular powerand he also had an enlarged heart.
Queen Hatshepsut
Introduction:
Hatshepsut means Foremost ofNoble Ladies, (1508 BC - 1458 BC)she was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th
dynasty. She is generally regarded byEgyptologist as one of the mostsuccessful pharaohs, reigning longerthan any other woman of anindigenous Egyptian dynasty.
Although poor records of her reign aredocumented in diverse ancient sources,Hatshepsut was described by earlymodern scholars as only having servedas a co-regent from about 1479 to 1458BC, during years seven to twenty-oneof the reign previously identified asthat of Thutmosis III. Today it isgenerally recognized that Hatshepsutassumed the position of pharaoh andthe length of her reign usually is givenas twenty-two years, since she wasassigned a reign of twenty-one yearsand nine months by the third-centuryB.C. Historian Mantho who had accessto many records that are now lost. Herdeath is known to have occurred in1458 BC, which implies that shebecame pharaoh circa 1479 BC.
Her mummy:
The location of her tomb isknown (KV20, and her sarcophagus (aswell as that of Thutmosis I) foundinside.
The mummy of queen Hatshepsut isstill unidentified to us till July 2007when Dr. Hawass scientificallyexamined four unidentified NewKingdom Royal Female mummies.
A wooden box inscribed withHatshepsut’s throne name that wasfound in DB320, was also scanned,
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and it included the key to the riddle. Inaddition to the mummified viscera,there was a single tooth - a molar –inside the box. From other embalmingcaches it is known that anythingassociated with the body or itsmummification became rituallycharged and had to be buried properly.Therefore, it seems that during themummification of queen Hatshepsut,embalmers put into the box anythingthat came loose from the body duringthe mummification process.
Dr. Galal El-Beheri, Professor ofOrthodontics at Cairo University,examined and CT scanned the fourunidentified female mummies to checkwhether any of them had a missingmolar. The surprise was that the obesemummy from KV60 was indeedmissing a molar, and the hole leftbehind and the type of molar that wasmissing were an exact match for theloose one in the box from DB320. Thisconstitutes scientific proof that themummy of the obese lady is that ofQueen Hatshepsut.
The discovery of the mummy ofHatshepsut was widely reported in theinternational media, and captivatedpeople around the world.
Our examination of the mummyrevealed that:
1-Hatshepsut was an elder lady; shewas obese and died at the age of 50.
2- She had a very bad teeth and gumsthat's why her tooth fell during theprocess of mummification and thatenabled the medical experts to
conclude that she probably sufferedfrom diabetes.
3-She had a tumor at the hip bone andshe also had Cancer in her spine whichcaused her to have multiple discswhich means that Hatshepsut was ingreat pain.
4-After examining the liver they foundthat she had cancer metastasis in theliver which probably caused her death.
Thutmose III
Introduction:
Thutmose III (sometimes readas Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III andmeaning son of Thout) the sixthpharaoh of 18th Dynasty During thefirst twenty-two years of Thutmose'sreign he was co-regent with his aunt,Hatshepsut who was named thepharaoh. While she is shown first onsurviving monuments, both wereassigned the usual royal names andinsignia and neither is given anyobvious seniority over the other. Heserved as the head of her armies.
After her death and his later rise tobeing the pharaoh of the kingdom, hecreated the largest empire of Egypt hadever seen; no fewer than seventeencampaigns were conducted, and heconquered from Niya in north Syria tothe fourth waterfall of the Nile inNubia. And his reign is usually datedfrom 1497 B.C to 1425 B.C.However, this includes the twenty-twoyears he was co-regent to Hatshepsut(his stepmother and aunt). During thelast two years of his reign he became a
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coregent again, with his son,Amenhotep II , who would succeedhim. When he died he was buried inthe Valley of the Kings as were the restof the kings from this period in Egypt.
His mummy:
Thutmose III's mummy wasdiscovered in the Deir el-Bahri Cacheabove the Mortuary Temple ofHatshepsut in 1881. He was interredalong with those of other eighteenthand nineteenth dynasty leadersAhmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I,Thutmose II, Ramesses I, Seti I,Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX, as wellas the twenty-first dynasty pharaohsPinedjem I, Pinedjem II, and Siamun
When Dr: Zahi Hawass discovered themummy of queen Hatshepsut he madeCT Scan upon some mummies fromwhich was the mummy of kingThutmosis III and we know from this,that king Thutmosis had what we callAtrophic Rhinitis, which means that hesuffered from deterioration in themembrane covering the interior of thenose so he always had runny nose.
King AmenhotepIII
Introduction:
Amenhotep III (sometimesread as Amenophis III; meaning Amunis Satisfied) was the ninth pharaoh of18th dynasty. According to differentauthors, he ruled Egypt from June1386 to 1349 BC or June 1388 BC toDecember 1351 BC/1350 BC after his
father Tuthmosis IV died. AmenhotepIII was the son of Thutmose byMutmwia a minor wife ofAmenhotep's father.
His lengthy reign was a period ofunprecedented prosperity and artisticsplendor, when Egypt reached the peakof its artistic and international power.When he died (probably in the 39thyear of his reign), his son reigned asAmenhotep IV, later changed his royalname to Akhenaten.
His mummy:
Amenhotep III was buried inthe Western Valley of the Kings inTomb WV22. Sometime during theThird intermediate period his mummywas moved from this tomb and wasplaced in a side-chamber of KV35.
To explore this question, the Family ofTutankhamen Project studiedTutankhamen's mummy, and ten othermummies either known or believed tobe closely related to him. Includedwere the mummies of the parents ofQueen Tiye, Yuya and Tjuya; themummy of Amenhotep III; ananonymous male mummy found in KV55 in the Valley of the Kings, a cacheof material from the Royal Tomb atAkhenaten’s capital of Amarna; twoanonymous female mummies -- the“Elder Lady,” and the “YoungerLady,” discovered hidden, along withthe bodies of a number of NewKingdom pharaohs and their families,in the tomb of Amenhotep II in theValley of the Kings (KV 35); twoanonymous female mummies thought
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perhaps to be 18th Dynasty queensfrom a small uninsurable tomb,referred to as KV21A and KV21B. Agroup of five royal mummies from anearlier period were used as the controlgroup.
Then we knew that king Amenhotephad cleft palate.
King Amenhotep IV(Akhenaten)
Introduction:
Akhenaten (often also spelledEchnaton, Akhnaten, or rarelyIkhnaton; meaning Effective spirit ofAten)was known before the fifth yearof his reign as Amenhotep IV(sometimes given its Greek form,Amenophis IV, and meaning Amun issatisfied) he ruled for 17 years anddied in 1336 BC or 1334 BC. He isespecially noted for abandoningtraditional Egyptian polytheism andintroducing worship centered on theAten , which is sometimes described asmonotheistic. An early inscriptionlikens him to the sun as compared tostars, and later official language avoidscalling the Aten a god, giving the solardeity a status above mere gods.
His Mummy:
In the last discovery made byDr. Zahi Haws about the family secretsof King Tutankhamen he mentionedthat:
At the press conference, I announcedthat the mummy in tomb KV55 is KingAkhenaten who bewildered scientistsand researchers either in their searchfor his mummy or in studying the
conditions of his time. We alsoconfirmed that Akhenaten was thefather of King Tutankhamen and thisconfirmation came after earlierattempts that indicated that in KV55was most probably the mummy ofAkhenaten.
Therefore the problem lied in theassumption that the mummy was of a25-year old male, while the studies wecarried out with scientists using CT-Scanners showed that KV55 is themummy of a 60-year old male.Moreover, the DNA showed that he isthe son of King Amenhoteb III, and aswe mentioned earlier, the father ofKing Tutankhamen. This discovery hasrevived historical facts and closed agap that has been open since thediscovery of the mummies of known orunknown kings.
The other significant discovery is thatthe study emphasized that KV55belongs to a normal male who did notsuffer from any deformities and hisbody showed no signs of femininetraits. Some believed that KingAkhenaten may have actually been awomen masquerading as a man, or thatwas hermaphrodite or had someintersex condition. The fact thatAkheaten had several children arguesagainst this suggestion. It has also beensuggested that he suffered fromMarfan's syndrome.
King Tutankhamen
Introduction:
Tutankhamun (alternatelyspelled with Tutenkh-, -amen, -amon),(1341 BC – 1323 BC) was an Egyptianpharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled1333 BC – 1324 BC in theconventional chronology), during theperiod of Egyptian history known asthe New Kingdom. His original name,
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Tutankhaten, means "Living Image ofAten", while Tutankhamun means"Living Image of Amun." Inhieroglyphs the name Tutankhamunwas typically written Amen-tut-ankh,because of a scribal custom that placeda divine name at the beginning of aphrase to show appropriate reverence.He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya ofthe Amarna letters. He was likely the18th dynasty king 'Rathotis' who,according to Manetho, an ancienthistorian, had reigned for nine years —a figure which conforms to FlaviusJosephus's version of Manetho'sEpitome.
His mummy:
The 1922 discovery by HowardCarter of Tutankhamen intact tombreceived worldwide press coverage. Itsparked a renewed public interest inancient Egypt, for whichTutankhamen's burial mask remainsthe popular symbol. Exhibits ofartifacts from his tomb have toured theworld. In February 2010, the results ofDNA tests confirmed thatTutankhamen was the son ofAkhenaten (mummy KV55) and hissister/wife (mummy KV35YL), whosename is unknown but his remains arepositively identified as "the youngerlady" mummy was found in KV35.
The new excavation discovered that hedied of complications from a brokenleg exacerbated by malaria and hisparents were most likely brother andsister, and he suffered from differentdiseases:Like his father, Tutankhamen had acleft palate. Like his grandfather, hehad a club foot and suffered fromKohler's disease which inhibits the
supply of blood to the bones of thefoot.In Tutankhamen's case it was slowlydestroying the bones in his left foot –an often painful condition, the studysaid. It noted that 130 walking sticksand canes were discovered inTutankhamen's tomb, some of themappeared to have been used.By King Tutankhamen we finished the18th Dynasty and then we will move tothe kings of 19th Dynasty
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Kings of 19th Dynasty
Ramses I
Ramesses I (c. 1293-1278 B.C(.
Ramesses I was the founder of the 19thDynasty (though there is someevidence to suggest that theythemselves saw Horemheb as hedynastic founder) and the grandfatherof the great and famous pharaoh,Ramesses II. Though he began aDynasty that would actually seeseveral powerful kings, his reign wasreally somewhat of a low point duringthe New Kingdom. A vizier under thelast king of the 18th Dynasty,Horemheb, Ramesses I appears to havecome to the throne as an appointmentof his predecessor, who seems to haveproduced no heir.
The mummy is that of a man 1.60 m.tall who died between 35 and 45 yearsof age. The body had been very wellpreserved using embalming techniquestypical of the late 18'th-early 19'th
Dynasties. An incision had been madein the left abdomen through which theinternal organs had been removed andreplaced with linen packing. The brainhad been extracted by perforating theethmoid process, and the skull hadbeen filled with liquid resin. One of theears of the man had been deformed,and researchers speculated that thiscould have been the result of a poorly-done ear-piercing procedure. They alsofound some evidence to indicate thatthe man may have died fromcomplications resulting from a severeear infection.
Seti I
Menmaatre Seti I (also called Sethos Iafter the Greeks) was a Pharaoh ofAncient Egypt (Nineteenth dynastyof Egypt), the son of Ramesses I andQueen Sitre, and the father ofRamesses II.
The name Seti means "of Set", whichindicates that he was consecrated togod Set (commonly "Seth"). Likemost of Pharaohs, Seti had severalnames. Upon his ascension, he tookthe prenomen mn-m3‘t-r‘, whichtranslates as Menmaatre in Egyptian,meaning "Eternal is the Justice ofRe."[1] His better known nomen , orbirth name is technically transliteratedas sty mry-n-ptḥ, or Sety Merenptah,meaning "Man of Set, beloved ofPtah". Manetho incorrectly consideredhim to be the founder of the 19thdynasty.
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From an examination of Seti'sextremely well preserved mummy, SetiI appears to have been less than fortyyears old when he died unexpectedly.This is in stark contrast to the situationwith Horemheb, Ramesses I andRamesses II who all lived to an
advanced age. The reasons for hisrelatively early death are uncertain, butthere is no evidence of violence on hismummy. His mummy was found withits head decapitated, but this was likelycaused after his death by tomb robbers.The priests of Amun carefullyreattached his head to his body withthe use of linen cloths. It has beensuggested that he died from a diseasewhich had affected him for years,possibly related to his heart. The latterwas found placed in the right part ofthe body, while the usual practice ofthe day was to place it in the left partduring the mummification process.Opinions vary whether this was amistake or an attempt to have Seti'sheart work better in his afterlife. SetiI's mummy is about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7in) tall.
Ramses II
•Birth: 1303 BC
•Death: around 1213 BC (90 years old(
•Father: Seti I
•Mother: Tuya
•Spouse: Nefertari
•Successor: Merenptah (his 13th son(
•Period: New Kingdom / 19th dynasty
•Reign: 1279 BC to 1213 BC (66 yearsand 2 months).
Ramses II, aka Ramesses II, RamesesII, Sese or Ozymandias (Greek), wasone of the most powerful andinfluential pharaohs of Egypt.
King Ramses the Second took thethrone of Egypt in his early twenties(around 1279 BC) and ruled for 66years until his death (1213 BC). Hewas the third ruler of the 19th Dynastyand ruled for an amazing 67 years, thesecond longest reign of the ancientEgyptian pharaohs.
He is known as Ramses the Great forhis contributions to Egypt, includinghis war campaigns to theMediterranean and into Nubia, as wellas his construction projects, such ascities, temples and tombs.
The mummy of Ramesses II wasprobably found in the side chamber ofthe second passage of DB 320. It wasunwrapped at a public relations galastaged by Gaston Maspero on June1'st, 1886. Ramesses II had beencovered by a Nut shroud. Beneath laythe body of an old man, perhaps anonagenarian at the time of his death,who suffered from severe arthritis of
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the hips, arteriosclerosis of the lowerlegs, and extremely bad dentition. G.E. Smith remarked the absence of theking's genitals. Since they had not beenremoved from the mummies of earlierand subsequent kings (with theexception of Merenptah--see below)Smith believed that they had beenbroken off by thieves in their haste tostrip the mummy of its bandages. (Formore photos of Ramesses II
Merenptah
Merenptah, the 13'th son of RamessesII, was a corpulent old man in poorhealth at the time of his death. X-raystaken by Harris and Weeks showedthat Merenptah suffered from
extremely poor dentition, degenerativearthritis of the cervical vertebrae,arteriosclerosis in the soft tissues of thethigh, fractures in the femurs, and alarge hole in the right side of thecranium. Smith stated that this holewas probably made by thieves, whocarelessly chopped through thebandages in their search for valuables.But he also stated that the cranialopening may have been "deliberatelymade--perhaps for some occultreason." He may have stated this out ofdeference to Maspero, who hadtheorized that the hole had been madeby the embalmers in order to allow evilspirits to escape from the skull. Four ofthe other mummies from KV 35 (SetiII Ramesses IV, Ramesses V, and
Ramesses VI) also exhibit similarcranial openings, but such skullinjuries are not attested to in mostother royal mummies, and Smith'stheory that they were inflicted by thesame robber (or group of robbers) whosimply used the same technique ofhacking away at the bandages seemshighly credible (except, perhaps, in thecase of Ramesses V, whose cranialwound appears to have occurred priorto his death and perhaps even causedthe king's demise.) Maspero's theory ofritualized post-mortem trepanation isunlikely.
The rest of Merenptah's mummy hadbeen badly damaged by thieves, whohad broken his right clavicle, tore offhis right arm, chopped through theanterior abdominal wall, and generallyhacked at the mummy with an adzewhich left numerous cuts on the body.The fact that the tip of Merenptah'spenis and his scrotum are missing has
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attracted much comment. (Reeves onlynotes that the tip of the penis ismissing, whereas other researchers justmention the missing scrotum.) Smithprobably inadvertently sparked anunusual amount of interest in thisinjury by stating that he could notdetermine whether Merenptah hadbeen castrated immediately before orafter his death. He was certain,however, that this wound had beeninflicted prior to the completion of theembalming process because it had beencoated with balsam. There are severaltheories to explain Merenptah's"castration." One theory holds that hesuffered from a severe hernia that hadnecessitated the surgical removal of thescrotum and testes. (This theoryimplies a very high level ofsophistication for ancient Egyptianmedicine.) Salima Ikram and AidanDodson provide the most likelyscenario when they theorize thatMerenptah's scrotum and testicles hadbecome overly desiccated during theembalming process, and had simplydropped off. The missing tip of thepenis appears to be the result ofdamage inflicted on the mummy whenrobbers tore through the wrappings.
Merenptah's mummy was found inthe coffin box of a cartonnage coffinthat had originally belonged toSetnakhte
Siptah
Siptah (c. 1193-1185 B.C.)
19' th Dynasty
Provenance: KV35
Discovery Date: March 9'th, 1898, byVictor Loret
Current Location: Cairo MuseumJE34563; CG61080
Siptah was the son of Seti II andQueen Tiaa. He became crown princewhen his elder brother, Seti-Merenptah(son of Seti II and Tawosret) died.Siptah inherited the kingship, but hisstepmother Tawosret and ChancellorBay remained the powers behind thethrone during his brief 6 rear reign
Siptah's mummy is especiallyinteresting medically because of itsclubbed left foot. Most writersdiagnose the condition from whichSiptah suffered as polioor that theyoung king probably had cerebralpalsy. Smith's comments about thepeculiar position of Siptah's arms mayhave some relevance to this subject. Heobserved that the upper arms were laidparallel to the body and the lower armswere crossed transversely "in front ofthe thorax and epigastrium."Photographic Royal Mummies showthat Siptah's arms are crossed in arather awkward position, which mayhave been necessitated if cerebral palsyhad also afflicted the muscles of hisarms. However, this unusual armposition may also have been the resultof post-mortem damage which wasonly cursorily repaired by the ancientrestorers.
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The Twentieth DynastyKing Ramesses V
Introduction:
Ramesses V (also writtenRamses and Rameses) was the fourthpharaoh of twentieth Dynasty and hewas the son of Ramsesses IV andqueen Tentopet.
His mummy:
The mummy of the king wasdiscovered in KV35 cache in 1898.Ramesses V's mummy has beenrecovered and seems to indicate that hesuffered from smallpox due to lesionsfound on his face and this is thought tohave caused his death.
In the end
We still have some secret of themummies of the kings in ancient Egyptas some of the kings may have died intheir wars and the cause of death wasstill unknowne for the others, but nowwe will start a new category who is thepatient priests in ancient Egypt.
Priests in ancient Egypt
Now we will turn intoanother class of people who was thepriest in ancient Egypt to know whatis the most disease affected them?
A lot of studies made by many scholarsconcerning the famous diseases whichattacked the ancient Egyptians priests
It can be notice that the ancientEgyptians priests considered to be anindependent category because they hadtheir own traditions, customs and they
also practiced a special way oftreatment
Priest’s famous diseases:
The remains of priests fromAncient Egypt showed signs of heartdisease
Delicious and bountiful banquetsoffered to the gods and eaten byEgyptian priests and their familieswere laden with artery-cloggingsaturated fat, research showed.
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The evidence comes from hieroglyphicinscriptions on temples’s walls and thepriests' mummified remains - whichbear the unmistakable signs ofdamaged arteries and heart disease.
Sumptuous meals of beef, wild fowl,bread, fruit, vegetables, cake, wine andbeer were given up to the gods threetimes a day.
After making their offerings at thetemple, the priests would adopt a"shame to let it go to waste" policy andtake them back home to their families.
The state of the priests' arteries andhearts may explain why even theancient Egyptian elite had low lifeexpectancies of 40 to 50 years.
Professor Rosalie David, from theUniversity of Manchester's Facultyof Life Sciences, who led the study,said: "There couldn't be a moreevocative message: live like a god andyou will pay with your health.
"It also shows that blocked arteriescaused by rich diets are not just amodern malaise - the problem goesback to ancient civilisations."
Experts carried out a new translation ofhieroglyphs in Egyptian temples toreveal the offerings menu.
The inscriptions described the ritualsperformed and how the priestsafterwards shared the food with theirfamilies.
Much of what they ate was rich insaturated fat and would be classifiedtoday as "junk food" - goose, whichwas commonly consumed, provided63% of its energy from fat, 20% of itsaturated.
In addition, the priests ate a type ofbread fortified with fat, milk and eggsand bursting with calories, while cakeswere typically made with animal fat oroil.
Salt intake was likely to have beenhigh, since it was often used as apreservative, said the researcherswriting in The Lancet medical journal.
The rich fare was markedly differentfrom the frugal, mostly vegetarian dietof ordinary Egyptians.
Commoners in ancient EgyptAfter talking about the priests
in ancient Egypt and their diseases andwhy they suffered from these diseaseswe will move to talk about anothercategory in ancient Egypt which is thecommoners
Saying commoners in ancient Egyptwe mean those people who held littlepositions like peasants, workers and
others and we don't mean to less theimportance of their work as they madethe most important jobs.
We will notice that the commonerssuffered from different diseases fromthis of the royal and the priests and thisis due to different reasons as thecommoners were less important thanthe other two categories and they had
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different treatment and differentcustoms which is already lessimportant than the others
Now we will talk about some of theirdiseases
The commoners’ diseases:
The commoners suffered fromthe injuries and deformities caused byhard labor. They suffered from insectborn diseases such as malaria andtrachoma, an eye disease, small pox,measles, tuberculosis, and cholera. It isbelieved that there were occasionaloutbreaks of the bubonic plague spreadalong trade routes from the east. Theycontracted diseases such as trichinae,parasitic worms, and tuberculosis fromtheir livestock. Leprosy, which hadoriginated in Egypt, was relativelyrare, possibly because of the immunitythat tuberculosis sufferers had.Silicosis of the lungs, caused bybreathing in sand particles was acommon cause of pneumonia for theancient Egyptians. The ancientEgyptians also suffered from diet-related ailments such as malnutrition,vitamin and mineral deficiencies,dental abrasion, and ailments normal toall humans such as arthritis.
Now we will talk about another type ofpatients in ancient Egypt which iswoman and children as we will discussthe most important and famousdiseases which they suffered from alsowe will refer to their position and howthey were treated.
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Women and children'sdiseases in ancient EgyptWomen in ancient Egypt
In Ancient Egypt women weretreated with respect and had rights equal tomen. Egyptian society ranked a person bythe titles he/she held and the Egyptianscherished their titles dearly. Most womenonly held the title "Mistress of the House"but a few are recorded as having the title ofsteward, treasurer and there is one recordedphysician. Women were banned fromgovernment post where writing was neededso most were believed to be illiterate. AnEgyptian woman’s status normally dependedon the rank of her male relations but she hadindividual rights. A woman could ownproperty in her own name and holdprofessions that allowed her to haveeconomic freedom from male relatives. Awife was entitled to one third of anyproperty that she owned jointly with herhusband and on her death could inherit herproperty to anyone she wished.
. Most of the information we have aboutancient Egyptian women’s daily life is thatof noblewoman and the wealthy. Little isknown about the life of peasant women. Ifmodern times show an example theyprobably did not lead the lives their wealthysisters did. Peasant women took care of theirfamilies and work for the wealthy as aservant. At home they shared the work loadwith other female family members. Theextended family concept was present inAncient Egypt with mothers, daughters,grandmothers, aunts, living together or inclose proximity of each other. Tombs depictwomen at various occupations such as
singers, musicians, dancers, servants, beerbrewers, bakers, professional mourners,priestess and the loyal loving wife. Menwere sometimes depicted as old and fat asign of wisdom but women were alwaysyouthful and the female body’s child bearingparts were always emphasis. There is nodifference in the way age is shown allwomen are portrayed as young andbeautiful. This is why in tomb paintings aman’s wife, sisters and mother appears to bethe same age. This may do with the negativeimage that old age has with child bearingand that a youthful body is able to bearchildren. It could also reflect the belief that awoman in the afterlife will have her youthfulbeauty restored and she will be an agelessbeauty for eternity. Midwifery is alwaysdepicted as a female duty. Wall paintingsshow that two midwifes assisted a woman inlabor. One attended to the mother and thesecond midwife attends to the unborn child.There are documents’ test the Egyptiansused to find if a woman is fertile or pregnantand if the child would live or die. There aremany documents that show that theimportance of good hygiene and femalehealth. Many documents deal withconception, miscarriage, child birth and milksupplies.
Couples are shown with the woman’s armaround her husband or each partnerembracing the other. Husbands are normallyshown in front of their wives this is theposition of importance. Marriages wereregarded as the normal process in a person’slife. It was uncommon for a person to gounmarried. Most marriages (excluding theroyal family) appear to be monogamous. Itappears that no civil or religious ceremony
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took place. To start marriage a couple juststarted living together as man and wife.
There was no age for getting married butgirls usually got married around the age of14. There have been records of girls gettingmarried at the age of 8 or 9 years old. And amummy of an 11 year old wife and motherhas also been found.
Divorce was an acceptable end to amarriage. Grounds for divorce includedchildlessness (this was rare most childlesscouples adopted a poor relative or anorphan) and adultery on the woman’s part.Men left their property to their children andit was important for them to know who theirchild was biologically. It appears men wereaccountable for adultery by the community.There is documentation of an uprising inThebes when a man carried on an affairwithout divorcing his wife, the entireneighborhood was up in arms, so it appearssocial pressure kept husbands faithfulwithout civil laws.
The priesthood was a male occupationalthough many elite women served aspriestess of the goddess Hathor, few womenserved other gods. A royal woman wouldhold the title of "God’s Wife of Amun" shewas normally the unmarried sister ordaughter of the present pharaoh. Women didhold temple titles such as the songsters of agod/goddess, the musician of a god/goddess,the dancer of a god/goddess
Women's famous diseases
Medical writings, though, show uswhat sort of problems the Egyptian womanfaced. Ailments, symptoms and suggestionsfor cures for women were all recorded by
the ancient Egyptian doctors. The modernstudy of the mummies also show theseproblems, and more general things abouther. She was relatively short with dark hairand eyes, and light brown skin. She lived toapproximately forty years, if she survivedpast childhood and pregnancy. Life was hardto both women and men, even with theEgyptian doctors. Most advice, though, wasa mixture of ancient medicine and magicspells - scientific knowledge combined withsuperstition! They believed that everymedical problem (not caused by accident)was the result of demons or parasitic worms.The way they dealt with that was to alleviatethe symptoms, and use spells to get rid ofthe cause. It's not surprising that the lifeexpectancy of the ancient Egyptian waspretty low
Concerning Kahun Medical Papyrus
It refers to the diseases which thewoman used to suffered from which were:
Women suffered from deadly diseases suchas smallpox, leprosy, spina bifida, polio andmany, many more. Even smaller problems,such as diarrhoea and cuts, could still provefatal! Almost everyone suffered fromrheumatism and abscessed teeth (the dessertsands got into most Egyptian foods).Doctors or scribes, other than giving advicefor such conditions, occasionally even gotinto giving advice for such things as 'femaletroubles' and tips for the complexion!
Concerning female “circumcision" abarbarity to this day even more common incountries of equatorial east Africa than it isin Egypt may have been practiced
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occasionally though many think that onlytextual reference is really non-existent thetranslation of the following passage beingwrong and no mention of women being mad,“………….I was circumcised together withone hundred and twenty men and oneHundred and twenty woman …….”.
Children in ancient Egypt
In Egyptian households of allclasses, children of both sexes were valuedand wanted (there is no indication thatfemale infanticide was practiced). Inaddition to fertility tests, tests for pregnancyand the determination of the gender of thechild was devised.
The birth of a child was a time of great joyas well as one of serious concern given thehigh rate of infant mortality and the stress ofchildbirth on the mother. Childbirth wasviewed as a natural phenomenon and not anillness, so assistance in childbirth wasusually carried out by a midwife.
Data collected from modern non-industrialsocieties suggest that infant mortality inancient Egypt was undoubtedly high. One ofthe best ways to maintain a healthy infantunder the less-than-sanitary conditions thatprevailed in ancient times was by breast-feeding. In addition to the transfer ofantibodies through mother's milk, breast-feeding also offered protection from food-born diseases. Gastrointestinal disorders arecommon under poor sanitary conditions, andbecause infant immunity is reduced duringweaning, children's susceptibility to diseaseincreases at this time. Indirect evidence forthis occurring in ancient Egypt comes from
a number of cemeteries where the childhooddeath rate peaks at about age four, whichcorrelates with an Egyptian child'sintroduction to solid foods. Prolongedlactation also offered a number of heathadvantages to the mother. Primarily, itreduces the chance of conceiving anotherchild too soon by hormonally suppressingovulation, which allows the mother moretime between pregnancies. The three-yearperiod for suckling a child recommended inthe "Instructions of Any" (New Kingdom)therefore struck an unconscious butevolutionarily important balance betweenthe needs of procreation, the health of themother, and the survival of the newbornchild.
Famous Children diseases
The most common infant maladywas infection of the alimentary canal. Anexample of a spell designed to ward offinfection went like this: "Come on out,visitor from the darkness, who crawls alongwith your nose and face on the back of yourhead, not knowing why you are here! Haveyou come to kiss this child? I forbid you todo so! Have you come to do it harm? Iforbid this! I have made ready for itsprotection a potion from the poisonous afatherb, from garlic which is bad for you, fromhoney which is sweet for the living but bitterfor the dead."
Some children’s mummies have been foundto have a high incidence of stalled growth,possibly from malnutrition or infection. Theyoung weaver called Nakht had signs ofsuch arrested growth in his shin bones. Skintroubles like eczema, anemia, and tonsil
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infections, were also frequent. But ricketswas virtually unknown in Egyptian children.
Instance of diseases which are rare todaywere also found in a first intermediateperiod cemetery at Abydos the skeleton of achild has been discovered which hadsuffered from osteopetrosis.
Ancient Egyptian dietFinally ,after we talked about the patient inancient Egypt we found that the diseaseswhich royal suffered from different to that'sthe other people suffered and the questionhere, why did the diseases which royalsuffered from are different than that's affectscommoners?
The answer here may be because of the typeof food was different.
Before talking about the different we willhave some information about meals inancient Egypt.
The meals in ancient Egypt:
Egyptian divided the daily mealssince ancient times , to three meals andsometimes were limited to two meals theimportant meal was noon meal or eveningmeal. The abuses in very ancient times,eating the ground graduation. This food wasprovided in the dishes placed on the matover time he replaced the mat by low tablecarved with food dishes. Then lifted thetable and use the seats to Laughlin andservants engaged in providing food.
King Akhenaton and his family ate meat andpoultry in the rough.
The ancient Egyptians used to wash theirhands before meals and then washingutensils that is next to their tables and drew
The Egyptian love foreign kinds of foodfrom Syria and Asia Minor, Iraq they werefond of oil to Cyprus, Syria and Babylon,wine and Sham fruit.
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Now we will take about the differentbetween the royal food and commoner’sfood.
The different between royal andcommoners foods.
The ancient Egyptian's diet consistedof a vast amount of grains, fish, vegetables,and fruits. They enjoyed beef and other redmeat very much, but the common peoplecould not afford them. The arid land made itvery hard to raise grazing animals such ascows, therefore, beef was very expensiveand only eaten at special banquets. Theprimary food of their diet was grain, becauseit could be used for many different purposes.Grains offered an endless supply of food tothe ancient Egyptians and could be storedwith little spoiling. The grain raised inancient Egypt was taken and stored in localcommunity granaries. The grain could beused for making bread, pastries, and cakes.The process of turning the grain into usableflour was a long and daily process. Thegrain first had to be pounded, and thenground. The ground grain would be put intoa simple mill that would refine the graineven more until it become the consistency offlour. Sour dough was often used inreplacement of yeast, and even barm fromthe last brewing of beer would be used as areplacement. The breads would be flavoredby adding honey, fruits, nuts, and oils to thedough before baking.Fruits and vegetables were a major part ofthe Egyptian's diet. They could also begrown all year around because of the hotclimate and irrigation. The vegetables grownincluded leeks, onions, garlic, cucumbers,lettuce, cabbage, radishes, and raphanus, awild radish, to just name a few. Onions andgarlic were a major part of their diet becausethey believed that they were especially goodfor their health. Cabbage was considered tobe a delicacy, boiled and eaten before the
rest of the meal. Green vegetables wereoften served with an oil and vinegar dressingto enhance the flavor. Few fruits could begrown in Egypt because of the hot aridclimate, the most popular that did grow weregrapes, figs, pomegranates, melons, anddates. Olives could not be grown and wereimported for oil. The rich could have otherfruits imported such as coconuts, peaches,cherries, and pears, but the common peoplebarely saw these fruits. Some of theimported fruits did become a staple of theregion, such as the apple and peach.Fish, just like grain, was a part of mostEgyptian's daily diet. Eating fish wasshunned by some of the upper classEgyptians, and fish was never used as agrave offering. Throughout the history ofancient Egypt the eating of some fish wasoutlawed. Fish was served boiled, fried,roasted, or dried. Drying was done by lyingthe meat in the sun, because this was theeasiest way to preserve the food.Meat was eaten by the common people onlyon special occasions, because of the highprice and scarceness of cattle. The rich couldafford to have meat with every meal, and didso. The different kinds of meat include beef,pork, geese, duck, various birds, sheep, andgoats. Meat would be prepared in manydifferent fashions like boiling for stew,roasting, salting, drying, and smoking.Honey was a great addition to the Egyptiansdiet, used for many different applications. Itwas commonly used as a substitute forsugar, and would be added to differentbreads and cakes to enhance their sweetness.Honey was also used in many differentmedicines, because it was believed to havehealing powers. The bee's wax was alsoused for mummification, medicines, shipbuilding, and for other bonding purposes.Disease of malnutrition and lack ofnutrition.
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We received data on some diseases,nutrition in the Covenant Paranoiac amongthem Tuberculosis, as well as the tombs ofBeni Hassan found on the fees for patientsrickets due to a lack of vitamin D.
And by reference to the models which werefound in Egyptian tombs of the familyshows that they were 21 and Livery, stocky,the signs that there is no malnutrition.
And the statue in the Egyptian Museum ofthe Egyptian farmer is a clear evidence ofhis activity which explain that the elite weremost likely much less physically active thanthe working class.
Result: It is thus clear that there was noshortages of cases are in terms of lime,vitamin D, but it was little. With theexception of the food was sufficient anddiseases of malnutrition also may be a fewreturned to the secret of the Egyptian bread
made from whole wheat, and to theabundance of meat, Birds and fish.
A restricted diet caused or aggravated anumber of ailments, some with fataloutcome. There were times whenmalnutrition was widespread. Prehistoricdental records suggested that the health waspoor during that period, and improved withthe increasing adoption of agriculture; buteven in historic times when the supply offood was generally assured, the growth ofthe population was often stunted. Grownmales reached a height of about 1.60 m andfemales 10 cm less during the early MiddleKingdom. Because of vitamin and otherdeficiencies, dental abrasion, and bad mouthhygiene, caries and abscesses were the lot ofmany.
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Chapter 2
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Remediesin Ancient
Egypt1-Healthcare practitioners.
2-Medicine and pharmaceuticals
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The Health carepractitioners in AncientEgyptIntroduction
For its time, the study and practice
of medicine in Ancient Egypt was
revolutionary. Primitive by today’s
standards, physicians in Egypt nonetheless
showed great initiative and impressive
knowledge of the human body and its inner
workings, as well as the treatment of illness
and disease. And before talking about
physicians we should have a full image
about the House of Live or what they called
the pr – ankh where
The House of Life
The house of life means inhieroglyphics pr ankh it is institution oflearning attached to the temple where priestswere taught to read copy and composesacred texts as well as being instructed inastronomy and astrology geographymedicine mathematics law theology and theinterpretation of dreams.
The house of live would also have includedscribal school for the children of the eliteand it may have played a role in supervisingtemple workshops a closely linkedinstitution was the house of books (thetemple library).
House of life are known to have existed atmany places such as
1-Memphis 2-Akhmim 3-Coptos4-Abydos 5 -Esna 6-Edfu
Per-ankh: The House of Life
Present day understanding of the roles of theHouse of Life, the Mansion of Life, and oflibraries like the House of Books, and thedifferences between them are still somewhatsketchy. They were–with the possibleexception of the Mansion ofLife–centers of knowledgerun by priests, some of themat least belonging to temples;in the words of Jan Assman:the House of Life was thecenter of cultural endeavorto preserve and ensure theongoing progress of cosmic,political, and social life.Some think of the libraries inthe Houses of Life as muchlarger and wider ranging than those in theHouses of Books, accepting the tiny Edfutemple library as typical for the latterinstitution.
Location
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As we mentioned the Houses of Life areknown to have existed at Abydos, Akhmim,Esna, Edfu, Koptos, Memphis, andAkhetaten, the last the only one to have beenidentified as such by archaeologists thanksto pr-ankh seal impressions on the bricks ofthe building's walls. Despite the smallnumber of known Houses of Life, it hasbeen suggested that all sizable towns andmajor temples had one. Plan of the House ofLife at Akhetaten; it was adjacent to thearchives of the royal administration
There were seemingly Houses of Lifewhich were part of temples and others whichwere at least physically separated from anytemple. At Akhetaten it was close to theStorage Chamber of Documents of Pharaoh,where the royal administration kept itscorrespondence, some distance apart fromthe Aten temples. But a papyrus from thefirst half of the sixth century B.C containingthe rituals performed during the Feasts ofthe Earth at a temple in the Delta, possiblyin Heliopolis, seems to suggest that theHouse of Life was part of a temple, unless itwas considered a temple itself with its owntremens:
Stopping by the king at the chapel of theHouse of Life, which is in the Great SeatFor Amen-Re, Lord-of-the-Throne-of-both-Lands, Horus Who-is-in-Shenut, Horus,Lord-of-the-Cult-of-the-House-of-Life,Horus, Lord-of-the-House-of-Life, SekhmetWho-is-above-her-fire-cauldron-in-the-House-of-Life, Isis, Mi Rstress-of-Magic-in-the-House-of-Life, Khnum, Foremost-of-the-House-of-Life, Seshat in the temple ofSeshat, the royal ka of pharaoh Sacrifices forthe gods who are in the court of the Houseof Life.
More explicit in placing the House of Lifefirmly inside a temple is the stela ofHorwennefer, who lived under thePtolemy’s and bore the title of learned inevery chest of the House of Life which is inthe Min temple
The Late Period papyrus Salt 825,concerning which it has been suggested itcould be entitled "Ritual of the House ofLife", contains liturgical texts the purpose ofwhich is the conservation of life. It gives adescription of the Houses of Life, where thesacred books, at that time referred to asSouls of Re, were kept. In the followingtranslation Houses of Life is rendered asMansions of Life. This description, althoughquite detailed, would have been of little useto a scholar in real life, trying to locate theserepositories of knowledge: The booth ofOsiris in the courtyard of the House of Lifeat Abydos.
There are four mansions of life at Abydos,(each) is built four stories high and isinternally waist coated with palm wood.There are four mansions of life, Osiris ismaster thereof. The four houses are Isis,Nephthys, Seb and Nu. Isis is placed in one,Nephthys in another, Horus in one, Tahuti inanother, at the four angles: Seb is above, Nuis below, The four outer walls are of stone.It has two stories, its foundation is sand, itsexterior is jasper, one is placed to the South,another to the North, another to the West,another to the East. It is very hidden,unknown, invisible, nothing save the solardisk sees it. It escapes men that go there.The Sun's librarians, the Treasure Scribesare within.
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Functions
The House of Life was an ancientinstitution. The first appearance in writing ofthe term dates to the late Old Kingdom,when the requirements of a House of Lifeconnected to a temple of Min are mentionedin decrees of Pepi II Nowhere is there adescription of the institution's functions, butthese can be guessed at from many literaryreferences throughout history and seem tohave included the storing and production ofbooks, and the teaching of scribes andpriests.
The oldest connection known between theHouse of Life and writing is made on aMiddle Kingdom stela which gives a certainKeku the title of scribe of the House of Life.At the same time another scribe had the titleof Chief Physician which points to theinstitution having had medical aspects suchas the reproduction of medical texts and theformation of healers throughout its history,more so as during the Late Period the scribesPeftauawyneith and Wedjahorresnet, bothbearing the title of Chief Physician, wereinvolved in the restoration of the House ofLife
Sanctuary
As is only fit for an institution of learning,the god Khnum and the goddess of writingSeshat both bore the epithet of Foremost ofthe House of Life. There was a hall or booth,awhere offerings were presented to the godsof the House, among whom were Amen-Re,Isis, Horus, and Sekhmet, goddess ofhealing. A slaughterer was attached to theHouse of Life, who, by slaughtering bulls,would increase the life force of the place or
decrease evil by ritually butchering animalsembodying evil during execrationceremonies.
Its priests were servants of the creator godRe and were thought to be inspired by him.The House of Life contained secret, magicalwritings which they had composed or copiedand which were said to have the power torenew and sustain life and further the rebirthof Osiris at his annual festival. Thesignificance of the House of Life and therituals performed there was universal. Likethe temples it stood for the whole creation,just as the resurrected Osiris symbolizedeternal life in general.
As a holy place the House of Life had tobe entered respectfully and unauthorizedpersons kept out:
It shall be very, very hidden.No one shall know it, no one see it.Apart from the sundial (i.e. the sun disk) thatgazes on its secret.The officiating priests ... shall enter silently,their bodies veiled,So that they shall be protected againstsudden death.The Asiatic may not enter, he may not seeanything.
From a Late Period book of rituals.
LibraryThe library was located in the easternsection of the vestibule in the best preservedtemple in ancient Egypt
According to tradition, time and againpeople went to the House of Life to consultancient writings, when they needed answersto problems of their day. Thus Imhotep, the
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3rd dynasty sage, did not send an expeditionto the sources of the Nile to find the causesfor a great drought, but–according to thePtolemaic Famine Stele–rather studied thesacred texts, House of Life libraries weresizable and encompassing, and it was alsoused as an Institute of higher learning
The House of Life was more than a libraryand a scriptorium. It contained a communityof educated men and occasionally, when noanswers to a question could be found in theexisting literature, discussions must havearose which might then lead to thecomposition of completely new texts. Still,compared with modern science, new ideastook a very long time to come to fruition inancient Egypt.
According to Lichtheim the principalsubjects studied and practiced by themembers of the House of Life weremedicine, magic, theology, ritual, and dreaminterpretation with the focus on liturgy andritual So for instance it was the scribes ofthe House of Life who had enough magicallore to ritually inspect and approve sacredbulls, such as the Buchis and the Houses ofLife at Abydos and at Sais were knownmedical centers.
In the temple of Seti I at Abydos one ofthe rooms has niches, which may haveserved to store scrolls and the ceiling iscarved with painted astronomical symbols.A room in the Ramesseum has a similarceiling, though no niches in the walls. Theserooms may have served a library or a Houseof Life, but the significance of theastronomical knowledge engraved in theceilings has not been explained. Astrologydid not play a large part in Egyptiansoothsaying, but the stars were observed and
their movements influenced both the view ofthe afterlife as the development of thecalendar.
SchoolSome of the scribal education at last,
probably the more advanced studies, seemsto have taken place in the Houses of Life. Itwas used to learn magic with the scribes ofthe House of Life in the temple of Ptahmade wonder [of] the world at him.
Ancient Egyptian schooling consisted to alarge part of rote learning and copying oftexts. One of the main 'pedagogical' deviceswas a stick applied to the back of inattentivepupils, another bad-mouthing of all othervocations. Whether there was a need for thiskind of motivational approach whenteaching more mature students is unknown,but occasionally at least they seem to havepreferred visiting the taverns to applyingthemselves to their letters, much to thedispleasure of their somewhat grouchyelders and betters.
Medicine
The theoretical and possibly also some ofthe practical, surgical training of studentswanting to become healers may have takenplace there as well, but opinions amongexperts differ. Whether scribes had to takeexaminations to prove their proficiency atthe end of their education is unknown but aphysician had better know his art or hemight find himself in trouble after making amistake in diagnosing or treating a patient.
Most students left the House of Life oncethey had finished their studies, becominglector priests, public scribes, administrators,or the like. A few joined the House of Life, a
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prestigious position if the sixth centuryaccompanying the king on a militarycampaign:
It is you who is qualified to go with thepharaoh to the land of the Syrians. There isno one in this city that could go to the landof the Syrians, except you. After all, you area scribe of the House of Life. There isnothing they could ask you to whom there isno answer.
Literature
The House of Life is mentioned in literaryworks occasionally. One of these instancesis a Second Intermediary Period taletentatively called Tale of the Palace and theHouse of Life, but too little remains of it tomake much sense of. Writings generallyrefer to the House of Life as a depository ofwisdom and knowledge and its scribes asversed in magic. The Papyrus of Nu, one ofthe Books of the Dead, begins with thewords Book (mDA.t) of the comprehensionof the words of the House of Life. In the taleof Prince Khamuas and Si-Osiri the
a scribe of the House of Life is a more likelycomposer of a wisdom text than some of thepeople other sebayit are said to have beenwritten by. Amennakht like other authors, isa champion of learning and his counsels arehardly unexpected:
You shall become a scribe and you shallpass through the House of Life (or perhaps:so that you can go about in the House ofLife) but his advice:
Become like a chest of books
Magic
The Papyrus of Nu, one of the Books of theDead, begins with the words Book (mDA.t)of the comprehension of the words of theHouse of Life. In the tale of Prince Khamuasand Si-Osiri the scribes of the House of Lifeare involved in a fight between magicians,and in the Tale of Princess Ahura a scribe ofthe House of Life divulges to Naneferkaptahthe whereabouts of the lost books of Thoth.
the scribe of the House of Life is a morelikely composer of a wisdom text than someof the people other sebayit are said to havebeen written by. Amennakht. like otherauthors, is a champion of learning and hiscounsels are hardly unexpected:
You shall become a scribe and you shallpass through the House of Life (or perhaps:so that you can go about in the House ofLife Become like a chest of books has, atleast to a bookworm, a certain surprisingcharm
. It is doubtful though that many people, thatmany people, even those looking even thoselooking nostalgically back at theirschooldays, will agree with his claim that………..
The PractionersWe have 4 types of practioners who vary in
their way of treating their patients:
I-The physician – priests:
Most physicians were in fact priests whoused magic and incantations to supplementpractical medicine in an effort to appease thespirit or god. Priests were held in highesteem because they conversed with the
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divine on a daily basis. The priests of somedeities were more inclined than others toturn to medicine. The most important deitiesassociated with medicine were:
Sekhmet :the lioness-headed goddessof war, epidemics and plaques
Selqet: the scorpion goddess, whosepriests were approached to treat bitesand stings from venomous reptiles,scorpions and tarantulas.
Thoth:the ibis-headed god ofknowledge, who was oftenaccreditedwith writing the healing formula.
Priests of Goddess Sekhmet
Naturally ,her priests were designated tointervene infavor of those whom shepunished.At least in two instances a healingstatues of her Asian counter part ,Ishtar ,was sent to Egypt, and Jonckheere(1951,31)laid stress on the similaritiesbetween the two goddesses : same weapons ,same husband (Ptah) and worship in thesame city , Memphis.
The argument that her priests weremedically qualified was skillfully presentedby Lefebvre (1952 b).
1. Very early in ancient Egyptianhistory, some priests of Sekhmet(wcb “w”- sekhmet) were also swnw, physicians . These were :
Ni-ankh-Sekhmet Wenn-nefer, who was a wcb
shmt (priest of sekhmet) andshd swnw (inspector ofphysicians).
Hery-shef-nakht ,who waschief of the king’sphysician, and talking of
himself , said : I wasoverseer of the priests ofSekhmet , overseer ofmagicians , chief physicianof the king , who lays hishand on the diseased andthereby knows his condition,gifted in examining with thehand , the skhmet priestHery-shef-nakht, son of s3t-sekhmet.
2. In addition, some priests of Sekhmetperformed medical functionswithout claiming the title swnw.
The inscription of Aha-Nakht, bears such aresemblance to that of hiscolleague in the Hatnubquarries Hery-shef-nakht,mentioned above, that onecannot escape the conclusionthat he carried similaroffices. This is the text:“I was a priest of sekhmet,powerful and gifted in hiscraft, who lays his hands onpatients and thereby knowstheir condition, gifted inexamining with his hand.
The priests of sekhmet arelisted in the Smith and Eberspapyri together withphysicians (swnw) andmagicians (s3-w) as feelingthe pulse and therebydiagnosing disease. Becausethe priest of sekhmet ismentioned before the swnwin the Smith papyrus (whichis a surgical treatise) and
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after the swnw in the Eberspapyrus (which ismedical)Ebbell (1937,p14)considered that thisdifference in prioritydesignated the priest ofSekhmet as surgeon andswnw as a physician.
Other types of physicians – priests:
1. The Kher-heb priests (hry-hb)This rather inferior priest whosetitle. That literally means, theone with the ritual roll, has been
translated (lector priest) wasessentially in charge of templeand funerary rituals.It is believed that by assiduousattendance in the embalmingroom he acquired good deal ofanatomical knowledge and tookpart in the operation. This wasdoubted by Gardiner(onomastica ,I, 55). Jonckheere(1951,p 40), while recognizingthat the Kher-heb possessed tothe highest degree the requiredtheoretical knowledge and
manual training , neverthelessconcurred in denying him anysurgical activity , and did notcite in his repertory of medicalmen any Kher-heb who was notat the same time swnw.This denial, however , does notfit some texts. In several papyrithe kher-heb is described asknowing a slave that he has toapply as using a spell, or asbeing charged with the treatmentof an ibbw disease. A Kher-heb
was called by pharaoh to rescueWesh- Ptah struck by a suddenillness.A love stricken lad complainedthat neither a Kher-heb nor wr-swnw would be able to help him,for only the beloved knew hisillness (Gardiner1931) and thesame tandem Kher-heb -swnwwas sent to treat a princess at theHittit court .If this were notsufficient to prove that the lector–priest practiced some medicine,we havethe examples of Hor-
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Akh bit, who was hry-hb pr c3wr swnw. A combination oftitles that may be translated(lector priest of the royal palaceand chief physician) and ofDjhwty-nht-cnh who, althoughnot a swnw, described himself asa Kher-heb,clever in recognizingdisease.
2. The Hem-Ka (hm k3)priest:The hm-k3 (hem ka), servant orpriest of the ka’ was, like the Kher-heb, the only attested surgicalactivity of this class of persons wascircumcision. As Grapow (III,107)maintained : circumcision does notappear to have been a physician’sconcern; in any case it was undertaken, according to the inscriptionbeside the well-known picture (ofthe operation), by a half- priestlyperson, the servant of the ka (hm –k3) . It must also be mentioned thatsome uncontroversial physicians(swnw ) were also hm-k3 e.g. Ni-ankh-Kum ,and Memi.
Most profession was passed on from fatherto son, so some priestly families who turnedtheir hand to medicine held that professionfor generations. We noticed that the medicaltraining and priestly training probably wenthand in hand.
II-Doctors:
From earliest times, the Egyptianspracticed the art of healing. Theancient word of doctor or physicianwas “ swnw” pronounced today as“soonoo” from the root word “swn”meaning to suffer pain.
Herodotus (II,84) attests that “ therewas even a degree of specializationquite remarkable for the time. Eachphysician used to treat one disease,and no more. There were plenty ofphysicians everywhere. Some wereeye-doctors, some deal with thehead, others with teeth or theabdomen, and some with hiddenmaladies. Only members of the highstrata of society were allowed tolearn and practice this honorableprofession. Moreover, a physicianhad to learn the science of drugsespecially botany”.
How did the doctors examine theirpatient?
The doctor began an examinationwith an interview, to try tounderstand the symptoms fromwhich the patient was suffering.
The doctor then monitored thepatient’s pulse and carried outstudies of bodily discharges, such asurine, stools, phlegm and blood, notany irregularities, then the doctorexamined the reflexes.
After all examinations werecomplete, the diagnosis wasannounced, because not all illnesseshad names, the diagnosis came inthree forms:
An ailment that I will treat. An ailment that I will
contend. An ailment not to be treated.
They then prescribed whatever theyfelt was most appropriate, theprescriptions were very specificregarding dosage and duration, and
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all were adjusted according to age,giving a child a smaller dosage thanthe adult.
Physicians in the Middle kingdomnecropolis of Esna:
In 1907, Garstang published theresults of his excavations at Esna, ofthe 16 stelae he described, 7mentioned 12 persons whose titles,he said, were read “ the doctor” byNewberry:
Stele 68 E05: the doctor sen-senb.
Stele 86 E06: the doctor Abaand his unnamed brother, adoctor.
Stele 172 E05: the doctorseneb-e. f II his son, thedoctor khnum-se and his son,the doctor nefer.
Stele 216 E06: then doctorAtef-res,” son of the doctor:Maa-ku”, his brother” thedoctor Ari”.
Stele 221 E06: the doctorsneb-ef III.
Stele 247 E06: the doctorKhnem-khuef.
Stele 256 E06: the doctorMentu-hetepa.
This series would have beeninteresting in that it revealed on anunusually large concentration ofphysicians, 7 of whom belonged tothree families.
Lastly we can say that doctors held ahigh esteem in the ancient Egyptiansociety, to the point that the
neighboring countries held Egyptiandoctors in high esteem, and recordsshow that foreign kings requestedthe treatment of an Egyptian doctor.
The hierarchy of the doctors:
1. Junior2. Doctor3. Senior4. Specialist*5. Consultant6. Overseer7. Master (chief of physicians of south
& north)
The specialists
There was a degree of specialization quiteremarkable for the time. Each physicianused to treat one disease, and no more.There were plenty of physicians everywhere.Some were eye-doctors, some dealt with thehead, others with teeth or the abdomen, andsome with hidden maladies. Only membersof the high strata of society were allowed tolearn and practice this honorable profession.Moreover, a physician had to learn thescience of drugs especially botany. Here aresome of these specialists :
A) The Gynecologists:
In ancient Egypt there were no known wordsfor midwife, obstetrician, or gynecologist.But because ancient Egyptiansdid not have words for thesethings does not mean that theydid not exist. In Ancient Egyptthe midwife came in many forms.For peasants the midwife was afriend, neighbor, and/or family member whohelped deliver the baby. For noblewomenand wealthier classes the midwife was
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usually a maidservant or nurse who alreadylived in the household. Midwives at thistime did not have formal training to learntheir trade. Instead they learned byapprenticeships where the knowledge waspassed down from family member to familymember or from friend to friend. The workof the midwife included providing emotionalsupport, encouragement, medical care, andreligious help and protection to womenduring their lives. The areas that midwivesfocused on were pregnancy, labor, fertility,and contraception .Most ancient Egyptianwomen labored and delivered their babies onthe cool roof of the house or in an arbor orconfinement pavilion, which was a structureof papyrus-stalk columns decorated withvines (Parsons p. 2). In Ptolemaic times,women from the noble class gave birth inbirth houses that were attached to temples.
Diagnosis of fertility and pregnancy:
Fertility was diagnosed by placing garlic inthe vagina for one night. If the next day thewoman can taste or smell it in her mouth,she is fertile. This is based upon theconnection between the genital parts andinterior of the body. Such connection wouldbe lost in a case of obstructed Fallopiantubes. In modern medicine, phenolphthaleininjected in the uterus would appear in urinebased upon the same principle. A test knownto gynecologists as “Speck’s test”.
Pregnancy Tests:
1-Emmer and barley seeds, the lady shouldmoisten with her urine every day, like dates,and like sand in two bags. If they all grow,she will bear a child if neither grow she willnot bear a child. Sex determination of thefuture child was based on the fact thatpregnant urine germinates cereals morerapid then non-pregnant one. If the child wasa male, the urine would germinate wheat,
and if a female, it would geminate barley.The same tests have been used in Europe uptill the Middle Ages.
2-Examine the blood vessels over thebreasts. Smear the breasts, arms, andshoulders with new oil. Early in the morningif her blood vessels look fresh and good,bearing children will occur. If the vessels aregreen and dark, she will bear children late.
3-Give a women milk from one who hadalready borne a male child mixed withmelon puree. If it made the women sick shewas pregnant.
The Delivery:
The areas that midwives focused on werepregnancy, labor, fertility, andcontraception. Most ancient Egyptianwomen labored and delivered their babies onthe cool roof of the house or in an arbor orconfinement pavilion, which was a structureof papyrus-stalk columns decorated withvines (Parsons p. 2). In Ptolemaic times,women from the noble class gave birth inbirth houses that were attached to temples.The positions that these women took whenthey delivered their babies were standing,kneeling, squatting, or sitting on their heelson birthing bricks, or sitting on a birthingchair and gravity plays its role .The midwifewould then be positioned in front of themother to help the delivery and catch thebaby. Two other women or midwives wouldbe placed on either side of the mother tohold her hands and arms while she waspushing and to give encouragement.Sometimes the midwife would place a dishof hot water under the birthing chair so thatsteam could help ease delivery. Womengave birth squatting on two large bricks, socalled Birth bricks, which were personifiedas the goddess Meshkhenet. And from theNew Kingdom onwards, there seems to have
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been built or erected a small room either onthe roof of the regular house, or a sort ofpavillion in the garden, a so called 'birthbower'. Where the woman giving birth weretaken, and where she spent the first weekswith the newborn infant, other womenwaiting upon her. This is shown on ostracafrom Deir-el-Medina.
The birthing bricks that ancient Egyptianwomen used were 14 by 7 inches long anddecorated with colorful painted scenes andfigures of the birth process. Birthing chairswere made of brick and had a hole in thecenter. They were decorated withhieroglyphic inscriptions of the owner andpainted scenes of the mother, baby, andgoddesses. Since birth and delivery couldbe dangerous for both the mother andchild,ancient Egyptian midwives used manygoddesses and gods for help and protection.Goddesses and godswhich ancient Egyptianmidwives and women thoughtwould helpduring pregnancy and birth were Hathor,Bes, Taweret, Meskhenet, Khnum, Thoth,and Amun. Hathor. Another way thatmidwives called on divine help andprotection during labor was to place a magicivory crescent-shaped wand, decorated withcarvings of deities, snakes, lions, andcrocodiles, on the stomach of the womengiving birth (Parsons, p. 3). Mentioningdelivery we have to say that there were 2types of birth a Divine and a Normal one.The divine birth is that the birth that thepharaoh invented in order to convince hispeople that he is the rightful ruler .This typeof birth was used by Hatshepsut and laterAmenhotep III.
Woman sitting on birthing stool
A delivery chair (Cairo museum 2nd floorroom 34)
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The scenes found at their temples describingthis divine birth also enriched ourinformation about midwives and how thedelivery took place. Queen Ahmose ispregnant.
On the Ebers, Kahun, Berlin, and Carlsbergpapyri there are many tests and methodsdescribed for fertility, pregnancy, andcontraception that ancient Egyptianmidwives and women used:
We have to mention that all these methodswere not described by the midwivesthemselves but the prescription was writtenby a physician and introduced to the patientthrough the midwives.
Birth Control:
-Silphium, honey, and natron used for theircontraceptive properties.
-Soak cotton in a paste of dates and acaciabark and insert into vagina.
-Acacia, carob, dates, all to be ground withhoney and placed in the vagina.
Fertility Treatment:
-A woman should squat over a hot mixtureof frankincense, oil, dates, and beer andallow the vapors to enter her.
Contracting the Uterus:
-Mix the kheper-wer plant, honey, water ofcarob, and milk. Strain and place in thevagina.
Cases of examination of different diseases:
1) womb wandering:
a-You should say of it 'what do you smell?'If she tells you 'I smell roasting'You should say of it 'it is wrappings (?) ofthe womb'You should treat it by fumigating her withwhatever she smells as roast'
b- Examination of a woman in her front, herwomb, the circuit of her womb between herbuttocksYou should say of it 'large birth swelling'.You should treat it with 1 hin of fresh oilPour over [her] womb and her [..]
The Ebers papyrus says :“To cause awoman to stop being pregnant, be it one,two or three years: part of acacia,colocynth, dates, finely ground in a hin ofhoney, fibers are moistened therewith,introduced into her vagina”.
The goddess Ritho giving birth to the godRa assisted by midwives.
“Houses of birth” or “Mammisi” wereannexed to temples. They were visited bypregnant women seeking divine help, ratherthan being a birth place.
Infants were breast fed for three years, andthis was encouraged:
“Nothing is more lawful than one’s mothermilk”.
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Milk stimulants were resorted to, asmentioned in Ebers Papyrus:
“To bring forth the milk of a nurse whofeeds sbj: who must feed a child: Spine ofNile-perch, fried in oil/fat, her spine isanointed therewith”.
Only when the mother failed to feed herinfant, they resorted to cow milk.
B) Dentist:
The ancient Egyptians suffered greatly fromdental problems, and clearly their painthreshold must have been very highconsidering the horrendous things festeringin their mouths.
Not many dentists are known from ancientEgypt, although eight dentists have beenidentified from the Old kingdom. Three ofthese names were discovered in three tombsin August 2006 (although the mummies hadlong been destroyed by looters). Three ofthese dentists also held the title of doctor.
Names and titles of the dentists:
In the tomb of Shesat-hetep, we found thetitle Iry-ibh which means Dentist. Thispractitioner does not hold a swnw title.
Other titles for dentists:
wr ib hy and wr iry ibh: Chief ofDentists,
wr ib hy pr-c3: Chief of the palaceDentists,
imy-r3 iry ibh: Overseer of Dentists.One dentist named Hesy-re, who lived 2600BC , he was also a vizier and high officialunder the reign of Djoser and during thetime of Imhotep, his extensive titles
included “ Chief dentist” and “ Greatest ofphysicians and dentists” as we know fromhis panels in the Egyptian museum. AlsoKhouy who was a Chief dentist, Shepherd ofthe anus, and Interpreter of the Secret Art.
Ways to treat the toothaches:
Egyptian dentists did not treat toothaches inthe easiest way, by pulling the tooth. Insteadthey applied medicines to the tooth, andeven tried magic spells. Studies ofmummies, bodies preserved after deathindicate that tooth decay became a biggerand bigger problem as Egyptian civilizationadvanced and people ate more sweets asconsuming bread and cakes mixed with sandfrom the grinding process.
Dentists filled teeth with mineral cement ora mixture of resin and malachite. Looseteeth were bound with silver or gold wire asexamined mummies have proven, it appearsthat silver wire was used during the lateperiod. Dentists were in high demand, as thetooth decay was a great problem. Studies ofmummies dated to the 4th dynasty showsurgically produced holes under a molar thatwas used to drain an abscess. The mummyof Ramses II has proven that he sufferedfrom gum disease and advanced tooth decay.
Baking soda for fresh breath:
Baking soda or sodium bicarbonate, wasused as a tooth cleaner long before modernbaking soda, tooth pastes became popular. Infact, the ancient Egyptians probablyintroduced baking soda as a tooth careproduct more than four thousand years ago.To sweeten foul breath, Egyptian men andwomen chewed lumps of natron. This
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natural soda consists of sodium carbonateand sodium bicarbonate and is found indeposits throughout Egypt.
The Egyptians used elaborate mouth rinses,much like modern mouth washes. Onepopular rinse was made of frankincense,goose fat, cumin, honey, and water. So far aswe know, the Egyptians did not use toothbrushes, but, like other ancient people, theymay have cleaned their teeth with the frayedends of twigs.
Egyptians were known around the world fortheir skill in the compounding or mixingdrugs, but some of the medicines work andsome did not work. For instance, theEgyptians used mice sometimes dead, rottenmice in medicines for tooth ache, earacheand other conditions. Sometimes, doctorssimply put a dead mouse right onto anaching tooth or swollen gum. Lastly we cansay that of course modern physicians anddentists would never be tempted to try mostancient Egyptian medical techniques. Butadvances from ancient Egypt certainly didhelp patients and improved the body ofmedical technology handed down to othercivilizations.
C) Veterinary practitioners:
There was no Egyptian word forveterinaries, except the qualification rh k3.w(who knows oxen), comparable to the Greekhippiatros (horse physician), and the Romanequarius, mulomedicus, and iumentarius,horses being almost unknown in Egyptbefore the New kingdom.
The rule of the priests of Sekhmet:
In ancient Egypt it was natural to entrustpriests with catering to the well-being ofsacrificial or divine animals, supervision ofanimal sacrifices and examination ofofferings of meat. It seems that these dutiesdevolved, in particular, on the priest ofSekhmet. As we have seen, many of thempossessed notions of medicine, and the lackof clear distinction between human andanimal medicine is underlined in the Kahunpapyrus, which discusses both, and in theSmith and Ebers papyri, which mention thepriests of Sekhmet alongside the swnw aspersons qualified to examine the pulse.
But it would be exaggerated in the presentstate of our knowledge to call all thesepriests veterinaries, for the only text thatreally suggests a lay veterinary activity forthem is found in the tomb of petosiris, whereone of his daughters says: “your herds arenumerous in the stable thanks to the scienceof the priest of Sekhmet.”
Tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el Gabal: thereis a scene in the pronaos represents cattlebreading scenes in the top and middleregisters. These represent the matingbetween an ox and a cow then we have ascene of a cow in labor giving birth to a calf.Another scene shows a man sittingunderneath a cow and milking it.
The text is late, for Petosiris overrode thelate Pharaonic and early Ptolemic periods.But it should not be rejected prima facie,since many late usages were merelyresurgences of old customs.
On the other hand, it is worthy of note thatno priest of Sekhmet is ever observed withliving animals in the numerous scenes of
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husbandry, apart from butchery depicted inEgyptian tombs, e.g. in the tombs ofMereruka and Kagemni at Saqqara. Neitherdoes the veterinary section of the Kahounpapyrus mention the priest of Sekhmet,though its fragmentary state diminishes itsweight. The same absence of priestly ormedical qualification is obvious in scenes ofcalving where the person who assists thecow is an anonymous farmer or stablegroom.
It may also be argued that the priest ofSekhmet who said he “knew oxen” quitepossibly meant that he merely knew how toidentify cattle suitable for sacrifice. Nakhtwho with pen in hand directs a cow herd,may not be a swnw-physician at all but, as isstated above, a swnw-accountant or tax-valuer. The other swnw who oversee actualscenes of butchery, being always priests ofSekhmet as well, may have been theremerely to ensure the observance of religiousstandards.
It seems reasonable to conclude, therefore,that although many priests of Sekhmetcarried out some functions usually entrustedto medical or veterinary personnel; it can notbe automatically assumed all theresponsibilities of veterinary surgeons,unless some independent additionalqualification permits this conclusion.
D) Eyes and Oculists:
The eye plays a major part in Egyptianmythology, Seth pulled out Hours eye,which was magically restored by Thoth. Therestored eye became the most powerful ofthe protective amulets. The ancient Egyptianphysicians were renowned for the skill in the
treatment of eye problems. Herodotus wrotethat the Persian Emperor, cyrus, sent toAhmose II ( 26th Dynasty, 664-525 BC) toask for the service of the bestophthalmologist in Egypt, they weredesignated swnw irty , the doctors of theeyes, for that time the Egyptian oculistswere very famous, their skill having beencalled out by the numerous eye-diseasesprevalent in Egypt. Perhaps the earliestophthalmologist was named Iry; he was anoculist and physician to royalty during the6th dynasty.
The Titles of the oculists:
It is interesting to note that irty was theancient Egyptian word for “eyes “or “to see“, “ swnw ir.ty” means Physician of theeyes, oculist, “ swnw ir.ty pr-c3 “ Oculist ofthe Palace, “ wr swnw ir.ty pr-c3 “ Chief ofthe palace Oculists. A title born by Ipy (IpyIV of Jonckheere,1958,p.111) which is “ shdir.t nw pr-c3” translated: Inspector of theeyesight of the Palace, but Jonckheerequestioned this reading on the grounds thatthe way of writing nw “to see” is attestedonly from the eighteenth dynasty and isdetermined by the eye sign while Ipy, the
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holder of the title lived under the Oldkingdom. Attention has also been called to atitle of the god Amen, swnw snb ir.t, thephysician who heals the eyes.
Examples for the oculists: Ni-ankh-Dwaw“stele in Cairo Museum” , and Neferthes“Beautiful is the Utterance” found in themastaba of Wp-m-nfr.t. As for the Greeksand Romans they had their oculists, as isevident, not only from their writings, butfrom the inscriptions on ancient marbles andseals. There is no doubt that oculists were atleast as numerous in ancient Rome as in anymodern city.
E) Shepherd of the anus:
The anus (and rectum) wad given great
importance in Egyptian physiology ….
Some physicians like Iri, specialized in it,
The Chester Beatty VI papyrus is entirely
devoted to its disease, the Ebers papyrus
Contain 33 paragraphs dealing with it.
And there are others in the Berlin… and
Hearst papyri.
The only example of this kind of
physicians is Hwy khouy who lived during
the Old Kingdom he held several titles
- Honored with Anubis on his
mountain.
- In the hands of the king.
- Seal – bearer of the king.
- Unique companion.
F) Other specialists
Some physicians bore titles that would fit
the practitioners that Herodotus called
physicians of unknown or unlocalized
diseases. In this class one would include two
whose titles were built with the word
interpreter. One is Ire-nakhty who boasted
of interpreting "the liquids that are inside the
ntnt.t. This is the name of an as yet
unidentified part of the body. It could be an
archaic form of ntnt.t, an organ mentioned in
a magic papyrus as lying between the chest
and the abdomen, and that could be the
diaphragm. Alternatively, this word, written
with a different determinative has been
identified with the dura mater, so that it
possibly represents the kind of tissue from
which both mem- branous organs are made.
The second is Khauy who was an
"interpreter of the secret act". The use in this
case of the sign, "Flesh" as a determinative
which is unusual, lends the title a probable
medical relevance.
These two types of physicians were hired at
3 places:
a)Temple b)Palace
c)Assignments
a)The Temple and the Physicians:
After physicians were trained, theyneeded to establish a practice. Full
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time priests with medical trainingwere resident in the temples. Theyno doubt only had a small number ofpatients whom they treated in thehouse of life. Certain temples mayhave offered training, since cure byprayers and spells.
Note: from all the previous, we canconclude that all the priestphysicians hired in the temples, butnot all the physicians hired at thetemples are priests.
b)The Palace physicians:
The crowning achievement of adoctor’s career was to gain a post atthe palace, as a member of the teamthat guarded the health of thepharaoh, his family and the court.The royal physicians even had aboat at their disposal to enable themto get without delay to whereverthey might be needed. Next inpreference was a post as householddoctor to members of the nobility.Such assignment assured a manboard and lodging of the best as wellas a chance to earn rich gifts.
In the category of palace physicianswe find a miniature of the samehierarchy that divides the ordinaryswnw:
Swnw pr-c3: that spread inthe Old kingdom, theyreached 18 doctors and onlyand palace physician in theNew kingdom, to be the total
is 19 palace physicians withthe title swnw pr-c3.
Wr swnw and swnw pr-c3:the physicians who took thattwo titles were 7 in the Oldkingdom and only one in themiddle kingdom.
The swnw pr-c3 and the swnwnswt:The existence of king’s physicians(swnw nswt), apart from the palacephysicians (swnw pr-c3), suggeststhat the latter were attached to thewhole staff of the palace, while theformer were attached to the person ofthe king. This seems to be confirmedby the two titles Chief of Physiciansof the wife of the king and Chief ofPhysicians of the Lord of the TwoLands.
That the two were not different waysof the designating the same office atdifferent epochs is shown by theexample of Nesemnaou, who wasboth shd swnw pr-c3 and shd swnwnswt, and by the fact that in the Newkingdom there is one example ofeach class.
On the other hand, it might be arguedthat since Nesemnaou held bothtitles, these must have been identical.This hypothesis receives supportfrom the fact that the swnw pr-c3disappeared after the Old kingdomand was nearly totally replaced bythe swnw nswt in the New kingdom.But in the Late period, obeying anarchaizing preciosity that is visible in
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many domains, the situation revertedto Old kingdom conditions, since wethen find a swnw pr-c3 and swnwnswt.
No specialists are encounteredamong royal physicians ( swnwnswt). It might be thought that thepersonal physicians of the kingswere general practitioners whoadvised their royal clients in allmatters related to the health anddirected them to the right specialist ifthey felt the need for one. But asthere appear to have been nospecialists at all under the Newkingdom when the swnw nswtflourished there is little support forthis hypothesis.
C) Assignments
a) Assignments to civil administration.
b) Assignments to cemeteries.
c) Assignments to the army.
A) Assignments to civil administration.
1) Wr Swnw n hw.t cnh: that Gardiner
translated "Chief physician of the Mansion
of life". Junker and Botti assimilated the hw.t
cnh to the pr cnh (The house of life) if they
were right Mn, the holder of the title would
be the only example of a swnw attached to
this venerable institutions, the only piece of
evidence in favor of their identity being the
Famine Stela of Sahel where king Djoser
appeals to the learned Imhotep for
information on the source of the Nile and the
famous sage asks to consults the books in the
hw.t cnh.
The house of life (pr- cnh)
The mansion of life (hw.t cnh)
The house of books (hn)
Much has been written on the pr-cnh but
opinions as to its role are at variance.
Gardiner believed that these institutions
were mere scriptoria where books were
compiled, and centers where religious texts
and ceremonies were discussed.
On the other hand, Volten assigned to them
an important role in the protection and
vivifying of gods and pharaohs, protecting
them from evil and consequently from
disease. He described them as colleges of
scholars, created for the express protection
of gods, and naturally of their
representatives on Earth, the pharaohs.
Their interest in medicine is proved by fact
that Ramses II had recourse to them to select
a man to treat the princess of Bakhtan.
Gardiner also distinguished between the pr -
cnh (House of life) and the but hw.t cnh
(Mansion of life) that he described as the
living room of the king, but in the light of
recent work (Sauneron, 1962) The latter
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appears to have been, at least in the last
centuries of paganism, some kind of
sanatorium or hospital.
Where as we know of one physician attached
to the hw.t cnh. (Mentioned before), we
know of none attached to a pr - cnh.
The only example of a relation between a
swnw and the pr – cnh is Imny, who was
related in some way to Kkw Scribe of that
institution.
One explanation offered by Daumos is that
where as the swnw n hw.t cnh the physician
of the Mansion of life was a practicing
physician, the medical men in the pr - cnh
were professors, who did deal directly with
patients.
The hn a chest that might contain furniture,
clothes, incense, ointments, but also books.
The close relation between the pr - cnh and
the hn is clear in Bubastis, where, on the
lintel of Iyroy's gateway, the local divinities
Atum and Sekhmet – Bastet are qualified,
the first being Master of the pr - cnh, while
the second was Consort of the House of
Books.
Note: If the equation wcb shmt = Physician
is accepted, these are the only instance of
physicians attached to a pr – cnh or to a hm
2)swnw grg.t or swnw mr.t: physician
of the settlers.
1) Imy – r3 pr – cnh snb.tm pr: Palace
Intendant of the snb.t vase in the
dwelling.
2) Shd pr – cnh c3 snb.t: Palace
Inspector of Health.
3) Imy-r3 pr n wd3: Intendant of
Health office, held by one snb.f of
the middle kingdom.
b) Assignments to cemeteries
1) wr swnw m st m3c.t: Chief of the
physicians of the Palace of Truch. It has
been suggested also that the swnw m st
m3c.t like Pwr dealt exclusively with the
dead and was, therefore an embalmer.
The term st m3c.t covered any sacred
place or locality related to the dead: the
king's tomb, the graves, the necropolis,
particular districts in Thebes, Deir el,
Medineh. Akhetaten (Tell- el- Amarna),
Abydos ……..etc.
c) Assignments to cemeteries
1) swnw s3w: This is Jonckeer's
translation, which is at variance with
Gardiner's "Physician magician" while it is
natural to have medical men
accompanying military expedition, this
does not mean that these physicians were
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specialized army surgeons. On the other
hand, in ancient Egyptian thin King it
would be equally natural to have
magicians in desert expeditions to conjure
out snakes and scorpions.
This explain the presence of Akemou and
both swnw s3w in Sinai.
In that respect, the absence of any naval
surgeons is also striking. Since prehistoric
times the fleet played a crucial role in
trade, transport and war.
The absence of any naval surgeon is,
therefore as sticking as the absence of
military surgeons. It is possible that
ordinary physicians were engaged to fill
that role. This is confirmed by the fact that
Neferher the only physician in a ship's
crew, was a simple swnw.
Note: It is thought that all or nearly all
assignments to civil posts were created
under the New kingdom.
III-Magician- Physicians
In his study of ancient Egyptian magicians
Gardiner (1917) wrote: All priests were
potentially magicians and especially such of
them, like the lectors (hry-hb), as were
steeped in religious lore.
The summit of the magician's skill was to
possess the ability to control the forces of
nature. The magician could use this power to
achieve results in this world and in the after
life. Magicians were regarded as priests and
scholars who called read and write the
hieroglyphs, which gave them ultimate
knowledge and control. They were trained
for many years, and as apprentice magicians
were instructed by masters at special schools
and temples.
In the house of life attached to many of the
temples, the priest magician would be taught
to read and understand the sacred texts. Here
the official books of magic were kept as part
of royal archive. Magic was thus an integral
element of the state system. And magicians
were never regarded as (strange). Their
activities, whether for the state or for the
individual were part of mainstream belief
and practice.
It is characteristic of the magician of all
times that he should have more than one
string to his bow for if one remedy fail,
another may succeed, and his reputation
must at all costs be maintained.
Consequently in the medical papyri are
found numerous alternative prescriptions for
each ailment and in the magical tests
alternative spells provided for every kind of
sickness or calamity. Some of these
remedies contain drugs that are really
beneficial and appropriate, by such means,
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more and more reliance came to be placed
upon the drugs themselves, and less upon
the magician's spells, and the persons
therefore who would be most in reqest in
case of sickness would be those who were
skilled in the knowledge and preparation of
drugs. Such men were no longer magicians
but physicians.
Magician's costume
In a hole in the floor of a room in a house of
kahun (the pyramid work – men's town) was
found and included a wooden, masked
figurine (representing a magician in a
costume with a tail) and a pair of ivory
clappers. In the next room there was a full
size cartonnage mask representing the god.
It is likely that these items were worn and
used by a local magician in some kind of
ritual ceremony in which he sought to
imitate Bes and take on his magical powers.
Magician s' titles were often born by lay
employees, often of remarkably petty rank,
like a "domestic servant and magician" the
degree of dignity varying with that of the
employer.
Nevertheless, Gardiner came across
evidence that certain individuals were
regarded as professional magicians. Of these
he recognized several classes:
(a) The hk3y, related to Heka, the
god of magic.
(b) The S3W, who are mentioned in
the Ebers papyrus "Every
physician, every priest of
Sekhmet , every S3W…" the
word is obviously derived from
s3 a charm or an amulet, and it
obviously meant the amulet –
man.
(c) The hrp srq.t. i.e. he who has
command over Serqet, the
scorpion – goddess. This was
apparently the healer called upon
to treat scorpion stings. The king
of Egypt had special members of
this class at his service and many
accompanied expeditions into the
desert.
(d) The s3u Srq.t the exorcists of
Serqet, who formed a link
between the second and third of
these categories.
To these one could add:
4) The hry hb who were priests.
5) The priests of HK3 god of magic.
From these titles we can say that magicians
who are physicians were either connected
with Srqt, HK3 or a charmer.
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A) Those connected with Srqt, the
scorpion goddess:
Swnw and imy-ht- srqt:
Physician and spectator of
serqet.
Swnw and hrp srqt: Physician
who has command over
Serqet.
The role of these agents of Serqet was the
treatment of venomous bits by magic. This
is clearly stated on the statue of Djedhor, the
healer who was not a physician.
B) Those connected with HK: god of
magic.
Swnw and Hm-ntr HK3= physician
and prophet of Heka
imy-r3 hk3w.w:Overseer of
magicians.
C) The physician and charmer.
Swnw and S3W
IV-Medical auxiliaries
The ancient Egyptians were like any othercivilization; both men and women liked tomake themselves look better according totheir standards of beauty. The result wasthat both genders wore makeup when theoccasion demanded it and they practiced astandard of Egyptian hygiene based onsound medicinal, therapeutic and spiritualreasons.
They were experts in dealing with thisprofession .They had what we call nowadaysbeauty center but in a different way, it is notlike a salon but the work itself existed. Theyhad all the departments of the beauty centerbut separately not collected in institute, inother words there was a man responsible forthe bath of the pharaoh and anothercaretaker of the nails and one for make-up .The Ancient Egyptians, both men andwomen, wore distinct eye makeup, rougeand perfumed oils that softened the skin andprevented burning in the sun and damagefrom the sandy winds. Not only did the menand women of Egypt wear makeup but alsothe statues of their gods and goddesses wereadorned with all these different types ofcosmetics. The higher the status of theperson the more clothes and make-up theywore. They were brilliants in dressing make–up and especially when it comes to kohl
(The Egyptians used two types :Udjugreen malachite
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• Mesdemet a dark gray ore of lead) andhow they were able to express this abilityupon their statues, scenes and also thefunerary masks .The funerary masksespecially, showed us the cosmetics theyused. They are named funerary masksbecause they were worn by the mummiesafter being mummified. They took good careof their skin and they used certain materialsto act the role of creams and lotionsnowadays among of which was the milk.Royal women as well as Aristocratic womenused to wear cone of fates upon their hairwigs which give it a nice smell and protects
the hair.
Reflexology is based on the idea thatpressure points on the feet and handscorrespond to specific organs, glands, andsystems. This medical philosophy dates allthe way back to ancient Egypt, wherehieroglyphics in the physician's tomb depictpatients receiving reflexology treatments.
What does the Egyptian pictograph of workon feet from the Tomb of the Physicianrepresent? Pedicure , foot operation or footrub.
"The significance of the reliefs on the left(of the entrance room to the Tomb of thePhysician) is uncertain. Two men are havingsomething done to their hand and feet.Various explanations include surgery,manicure and pedicure, and massage. Butsince the text reads; "Do not let it be painful,massage would seem to be ruled out." (Toreflexologists, accustomed to adjustingtechnique application to a client's comfortlevel, this comment has always served toconfirm that a therapeutic footwork wasbeing practiced.)
They note that the pictograph is displayed inbas relief, carved stone, at the entrance tothe "Tomb of the Physician." "Othermastabas from the Sixth Dynasty are locatedfurther east, along the north side of the Tetiwall. They were excavated by Victor Loretin 1899 and are not yet open to the public.The most well-known is that of Ankhmahor,who held the titles of vizier, 'first after theking' and Overseer of the Great House. Thistomb is also known as the Tomb of thePhysician, as his bas-reliefs depict a footoperation and a circumcision in addition to
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the usual scenes of daily life and funerarythemes."
"In the same ancient Empire tomb thatdisplays the operation of circumcision, somereliefs illustrate care given to the hands andfeet, and it has been suggested that theyrepresent manicure and pedicure, in spite ofthe fact that the hand of the practitioner,applied to the shoulder in one figure and tothe knee in another, rule out this possibility,and strongly suggest some form massage ormanipulation." Ghalioungui and ElDawakhly argue that finger and toe nail careis depicted in relief illustrations at othertombs but that manicurists and pedicuriststhus pictured are identified by title. "Butnothing in Ankhmahor's tomb indicates thatthe men depicted at work bore suchhonorable titles. Should further proof beneeded, we could find it, according to Prof.Clamminess of Copenhagen, in the positionof the arm of the manipulator." Egyptiansfollowed two particular positions whenrepresenting the arm in profile. "That bothpositions are shown in different persons ofthe same scene shows that the secondposition is not merely the result of an artisticconvention designed no to mask the distant
arm. ... The position adopted by themanipulator on these scenes is thus a correctrendering of the (massage) movement."
The reflexology was practiced throughoutthe history and this was confirmed by thescenes upon the tombs:
PharaohDatesof rule
Footwork description
DjedkareIsei
8th Pharaoh,
FifthDynasty
2388-2356 B.C.
Ptah-hotep is pictured in carved bas relief displayed in the chapel of histomb as having his "toes and fingers manicured."One report states that abas relief in his tomb shows a servant "massaging his leg."
Ptah-hotep's titles: "Vizier and Judge," "Supervisor of Prophets of thePyramids of Menkauhor and Isei" and "Supervisor of Priests of thePyramid of Niuserre"
Teti
First
2323-2291 B.
Work on hands and feet is depicted in bas relief carvings at the entrance toAnkmahor's tomb. The placement of such carvings in an entrancetypically signified the profession of the individual. The tomb is referred to
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Pharaoh
SixthDynasty
C. as "Tomb of the Physician"[
Ankhmahor's titles: "Vizier," "First after the King," "Overseer of theGreat House"
Ramesses II
ThirdPharaoh
NineteenthDynasty
1279-1213 B.C.
A pictograph of work on feet of "tending" to the feet of foot soldiers on amilitary campaign involving a long march during the battle of Qadeshduring the reign of Ramesses II. The battle is well known because it wascommemorated by Ramesses in the building of at least eight temples thathave survived.
Cleopatra
Greco-RomanPeriod
69-30B. C.
Mark Anthony reported to "massage her (Cleopatra's) feet at dinnerparties"
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True and Less TrueStoriesThrough these stories we will find thehuman ring, as without this human ringhistory would be nothing more than abundle of fossilized bones. Andbecause all ever-recurring laudatoryepithets and titles give the impressionof panegyrics rather than biographies,not to mention the elimination of anydiscreditable detail in the life of thedeceased (so it won’t be repeated in hisafterlife) leaves to us lots of questionsunsolved. Thus we had to apply thequote of Gardiner that says, “One has,therefore, to look for other sources ofinformation in order to get at the flesh,blood, and spirit of past generations”.This other source in this case is “TheEgyptian Fiction”.
The Egyptian fiction is our besthistorical material, as the authors wereable to depict existing conditions andto vent their feelings freely (this kindof frank expression is impossible to befound when the predominant intentionwas boasting- exempting the deceasedfrom his lively discreditable behaviorsfrom re-happening in his afterlife. Wecan also note that the most virulentattacks on prevailing social orderswere represented in innocent satiricalanimal paintings and caricatures(Omlin, 1971- Van de Walle, 1969).
Thus through these stories ananimation of the still pictures of pastphysicians with autobiographies,records of plots, and tales of fiction orsemi fiction. Although the meticulousrendering of such texts was verydifficult, making it even sometimesimpossible to comprehend, owing to
the many lacunae and the difficulty ofthe language. These stories will createa general atmosphere that would helpus understand that mystique science ofThe Ancient Egyptian medicine andthe health care system.
The death of Wesh-Ptah(Breasted, A.R., I, 242-249)
Wesh-Ptah was the most importantofficial after the Pharaoh. He livedduring the fifth dynasty, reign of king“Neferirkare”. He was; the supremejudge, and the chief architect. His son“Mernuterseni” narrates the accidentthat led to his death.
The story narrates that; KingNeferirkare was on an inspection visitto one of the construction sites thatwere directed by his eminent builder(Wesh-Ptah). The king who wassurrounded by his sons and retinue wasadmiring his beautiful monument andwas bestowing in praise, when henoticed that his vizier wasn’t noticinghis words. Wesh-Ptah by then had aseizure, but the king thought that hewas bowing for him that’s why he toldhim, “Don’t smell the ground”.However, the vizier didn’t answer andfell to the ground. The king along withhis retinue and sons were scared aboutWesh-Ptah, that’s why he ordered thathe would be carried to the royal palaceand summoned the physicians and thelector priests (ghery heb). They usedall known books, but their verdict washopeless. That’s why the king who wasfull of grief repaired to his apartmentsand prayed to Re daily for the life ofhis beloved vizier.
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The king ordered a coffin of ebony,this coffin was made especially for hisvizier, as the like of which had neverbeen made before. The king evenwitnessed his vizier being anointedwhile lying in his coffin of ebony, andhe ordered the construction of amortuary endowment for his tomb thatwas built near the pyramid called “thesoul of Sahure shined”.
The translation of the word“dbakh” was a large topic fordebate. As “Sethe” (Urk. I,4045) translated the word as“..to die”. The authors of theW.B. (V, 435) read it as “..tofall down”, while Grdseloff(1938) gave it the significanceof “..to faint down” and heoptimistically added that theking’s prayer to Re wereanswered and Wesh-Ptahrecovered, but unfortunatelybefore the god could save himthe physicians had alreadyannounced him dead.
Whatever the end of “Wesh-Ptah”, ithighlights the following points:
i. The affectionate interest thatEgyptian pharaohs took in theirgrandees.
ii. It documents the habit ofphysicians consulting historicaltreatise to define a medicaltreatment for the patient.
iii. It proves the existence ofmedical writings at least sincethe fifth dynasty.
iv. It accentuates the association ofthe SWNW and the ghery heb indealing with disease.
A cure for blindness:
The son of Sesostris, Pheron (a Greekmispronunciation of pr-aa, Pharaoh)had committed an unpardonablesacrilege. As the Nile had rose morethan eighteen cubits and overflowedthe fields in great waves, the kingseized his spear and hurled it into thefurious stream. Instantly he lost hissight and stayed blind for ten years. Atlast an oracle reached him announcingthat he would regain his vision bywashing his eyes with the urine of awoman who had been faithful to herhusband. He tried his wife and otherwomen in vain, until after a long timeand repeated attempts, he found theone whose urine cured him. Hemarried her and had all the othersburnt. As a sign of gratitude he offeredvaluable presents to the temples,among which were two magnificentobelisks to the temple of the sun(Heodotus, II, 111).
Analysis:
“Barguet” saw in the act of the pharaohsexual symbolism;
The javelin being the phallicsymbol.
The river being the universalmatrix*.
The cure would be would be inline with that Freudiansymbolism*.
It’s note worthy that theobelisks mentioned, are nowfound as one is in situ inHeliopolis and another is inRome in the Piaza del Pobolo(Barguet, 1964, p.1388).
*The universal matrix- ametaphysical concept that man andcosmos are interconnected by a
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ubiquitous, all pervasive sea of energythat undergirds and is manifest in allphenomenons.
*Freud defines the symbol as acomparison where the compared termdisappears. If we compare, forexample, a snake with a staff, when thecompared object - the snake - is nolonger specified, we only have the staffwhich could be a symbol for the snake.I did not use by chance this examplebecause staff can suggest more than asnake to Freud.
Egyptian physiciansabroadDarius was accustomed to have
attached to his person the most
reputed Egyptian physicians.
Herodotus, III, 130.
This had been a standing
tradition, attested ever since the
eighteenth dynasty. Gods and
physicians crossed seas and lands to
and fro, between Egypt and the Near
East, to bestow their care. Had we any
Libyan or African writings in our
possession, we might document an
even wider dissemination of Egyptian
expatriate physicians. In the table at
the end of this chapter the known in-
stances of this exchange have been
arranged in chronological order.
The earliest instance of
therapeutic exchange is found in the
correspondence between Amenophis
III and his father in law Dushratta,
king Mitanni.
The first letter contained a
message from Amenophis to Dushratta
informing him that he sent great
offerings to Shimika, god of Ikhipa.
The aim of these offerings was not
mentioned, but from a second letter it
appears to have been a request for
assistance in the matter of health
addressed to the Syrian god.
The second letter was sent by
Dushratta to Amenophis III. It
accompanied the statue of the healing
goddess Ishtar and conveyed the wish
expressed by the goddess herself to
repeat the voyage she had previously
undertaken under Dushratta's father. At
the same time, it asked the goddess to
grant both Amenophis and Dushratta
one hundred years.
Under Amenopihs IV son and
successor of Amenophis III, the tell el-
a-marna correspondence offers a
single, though significant instance, of
the role played by Egyptian physicians
in foreign lands. In a letter to the
Egyptian king, Niqmad, king of ugarit,
requests ""My lord, would you send
two Nubian Court pages and a palace
physician. W have no physicians here
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probably meaning that there were no
capable physicians in his country.
In the second millennium B.C.,
the site of Boghazkoy, 150 km east of
Ankara, was the capital of a powerful
Hittite kingdom, whose archives,
written in the Babylonian languages
used in international affairs of the time,
revealed intense diplomatic activity
between the great powers of the Near
East, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and the
Hittite kingdom and its vassals in
northern Syria.
Two thirds of this
correspondence came from Egypt. We
learn from it of the wedding of
Rameses II in the 34th year of his reign
to the daugjter of Hattusili, the Hittite
king. Some of the letters, admirably
studied by Edel, concern Egyptian
physicians and exorcists sent to
Hattusili, revealing how much these
were appreciated and in what
specialties they were in special
demand.
There complementary
fragments constitute a missive sent by
Rameses II to Hattusili and his sister
Mata nazi.
So to my brother: What my
brother wrote to me on account of
Matanazi, my sister my brother would
like me to send a man to prepare for
her a drug to let her be with child.
So has my brother written, so
do I say to my brother see, Matanazi,
the sister of my brother, the king your
brother knows her, is she fifty years
old? Nonsense she is sixty.
And they will prepare to her
intent drugs so that she be with child.
Now, I am sending you a greetings
present. Here we are dealing with a
request from a lesser to a more
developed medical culture for help in a
locally unmanageable condition the
sterility of Matanazi, the king of the
Hittites apparently tried to conceal the
age of his sister.
The well-informed Ramses II
treated this however, as nonsense, and
his medical advisers informed him that
pregnancy was impossible after the age
of 60 using terms that Edel rightly
compared to the habitual Egyptian way
of expressing a hopeless verdict "I
shall not treat it. But a miracle always
being possible, Rameses
diplomatically, perhaps with together
with drugs, the help of the sun and
weather gods, through the intercession
of an exorcist, a lector priest.
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What the medicines were is not
told. Although gynecologists are
mentioned neither among the medical
specialists named by Herodotus nor
among known medical titles the middle
kingdom kahun Carls.
Berg, and Ebers papyri attest to
a well developed gynecological lore
confirming the statement made by
Clement of Alexandria that there
existed in the temples a very old
gynecological treaties written by the
god Hermes. Had the kahun papyrus,
especially prescription XX, been
discovered in a better state of
preservation, another piece could have
been fitted into this intriguing medico
historical puzzle.
In another letter sent to
Hattusili by a Pharaoh, presumably the
same Rameses, the Hittite king is
advised that help is being sent to treat
his eyes. A physician is not delegated,
but a known Egyptian ambassador,
Pirihnawa, is asked to deliver the
necessary drugs. Whether a specific
drug had been requested on the basis of
a diagnosis made by Egyptian
physicians residing at the Hittite occur,
or whether the Egyptian arrived at a
diagnosis based on in dications sent
from abroad, is not known. The letter
proceeded, saying ",,and I had all god
drugs brought for the eyes of my
brother, and I had Charior Officer go
with Pirihanawa and the officer went
to Bentesina Prince of Amurri with my
Ambassador; and gave him all the
drugs, and Bentensina had a sargu-
officer go to my brother with the
drugs.. and I wrote a letter to the prince
of Amurri… I had a medicine brought
to my brother for his eyes.
Apparently the drugs had been
sent by had not been delivered. The
king had to reconfirm the fact,
disclaiming any responsibility for the
delay.
Letter NBC 3934, sent in
answer to a thrice repeated request
from the Hittite king to dislodge a
disease demon, informs him that a
physician, possibly accompanied by an
exorcist, is sent along with the
necessary medicines.
Letter KUB III 67 is
remarkable in that Egyptian physicians
were requested by Hattusili not only
for himself but also for his vassal,
kurunta, of Tarhuntas south of konya,
who was probably also his nephew.
Two other physicians were already in
kurunta's service. The letter requested
their immediate release on the arrival
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of the new comer, the scribe physician
Pareamahu.
One would like to know
whether the two physicians had failed
to cure krunta, or whether their period
abroad having come to an end, they
had to be recalled.
Yet another letter of the same
kind takes up with queen Paduhepat,
wife of Hattusili, the matter of
releasing the two physicians against
sending a scribe physician. This letter,
together with other duplicate letter,
affords additional proof of the
extraordinary role that his lady is
known to have played in politics. The
same Pareamahu is mentioned a third
time in a letter also addressed to this
queen.
The story of the goddess Ishtar
twice sent to Egypt under Amenophis
III has already been related. It seems
that, in return, Egyptian gods were
sometimes sent to the near East.
From a late and controversial
document, the Bentresh stela, it seems
that the Chief of Kheta asked Rameses
II to send the statue of Khonsu of
Thebes to cure his daughter, the
younger sister of the wife of Rameses.
There is no contemporary record of the
event, but many centuries later,
probably in ptolemaic times, the priests
of khonsu forget stele that narrated the
tale, probably to raise the prestige of
their god. But through the thin veil of
the archaic language they used, they
betrayed themselves by prefixing the
name of Ramses Meriamon with the
titulature of Tuthomosis IV and by
committing many errors in dates and
names.
The stele is topped by pictures
of the barks of two Khonsu gods
mentioned in the text it starts by
relating that during the yearly visit of
Rameses II to Naharin, the Chief of
Bakhtan (probably knowing the
reputation of his visitor) placed his
exceedingly attractive daughter in the
front of his tribute and that Rameses
liked her more that anything and
affixed her name as Great King's wife
Nefrure.
Rameses then spoke to the god
khonsu in Thebes Nefer Hotep who
was taken to the god Khonsu the plan
Maker smiting the prowlers, and asked
his opinion.
After a year and five months,
Khonsu arrived and amidst general
awe blew his magic into the princess
and cast the spirit away.
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The chief of Bakhtan, however,
secretly intended to keep the god, and
retained him three years and nine
months. But one day the god appeared
to him in a dream as a golden hawk
flying to Egypt.
Many Egyptologists are
inclined to regard this tale as a pure
fabrication concocted by the priests of
Khonsu to increase the prestige of their
god, but they are perhaps too strict;
and it is possible to conceive that the
whole tale embellished to the taste of
the public, was woven around a kernel
of truth, or that it alluded to some
historical event.
This interpretation is supported
by the following evidence. First, there
is a tradition in Macrobius of a visit of
an Egyptian god to Thebes. Second ,
the name of Neferure. The great king's
wife seems to be a corruption of which
was the name given by Rameses II to
Hattusili's daughter when he married
her. Third, the name of the scribe
selected by "those in charge of sacred
writings" Thutemheb, is known to have
belonged to an official who occupied
the same post under Rameses. The land
of Bakhtan may be a transparent
deformation of Babylionian Bactria,
that after the continuous.
Further, it is known from a
Koptos stele that the wife of Rameses I
had a sister who went to Egypt also to
be married to Rameses II. In spite of
the obvious differences, the princess of
Bakhtan having stayed in her country
where the god went to her, Edel was
tempted to see in Matanazi, the sister
of Hattusili the prototype of this lady,
arguing that the Ptolemaic priests
might have heard no Neferure as they
heard of her sister, and confused her
with her aunt Matanazi.
Another difficulty in accepting
this theory, viz, that the scholar sent to
Bakhtan was not a lector priest as in
the Hattusili correspondence, was
dismissed by Edel on the grounds that
he belonged to the “House of Life”.
Where lector priests, according to
Volten (1942, 23-.33) played an
important role.
Expatriate Egyptian physicians:
Expatriate Egyptian physicians werenot all happy abroad. Many yearned toreturn to their country, like the officerin the Anstasi papyrus, who wrote,“Come to me Ptah to take me toMemphis … I spend the day with mineheart dreaming. Mine heart is not inmy body… mine eye is weary withlooking… Be gracious to me, andsuffer me to mount up to them”(Erman, 1966, p.205).
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If successful they received honors andgifts but, like the two physiciansretained at the court of Kurunta theywere held in close custody, oftenagainst their will, and failure ormistake on their part was punisheddrastically. The loyalty that theyshowed to their new masters wasopportunistic pretence. Some, likeSem-taoui-taf-nekht, wereunscrupulous careerists and changedcamps according to their interests.Several played decisive roles in theevents that preceded and followed thePersian conquest.
The state control
Most people with pain, illness or injurywill turn to another for help. In anyhuman society, however simple itsorganization some will inevitablyemerge as possessing or as appearingto possess, superior healing skills.These may be based on invoking thegods, on the exercise of magic, or thepractice of what we recognize the artand science of conventional medicine,or on the use of so-called alternativeforms of medicine such as osteopathy*and homoeopathy*. What interests ushere is the relation between thephysicians, the Egyptian state law andthe patients.
Relation between physicians,patients and state laws:
Physicians in Ancient Egypt receivedcertain salaries from the publictreasury.
Physicians weren’t allowed to practicemedicine before studying the precepts
that had been laid down from theexperiences of their predecessors.
The Egyptian state law prohibiteddangerous experiments beingperformed upon patients. As theEgyptian law considered it a capitaloffense (with death as his penalty) fora physician to kill a person entrusted tohis care. (This was unlike the Greeklaw that considered a physician as theonly man who can kill with impunity-Pliny), however if the remedy used bythe physician was according to thesanitary law then the physician was tobe absolved from blame.
Diodorus states that the provisions ofthe sanitary law were made with thepersuasion that few persons could becapable of introducing any newtreatment superior to what had beensanctioned and approved by the skill ofold practitioners.
It wasn’t illegal for physicians toreceive fees for their advice andattendance, except on foreign journeysand military services, when patientswere visited free of expense. The feespaid to physicians probably variedgreatly from very low to very high and,in some cases, may have resulted ingreat wealth.
The relation between physicians andscribes isn’t very clear whether allphysicians were scribes or there weretwo categories of physicians (scribesand non scribes). As they had to readmedical texts, they were literate and, asthe knowledge of the scribe was heldin high esteem, physicians may haveencouraged the association betweenthe two professions.
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Medicine andpharmaceuticalsMedicine
The oldest knownphysician is Imhotep, wholived around 2725 B.C. inEgypt. Doctors in AncientEgypt usually went throughyears of training at templeschools. They were able to setbroken bones and studied brainstructure. They also used magicspells and remedies to cure thesick. If someone did get sick, itwas caused by the wrath of godor an evil spirit entering thebody. The most common curewas an amulet and magic spell.
Egyptian doctors didn’t realize
the brain had anything to dowith thinking. They thought theheart was the center of reason.They also thought that blood,urine, excrement, and semencirculated constantly aroundthe body.
Contraception waspracticed among Egyptianwomen. They used honey andnatron. Egyptian women alsodevised the first knownpregnancy test. They moisteneda small sample of barley andwheat each day. If the barleygrew, the child would be amale. If wheat grew, the childwas a female. If neither wheat
nor barley grew, then it meant
the woman wasn’t pregnant.
In 1862, in Luxor,Egypt, Edwin Smith bought aroll of ancient papyrus that wasmissing its outer portions. Twomonths later, he bought theouter fragments from the samepeople who had sold him theprevious roll. They had gluedthe fragments to another roll toswindle him. Smith recognizedit and reconstructed thepapyrus and tried to translatewhat it meant. James H.Breasted, who saw theimportance of the writings,deciphered it in 1930. He foundthat it was an ancient copy of amanuscript that contained 48case histories of injuries. Theywere arranged starting at thehead and continuing down thebody. The manuscript onlygoes as far as injuries of thethorax and spine, after which itcuts off. Nowhere in thispapyrus is the act oftrepanation mentioned, whichwas thought to be practiced bythe Ancient Egyptians. Thecases discussed go throughwhat should be done in theinstance of certain injuries.
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Here is an example of one suchentry (note that this is thetranslated version):
a) Medicine andpharmacy.
Medications were typicallymixed with one or more of sixvehicles: water (sometimes calleddew), honey, milk, oil, wine or beer.The vehicle of choice depended on thekind of solvent the active ingredientsneed to be dissolved and on the methodof application. Some botanicals willdissolve only in alcohol, others only inwater, etc. Honey or oil was useful ifyou needed something that would stickto skin. There were five ways to givethe medicine to the patient: oral, rectal,vaginal, external and fumigation. For awoman, the later usually involvedproducing fumes that entered her bodythrough the vagina.
Egyptologists have a number ofdifficulties in assessing ancientmedications. The most serious one isthat we cannot always recognize themodern name for every plant in therecipe. A modern scientist might knowthat the first seven ingredients in arecipe could not possibly cure thenamed illness, but without knowing theidentity of the eighth ingredient it isimpossible to be sure that thismedicine is useless. The secondserious problem is that it is not alwaysclear what disease the physician isattempting to treat. In some cases thesymptoms are too vague. In other casesthere is no diagnosis at all.
The practice of mummificationgave the Egyptians a good picture of
the various organs inside the humanbody, but not much information on thefunction of those organs. They knewnothing about the circulation of bloodthrough arteries, veins, the heart andthe lungs. They thought of the heart,not the brain, as the thinking part of thebody. They knew that the bite ofscorpions and certain snakes couldcause serious illness, but they had nounderstanding of the role of bacteriaand viruses in the transmission ofdisease.
Despite these deficiencies,Egyptian physicians were very clearabout the need to determine the natureof the illness before attempting toprovide the treatment. All too oftenthey had no idea as to the cause butthey did realize the need to make thetreatment match at least the specificsymptoms. As a result, Egyptianphysicians had an excellent reputationand were often called upon by theroyalty of foreign lands.
Pharmacists.
There is no known Egyptianword for pharmacists but there is animportant ostracon from deir el-medinawhich records absences from the workforce in the fortieth year of the reign ofRamses the second .line 21 of the rectolists the absences of pa-hery-pedjet andappears to be continued on line 22where he was absent with khonso andwith horemwia on certain days for thepreparation of medicines .the sameostracon records thet both khonso andhoremwia were absent from their workbecause of sickness on five of the sixdays in question. Pa-hery-pedjetprobably has the distinction of being
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the first known pharmacist.
there is another one who called lucas.
The ancient Egyptianpharmacopoeia
The ancient Egyptianpharmacopoeia included hundreds ofitems, many of which cannot betranslated. They were recommendedfor a great variety of diseases of whichthe meaning is also obscure in manycases. Egyptians prescriptions typicallystart with a terse statement of thediagnosis followed by: "You shall thenprepare for him:". A major concern isthat many are followed by paragraphsheaded simply "Another remedy" orjust "Another". One assumes that theseremedies were intended for treatmentof the last disease to be specified in theprevious paragraphs. This relies upongenerations of scribes copying theparagraphs in the correct sequence.Unfortunately, there is no firm basisfor total confidence in their work.
Products of the Ricinus (castor oil)plant (degem) have the uniquedistinction of something approachingsystematic discussion in an isolatedsection of the Ebers papyrus (251). Theapproach is quite different from thelisting of other remedies in the medicalpapyri, and it is tempting to believethat this section is remnant of a lostgeneral pharmacopoeia, perhapsrelated to one of the books listed byClement. This unique section istherefore cited in full:
Knowledge of what is made from (ordone with) the Ricinus plant, as thatwhich was found in ancient writingsand as that which is useful to mankind.
a) One crushes its roots in water, toplace on a head which is sick; he willthen become well immediately, likeone who is not ill.
b) A little of its fruit (beans) ischewed with beer by a man with wehi-condition in his faeces. This is anelimination of disease from the belly ofa man.
c) The hair of a woman is alsocaused to grow by its fruit (beans); it isground and made into one thing andadded to oil; then the woman shouldanoint her head with it.
d) Its oil (merhet) is also preparedfrom its fuit (beans), to anoint ( a man)with the wehau-disease, affected withitjetjet and hewau, which is painful.
The riumu come to a standstill likeone to whom nothing has happened.But he is treated with ointmentlikewise for ten days, being anointedvery early so that they are eliminated.
Really excellent, a million times.
The significance of this passage issadly diminished by the variouspathological states which cannot atpresent be translated, and thre issurprisingly no mention of its use forconstipation, although this application
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is made clear in Ebers 25. Somewhatsimilar, though much lesscomprehensive, is consideration of theonion in the Brooklyn papyrus onsnake bites.
Para. 41: Very good remedies tobe made for those suffering from allsnake bites: Onion, grounded finely inbeer. Eat and spit out for one day. (thenfollows an incantation)
Para. 42 : As for the onion, itshould be in the hand of the priest ofSerqet, wherever he is. It is that whichkills the venom of every snake, male orfemale. If one grinds it in water andone smears a man with it, the snakewill not bite him. If one grinds it inbeer and sprinkles it all over the houseone day in the new year, no serpentmale or female will penetrate therein.
Then follow many remedies forspecific snake bites, in the usualformat, with many containing onions.
Thanks to the determinatives atthe end of the Egyptian words fordrugs, they can usually be classifiedinto mineral, animal or vegetable, thescheme which will be followed below.Worterbuch der AgyptischenDrogennamen, Grudriss, vol VI (VonDeines and Grapow, 1959) cites thekey sections of the various medicalpapyri where specific remedies areemployed.
It is far from simple to relate theitems in the Egyptian pharmacopoeiato the disease they were intended tocure. The major difficulty is intranslating the name of many of the
diseases and some 80 per cent of thebotanical species. One suspects thatsome of the more outlandish animalpreparations might well be popularnames for a plant as, for example,snapdragon is today. The problems arefurther fonfounded by polypharmacy,with as many as thirty-seven items in asingle remedy. It is often unclearwhether a constituent is an activeprinciple, a vehicle or merely added forits taste. Honey, for example, might beeffective in all three catagories. Manydrugs, djaret for example, were used soextensively that it is impossible todefine what pharmacological effectwas intended. Furthermore, manysubstances were used for theirsupposed magical properties and welook in vain fr any intendedphamacological basis. Nevertheless,the overall materia medica was not toodissimilar in character from thatcarried by the Egyptian folk healer ofthe present.
Unintentional Medication
Quite apart from the best intentionsof the healers, there must be manyinstances of powerful drugs whichwere administered unintentionally.Armelagos and Mills describe howDebra Martin detected the antibiotictetracycline by serendipity, whileexamining a thin section of bone fromthe Roman Period. It seems likely thattetracycline was formed in the brewingprocess, as a result of contaminationwith an airborne streptomycete, andthen ingested with the beer. A constantintake of this antibiotic might haveinfluenced the pattern of bacterial
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infection. The Egyptians wereadvanced in medicine for their time.The Egyptians had a basic knowledgeof organ functions within the humanbody and were effective healers. Theywere masters of human anatomy andhealing mostly due to the exchangemummification ceremonies. Thisinvolved many organs inside the body.Practices of medicine ranged fromembalming to faith healing to surgeryand autopsy. Surgery also evolvedfrom a knowledge of the basic anatomyand embalming practices of theEgyptians. Egyptian healers engaged insurgery and many other healingpractices still found today.
The ThinkQuest JuniorGroup will not be responsiblefor any outcomes from doingany of these cures. Don't tryany of these cures!TheEgyptians were advanced inmedicine for their time. TheEgyptians had a basic
knowledge of organ functionswithin the human body andwere effective healers. Theywere masters of humananatomy and healing mostlydue to the exchangemummification ceremonies.This involved many organsinside the body. Practices ofmedicine ranged fromembalming to faith healing tosurgery and autopsy. Surgeryalso evolved from a knowledgeof the basic anatomy andembalming practices of theEgyptians. Egyptian healersengaged in surgery and manyother healing practices stillfound today.
The Think Quest Junior Group willnot be responsible for any outcomesfrom doing any of these cures. Don'ttry any of these cures!
Cure forDiarrhea
1/8 cup figsand grapes,
bread dough,pit corn,
fresh earth,onion, andelderberry.
Cure forIndigestion
Crush a hog'stooth and putit inside offour sugarcakes, andeat for four
days.
Cure for Burns
Create a mixture ofmilk from someone whohas borne a male child,
gum, and ram's hair.While administrating
this mixture, say: "Thyson Horus is burnt in
the desert. Is there anywater there? There is nowater. I have the waterin my mouth and a Nile
between my thighs. Ihave come to extinguish
the fire."
Cure forLesions ofthe Skin
After thescab has
fallen off,mix it
with freshmilk and
apply it asa poultice
to thewound.
Cure for Cataracts
Mix brain-of-tortoise with honey.
Place on the eyeand say, "There is asouthern sky in thedarkness. There isan uproar in the
Northern Sky. TheHall of Pillars fall
into the waters. Thecrew of the sun god
bent over oars sothat the heads at his
side fall into thewater, who lead
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forth your heads. Ilift up your place. Ileave you forth to
drive away the godof Fevers and allpossible deadly
arts."
b) Drug therapy in AncientEgypt.
Administration of Drugs
There were five routes of drugadministration; oral, rectal, vaginal,topical, and fumigation.
While over 70% of Egyptiantreatments were administered topically,a tenth of these were thought to exerttheir effects elsewhere. Here theEgyptian concept of metu can beobserved through the practices of theswnw. Treatments administered to onearea were envisioned to betransferredvia these afferent ducts to their site ofintended action. The greatestproportion of Oral medications wereprescribed for disorders of the gas
Drug use is a practice that dates toprehistoric times. There isarchaeological evidence of the use ofpsychoactive substances dating back atleast 10,000 years, and historicalevidence of cultural use over the past5,000 years. While medicinal useseems to have played a very large role,it has been suggested that the urge toalter one's consciousness is as primaryas the drive to satiate thirst, hunger orsexual desire The long history of druguse and even children's desire forspinning, swinging, or sliding indicates
that the drive to alter one's state ofmind is universal.This relationship is not limited tohumans. A number of animalsconsume different psychoactive plants,animals, berries and even fermentedfruit, becoming intoxicated, such ascats after consuming catnip.Traditional legends of sacred plantsoften contain references to animals thatintroduced humankind to their use.Biology suggests an evolutionaryconnection between psychoactiveplants and animals, as to why thesechemicals and their receptors existwithin the nervous system.
The ancient Egyptian pharmacopoeiawas weak by modern standards. Thebasis of treatment was mainlyempirical rather than rational and, inmost cases, aimed at the relief ofsymptoms rather than the eradicationof the cause of the disease. To a largeextent this wa inevitable because thediscovery of the nature of most internalcomplaints lay in the future. It would,however, be useful here to consider thetherapeutic options available in thesecond and third mellennia BC.
Therapeutic options
The exercise of "tender lovingcare" (TLC) has a measurable curativevalue for many conditions, particularlychronic pain and psychosomatic
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disorders. This effect is so powerfulthat formal investigation into theefficacy of a new therapeutic modalitymust be tested against a control groupwhich is matched for equalitry of TLC.The negative confession in Chapter125 of the Book of the Dead indicatethat the ancient Egyptians were notlacking in sympathy for the afflicted,and TLC would not have been in shortsupply from the doctor and probablythe other healers as well.
The ancient Egyptians made greatuse of magic and invocation of thedeities in the cure of disease. And therewere many spells to be used with orwithout conventional remedies. Suchpractices have continued from thedawn of recorded history until thepresent time, and there are manyconditions, particularly thosementioned in the previous paragraph,which would probably have beenalleviated to some extent by spells,incantations, incubation and attemptsto secure the intervention of benigngods.
Attention to diet would have beenimportant to health and wellbeing. It isdifficult to detect, in human remains orin the medical papyri, evidence ofdietary disorders other than grossobesity and wasting. Nevertheless, it isreasonable to assume that the swnw(swnw: is the ancient word for doctoror physician) would have been giveninstructions on the improvement of dietwhere this was indicated. Manyprescriptions in the medical papyricomprise or include normal dietaryitems, but the inference is that this wasfor a supposed therapeutic or adjuvant
effect rather than correction of adeficient diet.
Surgery was an obvious therapeuticoption. The Edwin Smith papyrusprovides excellent evidence for thesurgical treatment of injuries, includingsuturing of wounds, setting of fracturesand reducing dislocated joints.However, prior to the Greco-RomanPeriod there is no clear evidence ofanything more than the simplest formsof elective surgical procedures, such asthe incision of abscesses and probablythe removal of small superficialtumors.
Some forms of massage andphysical medicine were probablypracticed. Westcar papyrus andpossibly certain reliefs in tombsrepresent physiotherapy. The words ofthe participants support thisinterpretation, but it has also beensuggested that the scenes showmanicure and pedicure or even a typeof reflexology representing theapplication of pressure to certain areas.There is certainly no evidence that anyform of physical therapy was theprerogative of the swnw, and nothingin the medical texts links the swnwwith any form of physiotherapy.
By far the commonest form oftreatment recommended in the medicalpapyri was the use of drugs, drawnfrom a very wide range of animal,mineral and vegetable substances andadministered in a variety of ways. Theancient Egyptians were renowned fortheir skill in this respect.
General principles
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The ancient Egyptian approachto the use of drugs would have seemedentirely reasonable in the eighteenthand even the nineteenth century AD.Their practice seems so strange nowbecause we are living in the midst of atherapeutic revolution, with the pace ofchange continuing to increase. It isuseful to consider the major changesthat we may better understand the past.
The first and most important changeis that treatment now is directed,wherever possible, towards eradicatingthe cause of a disease rather thanmerely relieving symptoms. Secondly,there is less reliance on naturalproducts as drugs, although almost 25per cent of the active compounds incurently prescribed medicines werefirst identified in higher plants. Theactive principles were identified, oftensynthesised, and then it became usualto design the molecule of a new drugfor a specific purpose. It is nocoincidence that, at the same time, aknowledge of botan ceased to be arequirement for medical students. Thethird aspect of the drug revolution hasbeen improved methods for theassessment of efficacy and toxicity.
All of this is very far removed fromthe practice of ancient Egypt and, forthat matter, Europe until about ahundred years ago. In pharonic times,little was known of the etiology ofinternal diseases and so it was seldompossible to direct treatment towards thecause of the disease. Furthermore, theonly available drugs were naturalproducts and a few simple chemicalsubstances, with a very limited rangeof pharmacological effects. Even
today, less than 10 per cent of theestimated 250,000 flowering plantspecies in the world have beenexamined scientifically for theirpotential in medicine. If a plant has anactive principle, it may be confined toone part, and be critically dependent onextraction procedures (see below).Finally, we should note taht the ancientEgyptians' love of polypharmacywould have made it much moredifficult to establish a genuinetherapeutic effect for any particulardrug.
Determining therapeutic efficacy isnow known to be a fa more difficultmatter than was realized in the past.Expectation of cure may exert a verypowerful effect, particularly in therelief of pain. This factor, the "placeboeffect" must be Table. An earlydemonstration of the placebo effectin providing pain relief aftersurgery:
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Substance AdminstratedPatients Reporting Pain Relif
Aspirin (300 mg)50%
Placebo40%
Morphine (10mg)41%
Placebo32%
Codeine (60mg)39%
Placebo34%
*The differences in the percentages ofpatients reporting pain relief withactive drug and placebo werestatistically not significantly different.
The basic principles of assessmentinclude a comparison of the drug withan inactive "placebo" given randomly,both patient and doctor being ignorantof ("blinded to") the true identity of thepreperation which is administered. Adrug must be tested in such a "double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over,randomised" study before it can be saidto be efficacious. Even side effectsmay occur in the placebo group. Thus,it would have been extremely difficultfor the swnw to have arrived at a trueassessment of the efficacy of most of
his drugs, and his difficulties wouldhave been greatly enhanced by thesimultaneous use of a multiplicity ofdrugs, often concurrently with magicalpractice. Ebers 663 contains thirty-seven items and it is not clear whichwas thought to be the most important.
There is, however, a favorableaspect to the problem. Innumerablepatients must have benefited purelyfrom the placebo effect, even if thepreparations were ineffective and theswnw was unaware of the concept.There is nothing wrong with thisapproach in the context of ancientEgypt. Furthermore, there is no reasonwhy the placebo effect should beconfined to medicines, and theattentions of a priest of Sekhmet or thespells of a magician might haveincreased expectation of cure, with orwithout the simultaneousadministration of drugs by the swnw.
Magical considerations sometimesinfluenced the selection of a remedy.In ancient Egypt, as in most other partsof the ancient world, remedies weresometimes selected because they werederived from a substance, animal orplant that possessed characteristicswhich were deemed to be desirable inthe state of the patient (similasimilibus). In this connectionWestendorf (1992) cited theprescription containing ostrich egg fora fractured skull in which the skull wasequated to the shell of the egg (EdwinSmith, Case 9). This is clearly closer tomagic than to rational medicine.
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Collection, preparation and dosageof drugs
Collection
We are told little about how thehealer obtained the raw materials forpreparation of his drugs. Certainanimal products were taken from farmor domestic animals and this wouldhave presented few problems. Otherswere from wild animals, including thelion, and would have requiredarrangements with hunters. Theexcrement of crocodile (used as acontraceptive : Kahun 21) might havebeen hazardous to collect. Virgin'surine (Ebers 729; Berlin 60, 64, 109)had considerable use, and one wonderswhether there was a market for such acommodity. Certain drugs must havepresented a real challenge to thecollecter as, for example, bile oftortoise (Ebers 347) and "theexcrement of flies which is on thewall" (Ebers 782).
Most of the mineral products in thepharmacopoeia were found in Egyptand must have been easily available.However, real lapis lazuli (khesbedjmaa), used for certain eye conditions,was imported from Afghanistan andwould have been expensive.
Drugs were prepared from a verywide range of plants. Many of thesewere food products which wouldnormally have ensured theiravailability. We do not know whetherherb gardens were maintained forplants which were used exclusively for
the extraction of drugs. Alternatively,collection would have requiredsearching for the plants in the wild. Wedo not know whether this was under-taken by the healers themselves or byprofessional herb-gatherers, but Ebers294 gives a brief glimpse of thegathering of an unknown herb(Senutet).
Beginning of remedies to causemucus (setet) to go down from thepelvis (nephu). A herb - Senutet is itsname - growing on its belly like thekadet-plant.
It produces a flower like the lotus. Ifone finds its leaves (looking) likewhite wood, then one should fetch itand rub it on the pelvis. Then it (themucus) will go down immediately. Itsfruit is given on bread to (those with)wekhedu to cause (it) to go down fromthe pelvis.
Preparation
The first remedy to be listed for acondition was usually introduced bythe stock phrase "You shall thenprepare (ir) for him", implying that thehealer was expected to undertake hisown preparation for drugs. A variety ofphrases were then used, includinggrind (nedj) and cook (pes). Atekhmeans literally to "press through" andhas the meanings of both "mash" and"strain". Straining was achievedthrough perforated copper plates.Sometimes there are very specificinstructions to prepare a homogenousmixture of the components of a
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preparation - "as one thing" (m khetwat).
Active principles can be extractedfrom herbal preparations in water,alcohol or oil, depending on theirrelative solubilities in the three media.In many cases, the active drug in aherbal preparation is an alkaloid, achemical grouping which includesatropine, nicotine, quinine andmorphine. Most alkaloids are bestextracted with alcohol, and wine orbeer would have provided the strongestconcentration of alcohol available inancient Egypt. The word sedjernormally means a person "spending thenight" and the determinative shows aperson lying in bed. Rathergraphically, the same word is used todescribe liquid extraction, as in thefollowing:
You shall then prepare for him todrink: figs, 1/8; milk, 1/16; notchedsycomore figs, 1/8; which have "spentthe night" in sweet beer, 1/10. Strain(atekh) and drink much so that he getswell immediately. (Ebers 202).
Oil was also used in preparation,frequently in combination with honey,as in this perscription for a mansuffering from his stomach:
You shall then make for him aremedy against it: haematite (groundup), desh (unknown) and carob, cookin oil and honey; to be eaten by a manat four dawns (Ebers 197).
There is an extraordinary remedy of"an old book boiled in oil" (Ebers 262).This was to cause a child to evacuatean accumulation of urine in its belly,
but it is not clear whether this wasintended to be serious therapeutics or amagical attempt to extract the wisdomfrom the old book.
The vehicles
The commonest vehicle for medicineswas water, often specified as dew. Atypical instructions is that a number ofitems should "spend the night in dew"before being drunk (e.g. Ebers 19 and21). The other main vehicles werehoney, milk, oil, wine and beer, oftenwith two of more of these usedtogether. However, all five could wellhave been considered active drugs intheir own right, particularly honey. Oilor fat (merhet) was a preciouscommodity used extensively forlightning, apart from its culinary andmedical uses. When used as a vehicle,the type of oil was seldom specified.Olive oil was unknown untilintroduced by the Greeks, and the mainsources were the moringa tree (baq)and the fruit of Balanites aegyptiaca(ished). Sefet is an oil, possiblyextracted from the fir tree (ash), withconsiderable medical use; it is one ofthe few of the seven sacred oils to havebeen identified. Castor oil is mentionedin several remedies as an activeingredient. The earliest recorded use oflinseed oil (from flax, Linumusitatissmum) is from the PtolemaicPeriod.
Wine (irep) was made from grapes,and it should have been possible toattain an alcohol concentration of 10-
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20 per cent, sufficient for theextraction of alkaloids. Ebers 287, aremedy to cause the heart (sic) toreceive bread, requires that wine andwheat groats "spend the night" beforebeing drunk. However, there are noobcious instances of the use of wine toextract alkaloids of known potencyfrom plants such as the water lily.Apart from its use for extractingalkaloids, wine should have been apleasant ingredient to offset otherdisagreeable components. Furthemore,mild intoxication would have eased theburden of many complaints.
THere are many instances of beer(henqet) being prescribed to "spend thenight" with other components (e.g.Ebers 5, 63, 209, 210) which mighthave resulted in the extraction ofalkaloids. Various qualities of beerwere often specified. These might be"beer which had perished" (henqet netaq, i.e. stale), "sweet beer" (henqetnedjmet) or "beer of special offering"(henqet net hau-khet), presumably ofhigh quality. Sometimes the dregs orlees (tahet) were specified, and thesemight contain yeast.
Dosage
Weights were very seldom used in thepreperation of remedies. Therefore, thebalance shown amongst theinstruments at Kom Ombo is highlyunlikely to have any connection withpharaonic medicine. Volume was usedalmost exclusively. The table belowlists the more common volumemeasurements, but considerableuncertainty exists. The heqat
originallya volume of approximatey4.5 litres, but was supplemented by thedouble and quaduple heqat, the latterfirst appearing in the RhindMathematical Papyrus (SecondIntermediate Period). Unfortunately, itis no always clear whether, during andafer the New Kingdom, heqat refers tothe single, double or
Table. Volume measurements
Egyptian NameMultiple or fraction of single HeqatApproximate metric equivelant
Quadruple heqat418 litres
Double heqat29 litres
Single heqat14.5 litres
Henu1/10450 millilitres
ro1/32014 millilitres
**The heqat was primarily a cornmeasure; henu also means "jar".
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quadrable heqat. The heqat was clearlytoo large to have relevance to medicineand does not appear in the papyri as ameasure. The henu, one-tenth of aheqat and approximately 450 ml(assuming the heqat to be single), is amore convenient measure for medicalpurposes, and appears not infrequentlyas the quanity of a raw material to beused for the preparation of a drug(Ebers 37), to specify the quantity of acomponent of a mixture (Ebers 323) oras the total dose of a mixture to betaken (Ebers 166).
Prescribing in henu measures leaveslittle doubt of the meaning:
Another (remedy for cough (seryt)):honey, 1 henu; ox-fat, 1 henu; water ofsa-r-em (unknown), 2 henu; parchedseed corn of emmer, 1 henu... (Ebers323)
The smallest volume measures wasthe ro, 1/320 of a heqat, or about 14ml, which is a convenient mouthful. Itmight be expected that perscriptionswould often be written in multiple ofro's, designed as numerals above the rosign, which is that of the mouth.However, this system is not used in theextant medical papyri. Neither is tehdja, which was rathe more than 20 ro,and about 320 ml.
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Much the commonest method of
formulating a compound prescriptionwas by specifying fractionalproportions for each component. Theancient Egyptians, in common withothers in the ancient world, had strangeconversations in their use of fractions.They could not conceive of a fractionin which the numerator was anythingother than unity, and the denominatorin the medical papyri is usually apower of two. Preferred fractions weretherefore 1/12, 1/4, 1/8,1/16, 1/32 and1/64. Exepctions to this rule were 1/3and 2/3, and very occasionally 3/4. Theusual method of writing fractions wasto place the denominator under themouth sign. Which unfortunately wasalso used for ro, as in the previousparagraph. This raises the difficultquestions of whether they really meantro, but the Grundriss and other haveadhered to the strict interpretations as afraction. Normally, 1/2 was written bythe heiroglyph for "side" (ges), and 1/4was sometimes indicated by a crosswith diagonal limbs. Manyprescriptions were written in thisformat:
You should then prepare for himstrong remedies for drinking: fresh(type of) bread, cooked in oil andhoney; wormwood/absinthe, 1/32;resin of the umbrella pine of Byblos(peret-sheny) , 1/16; ? valerian(shasha) 1/8; add it together, cooktogether as one thing (m khet wat). Tobe drunk on four days. (Ebers 190)
Note that there is no indication oftotal quantities, only their relative
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proportions. Although this wouldensure a uniform composition of themixture, whatever the referencevolume to which the fractions relate,there is no indication whatsoever of thetotal dose which the patient was toreceive. This is, of course, totallycontrary to modern practice, and it isdifficult to understand how such asystem could be used safely in the caseof potentially toxic drugs. It may bethat the reference volume wasstandardised, and so well known thatthere was no necessity to commit it towriting in the papyri.
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Fractions could also be expressed interms of the components of the Horuseye. The smallest of these is 1/64 and,as a fraction of a heqat, is 5 ro or 70ml. The symbol for 1/64 couldtherefore be used to represent 5 ro(Ebers 318), 1/32 was similarly used toindicate 10 ro and 1/16 for 20 ro (Ebers5, 6, 7, 219, etc.).
Routs of administration of drugs
There were five main routes ofadministration of drugs - oral, rectal,vaginal, external application andfumigation. The commonest was theoral route and typical instructions wereas follows:
To be eaten (wenem) by a man atfour dawns. (Ebers 199)
To be drunk (sweri) by a man.(Ebers 191)
Drugs might also be given as asuppository or enema (clyster) into therectum. Herodotus commented on thispractice in relation to their belief thatall diseases came from their food. Theinstructions may relate to liquid orsolid preparations thus:
Poured (wedeh) into the anus(pehwy). (Ebers 143)
Placed (redi) in the anus for fourdays. (Ebers 144)
Both wedeh and redi are very wellattested words, widely used outside themedical papyri. In other cases there is aspecific instruction to prepare the drugas a suppository: Made as asuppository and placed (redi) in theanus. (Eber 140)
The gynocological papyri contain anumber of remedies and contraceptivesto be placed in the vagina:
You should then prepare for it: newoil, 1 jar (henu), poured (iweh) into hervagina (kat). (Kahun 4)
Medicaments were applied directlyto the skin for many reasons and notsolely for local complaints such asinjuries, snake bites and ulcers.Application of raw meat and then oiland honey to wounds was commonpractice. Sometimes gynacologicalpatients were instructed to sit on the
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medication while naked (Ebers 797).Not infrequently there were specificinstructions to bandage the medicationin place:
Grind and cook with thedregs ofsweet beer. Bandage it on for four daysso that he will recover immediately.(Ebers 200)
Local application was usedextensively for diseases of the skin,hair, eyes, ears and anus. Examples arecited in the sections covering diseasesin these locations.
Fumigation was used for a rangeof problems, including snak bite andgynacological complaints. The wordfor fumigate (kap) is well attested and,outside the medical papyri, is used tomean burning incense. The instructionswere usually simple but sometimes weare left in no doubt as to the procedurewhich was to be undertaken:
Dry human excrement (shau)added to terebinth-resin (senetjer). Thewoman is fumigated (kap) with it,causing the fumes (hety) to enter insideher vagina (iuf). (Ebers 793)
The word (iuf) normally meansflesh but was often used to mean thevagina.
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Drugs in the Ancient EgyptianPharmacopoeia
The drugs in each of the medicationswere from animals, plants and evenminerals. In a few instances, inaddition to administering themedications, the swnw would have touse a magical spell for the treatment towork. It is not believed that thesespells were performed based on thebelief that the diseases were demonicin origin, but rather for their moralsupport value alone.
Drugs Derived from Animals
The ancient Egyptian pharmacopoeiacontained wide range of animalproducts. Sometimes there was a soundpharmacological basis for the benefitwhich was expected. In other cases thesubstance simply provided aconvenient vehicle for otherconstituents. In certain cases theremedy was based on characteristics ofthe d02+-onor animal, which weredeemed desirable.
Honey
Few medicaments had wider use inancient Egypt than honey. It was usedboth externally and internally inhundred of the remedies in the medicalpapyri. This was partly as a vehicle andpartly for its own intrinsic propertieswhen applied externally or takeninternally. It is largely composed ofsugars (mainly glucose and fructose)and was of particular value in societywhere the sugar beet and cane sugarwere unknown. Its sweetness wasclearly intended as linctuses to relieve
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cough in Ebers 323. honey haspowerful anti-bacterial and anti-fungalproperties which are mainly duo to theosmotic effect of high concentrationsof sugar.
Much interest has centered on its useon open wounds. The osmotic effectwould reduce swelling but, moreimportantly, bacteria don’t grow inhoney. Honey has been demonstratedto accelerate wound healing andsimilar benefits follow its use on burnsand ulcers. Internal use on childrenwith gastro-enteritis shortened theduration of diarrhea. It use on openwounds appears to have been fullyjustified, and zumla and lutatconcluded that the therapeutic potentialof honey is grossly under-utilized.However, the Egyptians’ use of honeyin dental care could hardly have beenjustified.
Milk
Milk also had extensive use, often as aconvenient vehicle, a role which isindicated by failure to specify theproportion in a mixture. Remediescontaining milk were most commonlytaken by mouth but also as an enema,to be poured into the vagina, or appliedto the eyes, or the ears, or the skin.
Excrement
It was prescribed from a range ofspeices, including cat, ass, birds, lizard,crocodile, fly and man. Happily, suchremedies were usually appliedexternally, but ingestion wasrecommended for excrement of idu-bird and fly. External applicationincluded application of excrement from
lizard, crocodile, pelican and humaninfant to the eyes. It is difficult todiscern any pharmacological basis forthis practice.
Blood
Blood of a wide range of spices wasrecommended, mainly as a componentof external applications. Ebers 425,mention a remedy to prevent aneyelash growing into the eye after ithas been pulled out, included blood ofox, ass, pig, dog and goat. Otherremedies included the blood of lizardand bat (at Ebers 424) and flies (ebres857) in all, the grundriss lists bloodfrom twenty-one species used as amedication.
Urine
Urine was used as a vehicle formedicines, although generally only foran enema or external application likeashyt disease.
Placenta
The Egyptian word for placenta means“mother of mankind”. Placenta of catwas one ingredient of a mixturerecommended to prevent hair turninggrey.
Bile
Cow was the preferred speices but goatbile was recommended for thetreatment of a human bite. Bile of theunidentified abedju-fish was also usedfor strengthening the eyesight and pigbile was one component of a mixtureprescribed for an infected wound of thebreast and ox bile for an abscess of thebreast. Bile was seldom takeninternally but that of the gu-bull was
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used for treatment of the unidentifiedpened-worm.
Animal fat
Animal fats had an extensive use in theprescriptions, partly because of theirsuitability to make greasy ointmentpartly in the hope of transferring somedesirable characteristic of the animal.
It is used especially in the remedy thatcausing hair to grow on a bald person.
Other species included antelope, fish,ass, goose, ostrich, ox, mouse andsheep.
Prepartions including animals fat couldbe taken internally or as an enema butwere most frequently used for externalapplication.
A mixture of equal parts of the fat of alion, hippopotamus, crocodile, cat,snake and ibex, was said to be a curefor baldness if rubbed in the scalp.
Meat
Fresh meat was widely prescribed forapplication to a wound on the first day.This recalls the folk remedy ofapplying a steak to a black eye. Meatcan provide blood clotting factors andpioneer neurosurgeons used freshpigeon breast meat to control oozing.
The prescription of meat to be taken bymouth may be an example of dietarytreatment. An absecure section of theEbers papyrus comprises remedies tocause the heart to receive bread. It islikely that bread refers to food ingeneral, and the distinction between
heart and stomach – literally ‘mouth ofthe heart’ is often uncertain.
Liver
The most useful of all the animalcontents might be liver, which contains90%of the body store of vitamin Bessential for the oreventation ofmegaloblastic anemia (pernicious orAddison Ian). The liver store is verylarge, being more than one thousandtimes the daily requirement. Raw liverby mouth and later injection of liverextract were the basis of therapy formegaloblastic (pernicious) anemiabefore the discovery of vitamin B.
However, there is nothing in themedical texts can be identified withmegaloblastic anemia for liver isrecommended.
The second major therapeuticimplication is deficiency of vitamin Acausing night blindness, which can betreated by ingestion of liver, a richsource of vitamin A. there is oneinstance of raw liver beingrecommended for taking by mouth, for‘a woman who can’t see’ (Kahun 1)and one of local application of cookedliver for a case of ‘sharu-blindness’,but in neither case is there any firmbasis for believing that the use of liverwas a logical attempt to treat nightblindness.
Other internal organs
Testicles of a fallow ass, ground andadded to wine , are recommended forthe unexplained nesyt eye disease. Theheart of the mesha-bird appears once asto kill the penes-worm. The brain of
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various species appears as an externalremedy.
Mouse
As it was mentioned “catch a mouse,kill it, put it in the oven and roast it tillit’s burnt to a cinder, take it out andpound it to a powder in a basin of milkand give it to a child to drink.”
A mouse roasted to a cinder andground into a basin of milk was said tobe a cure for whooping cough. Themouse was a prime ingredient in anumber of remedies, but the reasoningbehind this remains a mystery.
A mouse cooked in oil could be usedto prevent hair turning gray.
mother's milk…. [was occasionallygiven against viral diseases like thecommon cold
fresh meat…… laid on open woundsand sprains, and animal dung wasthought to be effective at times.
honey....carving in temples,onsarcophagi and obelisks prove thatbees and honey had a vital significancein the
daily life of ancient Egyptians
- The Ebers Papyrus refers to themedicinal value of honey. Almost allEgyptian medicines contained honey,wine and milk
- Due to it's antiseptic and antifungalproperties, honey was both usedinternally and externally, to soothe
irritated skin, and aid in the healing ofwounds and infections,
Doctors of ancient Egypt put thisproperty of honey to work, treatingopen wounds with honey to preventinfection. This treatment is describedin the Edwin Smith Papyrus
honey and milk….were used for therespiratory system as well as throatirriations .
Raw meat….. was applied to wounds.This is not dissimilar ….. tothe modern practice of applying steakto a black
Drugs Derived from Plant Matter
The ancient Egyptian swnw madeextensive use of herbs and plants. Inaddition to the flora found in the lushnative Egypt, they imported certainspecies from abroad. Unfortunately ofthe 160 plant products described in themedical Papyruses we have thus farbeen able to identify only 20%.Prescriptions specified particular partsof the plants to be used, includingseeds, roots, leaves, flower petals, andcrushed components suspended inwine. It thus appears that the swnwrecognized that the active componentsare often found concentrated inspecific parts of a plant.
The class of drugs in whichEgyptologists are most interestedremain the analgesics. There is someevidence that the ancient Egyptianswere able to use morphine obtainedfrom opiates. In particular, shepen(believed to be the opium poppy) was
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given to children to stop their crying.This practice has been continuedthrough the ages and used as recentlyas the mid-nineteenth century inEngland. The Egyptians used cannabisas a drug and for making hemp ropes.Cannabis (shemshemet) wasadministered by mouth, rectum,vagina, topically, and fumigation,however, there is no evidence that theEgyptians were aware of itspsychotropic effects. The mysticallotus flower (seshen), described inmany papyris and depicted in manydrawings is believed to be Nymphaeaspp.. The lotus flower was frequentlysoaked in beer or wine and the extractdrunk. This extract contains fourpowerful alcohol soluble alkaloidswith s Herbal Medicine
Herbs played a major part inEgyptian medicine. The plantmedicines mentioned in the Eberspapyrus for instance include opium,cannabis, myrrh, frankincense, fennel,cassia, senna, thyme, henna, juniper,aloe, linseed and castor oil. Cloves ofgarlic have been found in Egyptianburial sites, including the tomb ofTutankhamen and in the sacredunderground temple of the bulls atSaqqara. Many herbs were steeped inwine, which was then drunk as an oralmedicine.[65]
Egyptians thought garlic and onionsaided endurance, and consumed largequantities of them. Raw garlic wasroutinely given to asthmatics and tothose suffering with bronchial-pulmonary complaints..
Garlic was an important healing agentthen just as it still is to the modern
Egyptian and to most of the peoples inthe Mediterranean area: Fresh clovesare peeled, mashed and macerated in amixture of vinegar and water. This canbe used to gargle and rinse the mouth,or taken internally to treat sore throatsand toothache. Another way to takegarlic both for prevention as well astreatment is to macerate several clovesof mashed garlic in olive oil. Appliedas an external liniment or takeninternally it is beneficial for bronchialand lung complaints including colds. Afreshly peeled clove of raw garlicwrapped in muslin or cheesecloth andpinned to the undergarment is hoped toprotect against infectious diseases suchas colds and influenzaand also theworkers who had to build the greatpyramids were fed their dail share ofgarlic to give them vitality and strengthto perform well
Cumin, is an umbelliferous herbindigenous to Egypt. The seeds wereconsidered to be a stimulant andeffective against flatulence. They wereoften used together with coriander forflavouring.
Leaves from many plants, such aswillow, sycamore, acacia or the ym-tree, were used in poultices and the like(Tannic Acid derived from acaciaseeds commonly helped for cooling thevessels and heal burns. Castor oil, figsand dates, were used as laxatives.
Some of the medicines were madefrom plant materials imported fromabroad.
Mandrake…. introduced fromCanaan and grown locally since theNew Kingdom, was thought to be an
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aphrodisiac and, mixed with alcohol,induced unconsciousness.
Cedar oil,…. an antiseptic originatedin the Levant. since the MiddleKingdom, and - if identical with henumentioned in the Ebers Papyrus - wasused against hair loss..
A cosmetics jar at the Cairo Museumbears the legend: "Eye lotion to bedispersed, good for eyesight." AnEgyptian papyrus from 1500 BCEdiscusses recipes for treatingconjunctivitis and cornea, iris, andeyelid problems.
Malachite….. used as an eye-lineralso had therapeutic value.
Many of the plants grown by theEgyptians for healing purposes are stillfound in gardens today. Some of themore common varieties are dill, whichwas mixed with wine and raisins as apain killer. Wormwood….. wasingested to dispel worms and used forskin aliments.
Chicory…., used now in the AmericanSouth to flavor coffee, was added tovinegar and drunk as a headache cure,or to treat the liver.
Many vegetables and even fruit werewidely used in Ancient Egypt to wardoff ills. For the nursing mother
Cucumber…… was applied to thebreasts to increase lactation..Celery……… can be ground in oil andmade into a pack for swollen limbs.
Watermelon……. was once thoughtto be powerful in warding off dark
spirits and demons,
acacia....the gum derived from theacacia tree was used forgastrointestinal, and urinary tractsdiseases. It was
often mixed with boiling water to forma mucilage, and provided a soothingcoating to the digestive tract, especiallyin cases of gastritis and ulcers.
Corainder -This herb and its seedswere commonly used by the Egyptians,coriander seeds have been found inancient tombs, and is one of the firstherbs mentioned in ancient scripts. ItsEgyptian name is Kuzbarah derivedfrom the Greek "Koris"
- It has pain relieving properties and isuseful for headaches, muscle pain andstiffness, arthritis and rheumatism.
- Coriander essential oil was known toremove toxins and stimulatecirculation. Rubbing it on the bodyeased muscular aches, pains andstiffness, including arthritis andinflammatory conditions
- The seeds were used as a paste formouth ulceration and a poultice forother ulcers .
Fenugreek - Known today in Egypt as"Helba", the plant was used to treat thesexual disorders, and is one of theoldest medicinal herbs in ancient Egypt
- It was used to ease childbirth and toincrease milk flow. Mothers takingfenugreek usually notice an increase in
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milk flow within three days
- It was used by Egyptian women toease menstrual pain and problems. -Additionally, it was used to treat maleimpotence.
Hibiscus - In Egypt common hibiscusis used to treat coughs and respiratorydisorders by placing extracts from theplant in the patient's bath or in waterused for steam inhalations.
Onion - The Ancient Egyptiansworshipped it, Onions were eaten tohelp combat heart diseases, inhibitstrokes and lower cholesterol.
Caraway - the seeds of this herb wereconsidered useful in strengthening thefunctions of stomach, and relievingintestinal gases
Henna - Besides being used as a dye,Henna was used to treat the skindiseases, leprosy, smallpox, andaffections of the skin
It was used to create an instant scab toclose open wounds on large areas dueto it's antiseptic properties, and as acooling agent for burning of skins.
Castor Oil - Beans of this planthave been found in ancient Egyptiantombs dating back to 4000 BCAccording to the Ebers Papyrus
- Egyptian doctors used castor oil toprotect the eyes from irritation anddryness
honey with grease….formed part ofmany wounds treatments.
Aloe vera …..it came from easternAfrica .
It was used to treatcatarrh,worms,relieveheadaches,soothe chestpains,burns,ulcers and for skindiseases.
Frankincense…was used to treatthroat ,stop bleeding,as well as treatingasthma and used as a pain killer,it wasimported from punt.
Dill…was used to sooth flatulence,also for its laxative ana diureticproperties.
Camphor tree….was used to reducefevers,sooth gums and treat epilepsy.
Juniper tree….was used to treatdigestive ailments, sooth chestpains,sooth stomach cramps.
Mustard seeds….were used to inducevomiting and relieve chest pains.
Onions…could be used to induceperspiration prevents,colda,and as adiuretic.
Parsley…was used as a diuretic.
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Mint…..was used to smoothflatulence,aids digestion,stopvomiting,and as a breath fresher.
Sandal wood……was used to stopdiarrhea,and to treat gout.
Sesame……was used to sooth asthma.
Poppy seeds…..were used to relieveinsomnia,headaches,and as ananesthetic.
eye. The meat treatment was oftenfollowed by the use of honey and oil.Bacteria cannot grow in honey, so thiswas probably an effective treatment.
The ricinus communis plant,…….from which we make castor oil, waswell known in Ancient Egypt. It wassaid that a woman could make her hairgrow by grinding the beans, addingsome oil, and rubbing the resultingmixture on her head.
Cubeb pepper ……… urinary tractinfections, larynx and throat infections,gum ulcers and infections, soothesheadaches.
Bayberry………stops diarrhea,soothes ulcers, shrinks hemorrhoids,repels flies.
Saffron………… soothes rheumatism,reduces swelling.
Thyme…..was used also as a painreliever.
Poppy (papaver somniferum) - relievesinsomnia, relieves headaches,anesthetic, soothes respiratoryproblems, deadens pain.
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)-laxative.
Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) - stopsdiarrhea, relives headaches, soothesgums, toothaches and backaches.
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra - mildlaxative, expels phlegm, soothes liver,pancreas and chest and respiratoryproblems.
Cardamom( Eletarria cardamomum;Zingiberacae)- Used as a spice infoods,digestive, soothes flatulence.
Colchicum (Citrullus colocynthus) -also known as "Meadow Saffron",soothes rheumatism, reduces swelling.
Common Juniper tree (Juniperisphonecia; Juniperus drupacea)-digestive, soothes chest pains, soothesstomach cramps.
Cubeb pepper (Piper cubeba;Piperaceae)- urinary tract infections,larynx and throat infections, gumulcers and infections, soothesheadaches.
. Basil (ocimum basilicum)- excellentfor heart.
Balsam Apple (malus sylvestris)orApple of Jerusalem - laxative, skinallergies, soothes headaches, gums andteeth, for asthma, liver stimulant, weakdigestion.
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Bayberry(Myrica cerifera) - stopsdiarrhea, soothes ulcers, shrinkshemorrhoids, repels flies.
Belladonna - pain reliever;camphortree - reduces fevers, soothes gums,soothes epilepsy.
Drugs of Mineral Origin
A wide range of minerals wereemployed in the pharmacopoeia, and infact most of these have been identified.The rationale behind the incorporationof these products into drugs isunknown, and empirical observationshould have revealed that the bulk ofthese have no physiologic activity whatso ever. Drugs such as sea salt (hemat),and natron (hesmen) would havepossessed topical antibacterial activityon the basis that these hyper-toniccompounds have a powerful osmoticeffect and would draw water out of theinvading pathogen. However, many ofthe compounds such as granite andferric iron are insoluble and wouldhave had no activity.
A wide range of minerals wereemployed and, in this section of thepharmacopoeia, there are the leastdifficulties in identifying the drug.
Natron (hesmen)
Natron was deposited as a mixture ofevaporites in areas which hadpreviously been flooded, andsubsequently evaporated to dryness asa resul of climatic changes. Thematerial was freely available and usedextensively in mummification. Thecomposition of natron varies greatly
fro one location to another but themajor constituents are sodium chloride(NaCl), sodium sulphate (Na2So4),sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) andsodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). Its usein the solid state or as a paste wouldhave a powerful osmotic effect,drawing out fluid and reducingswelling. This would have a rolesimilar to that of Glauber's salts whichis pure sodium sulphate. Natron wasgenerally alkaline, depending on theproportion of sodium carbonate.
Its most extensive use was as anexternal application, often under abandage. Perhaps the clearest and mostlogical use is in Hearst 140 (= Ebers557):
Another remedy to draw (literally: tobring) pus (ryt): ipshenen (unknown),1; natron, 1; clay (or? gypsum) fromthe potter's kiln, 1; carob, 1; terebinthresin, 1; bring flour of date (nyt netbenri); make as one thing and bandagewith it.
Ignoring the other components, natronwould be appropriate for superficialsepsis.
Common salt
Salt (soduim chloride) was oftenspecified as a salt of lower egypt,where perhaps it was obtained byevaporation from sea water. Its maineffect at hogh cocentrations would beosomtic as for natron but, in a solutionof approxmately 1%, its osmoticpressure is close to that of body fluids.
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Warm salt solutions are midly emetic.It was often included in prescriptionswith many components and prehapswas added mainly for its taste. Salt hada very wide use, being taken by mouth,by enema, as an anal suppository, andas a local application to the eyes, earsand espcially to the skin, where it wasoften held in place by a bandage.
Malachite
The usual egyptian word for malachiteis (shesmet)but this doesn't appear inthis medical papyri. There are,however, many remedies containinggreen eye-paint (wadju), whichdependedon finely powdered malachitefor its green colour. It was usedextensively for eye diseases. Manjoproduced convincing evidence thatpowdered malachite would inhibit thegrowth of the important pathogenicbacteruim Staphylococcus aureus, nodoubt due to traces of copper passinginto solution. Estes produced furtherconciving evidence of the efficacy ofcurpric carbonate\ hydroxide(theprinciple compound in malachite) inpreventing growth of Staphylococcusaureus snd pseudomonas aeruginosa.Ebres 491 prescribes wadju as adressing for a burn which has becomefoul, and Edwin Smith 46 to draw outinflammtion (seref) from the moputhof a wound in the breast. It would,however, be hard to say whether theegyptian recongised the anti-bacterialeffect or were merelyinflunced by the decorative appearanceof malachite.
Lapis lazuli
Unlike all other minerals, lapis lazuliwasn't found in egypt and wasimported cheifly from Badakshan inAfghanistan. It was a preciouscommodity which would raise theexpectation of cure. Its medical usewas confned to the eyes. Beingvirtuallyinsoluable in body fluids, thereis no obvious basis for any therapeuticeffect.
Imru and Gypsum
Imru is an unidentified mineral whichis only known from eight cases in theEdwin Smith papyrus, seven of whichare bony fractures and dislocations. Itwas recommended that thepatientshould be bandagedwith imruand it is very tempting to believe thatimru was something akin to'gesso'(whiting and glue), used greatlyin the prepartion of mummycartonnage, which would have beenexcellent as a splint. Gypsum or plasterof Paris was employes for plastering inbuilding opertions from the earlydynastic period, but its mention in themedical papyri doesn't extend to thestabilisation of fractures or dislocations
Other insoluble minerals
Many of the minerals are virtuallyinsoluble in body fluids, including forexample, chalcedony, granite andhaematite. It seems inconceivable thatthese substances can have exerted anypharmacological effect. By virtue oftheir mechanical properties they wouldbe highly irritant when introduced intothe eye, as for example in Ebers 382which prescribes finely ground granitesprinkled over both eyes to eliminatewhite spots. It seems likely that such
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minerals were used in the hope ofassimilating desirable qualties such asstrength, durability and beauty.
Table. Remedies of mineral origin
Common Name Egyptian NameComposition
Alabaster shescalcium carbonate
Alum ibnupotassium/aluminium sulphate/hydroxide
Black eye-paint mesdemetlead sulphide
(Galena)
Brick djebetvarious
calamine (?) hetemzinc oxide (suggested only by Ebbell, 1937)
chalacedony (?) seheretsilicon dioxide
Chalcopyrite (?) gesfencopper/iron sulphide
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Clay im. debenaluminium silicate
besen
Copper hemetcopper - usually as hammering flakes
Dew iadetwater
Glass flux (?) tjehenet
Granite matcomplex mixture
Green eye-paint wadjucupric carbonate/hydroxide
(Malachite)
Gypsum besenhydrated calcium sulphate
Haematite dediiron oxide (Fe2O3)
(Blood Stone)
Lapis Lazuli khesbedjsodium/aluminium silicate and sodium sulphate
Naphtha (?) merhet khastdesert oil, ? bitumen
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Natron hesmensodium chloride, sulphate, carbonate, bicarbonate
Nile mud qahvarious
Ochre setyhydrated iron oxide and clay
Orpiment (?) siaarsenic sulphide
Red lead pereshred oxide of lead
Red mineral (?) tjeru? red ink
Red Natron hesmen djesersodium chloride, sulphate, carbonate, bicarbonate
Red ochre menshethydrated iron oxide and clay
Salt of Lower Egypt hematsodium chloride
Stone inrvarious
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Unknown Mineral kesenti-
Unknown Mineral imru-
Ebers 595 also prescribes natron for drawing out pus. It was sometimes presrcribedwith common salt.
Natron was seldom recommended to be taken by mouth. However, an exception isEbers 856d, which describes the two metu (probably blood vessels) to the thigh. Itcontinues thus:
If he is ill as to his thigh and his two legs tremble, then you shall say concerning it:It is this shetbau vessel of his thigh, which has received an illness. That which
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is done for it: vegetable mucilage, saam-plant, natron, cooked as one thing, to bedrunk by a man for four days.
No quantities are specified and it is difficult to imagine a condition of the legswhich might be relieved by taking natron internally.
Table. Herbal Remedies with considerable agreement for the meaning of theEgyptian word
Common Name Egyptian Name Linnean Name
acacia shendet acacia nilotica
barley it hordeum vulgare
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bean iwryt vigna sinensis
bryony khasyt bryonia dioica
castor oil degem ricinus communis
christ thorn nebes zizyphus spina-christi
cinnamon ti-shepses cinnamoniumzeylanicum
or laurus cinnamonium
coriander shaw coriandrum sativum
cyperus grass giw cyperus esculentus
date bener(et) phoenix dactylifera
emmer bedet triticum dicoccum
fig dab ficus carica
grape iareret vitis vinifera
hemp shemshem(et) cannabis sctiva
juniper wan juniperus phoenicea /drupacea
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leek iaqet alliwn kurrat / porrum
linseed/flax mehy linum usitatissimum
lotus seshen nymphaea lotus
moringa baq moringapterygosperma
onion hedju allium cepa
pea tehu or pisum sativum
peret-tehu
Pomegranate inhemen punica granatum
raisin wenshi vitis vinifera
seed corn of
?emmer mymy triticum dicoceum
sycomore fig nehet ficus sycomorus
(when notched) neqaut
tamarisk iser tamarix nilotica /articulata
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watermelon bededu-ka citrullus lanatus
willow tjeret salix safsaf
wormwood sam artemisia absinthium
(absinthe)
Plants of limited use for medicines in the pharaonic period
carob nedjem ceratonia siliqua
dill imset anethum graveolens
papyrus mehyt cyperus papyrus
persea shawabu mimusops laurifolis
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Wine as a medicine inancient Egypt
Wine has long been used as a base formedicine and for a number of verygood reasons, including: it dissolvesmedicinal compounds better than plainwater and keeps them suspended for alonger period of time, it preservesmedicinal compounds, and of coursethe alcohol provides some anestheticeffects. Just how long has wine beenused as a base for medicine, though?
No one knows for sure, but papyridating to 1850 BCE show that theancient Egyptians had recipes for winemixed with herbs for treating aliments,but those recipes are sophisticatedenough that they must have beenproducts of an older history ofdevelopment. Now, compellingevidence of wine mixed with herbs hasbeen found in wine jars dating to 3150BCE.
McGovern and his colleaguesanalyzed two ancient Egyptian winejars. One of the jars dates from circa
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3150 B.C. and was found in a tomb inAbydos in upper Egypt. The tombbelonged to one of the first pharaohs,Scorpion I. The other jar dates frombetween the fourth and sixth centuriesA.D. and was found in the Gebel Addasite in southern Egypt. ...
The Abydos jar contained winemixed with coriander, mint, sage andpine tree resin, and the Gebel Adda jarhad wine laced with pine resin androsemary, the researchers suggest.Although these herb and winecombinations don’t feature in any ofthe recipes found so far, the newresearch provides the earliest evidencethat herbs were dispensed in alcoholicbeverages, the scientists say.
But the chemical compounds foundin the residue could also be found inother plants. “It’s difficult to translatemolecules back to a specific food,”Wendrich contends. “It’s not possibleto make conclusions unless you foundvery specific markers for each herb.”
It's worth keeping in mind thatmedicinal uses for wine are animportant part of wine's culturalhistory. Unfortunately, the origins anddevelopment of this history has beenlargely lost to us in the mists of time.It's only been very recently, with thedevelopment of very sophisticatedtechnology, that even the barest
remnants of that history has become alittle bit accessible.
Conclusions
Our knowledge of the pharmacopoeiaof ancient Egypt is clearly inadequateto support many sweepinggeneralizations about the effectivenessof the drug therapy regimens. Makingactual conclusions on the efficacy ofthe pharmacological treatments of theswnw is difficult for a number ofreasons, including the incompletepharmacopoeia translations, difficultyin defining the conditions thattreatments were suggested for and lackof information about how often atherapy was used. Furthercompounding this is the lack of firsthand accounts of the clinicalexperiences and success of the swnw.Egyptian drug therapy can be regardedas having evolved from a systemrooted in magic, to one of empiricobservation. That is to say that drugsused in the specific therapies were firstchosen based on perceived magicalpotential, and those that werecontinued were chosen based onempirical observation. The swnwlacked the information regardinginternal disorders and their causes thatwe posses today. Rather, theirtherapies were based on amisconstrued physiologic theory andempirical observation. While the bulkof Egyptian remedies can now berecognized as incapable of providing acure, and in many circumstances evenalleviation of symptoms, owing to theirlack of active ingredients, it would beinappropriate to label all of these
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treatments as placebos. Of the 260prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus, 28percent contain an ingredient whichcan be perceived to have had activitytowards the condition being treated.Another third of these remediessupplied to any given disorder wouldproduce a purgative effect on thegastrointestinal system, so as to implyto the swnw that the whdw was beingdriven out. Tools used
Surgery in AncientEgypt
CircumcisionAt Saqqara there is the tomb of
Ankh-Mahor, known as The Tomb ofthe Physician. In one of the wallpictures two men are having theirextremities treated variously explainedas manicure, massage or surgery. In theaccompanying text the patient imploresthe physician: Do not let it be painful.The answer was ironical: I do (it) soyou will praise it, (O) king! perhaps
not in the best Egyptian bedsidemanner.
At any rate, people at leastoccasionally survived surgery. Bodiesof amputees from as early as the Oldand Middle Kingdoms have beenfound which display signs of healing.Prostheses which show signs of wear,have also been discovered. The reasonsfor these amputations are unknown andnone of the surviving medical textsmention the possibility of, let alonereasons for amputation as a therapeutictreatment.
Another picture shows what looks likethe performance of a circumcision ofadolescents (the only instance of a
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depiction of this procedure) with thehieroglyphs saying The ointment isused to make it acceptable, which hasbeen interpreted as meaning that alocal anaesthetic was being used,yough this reading is, as happens oftenin such inscriptions, doubtful. Poppies(Spn) are occasionally mentioned inEgyptian medical literature. Thephysicians must have had a pretty goodidea of their properties.
It is difficult to estimate howpervasive the practice of circumcisionwas. The remains of mummies are oflittle help and literary evidence isscarce. During the New Kingdom bothMerneptah and Ramses III had theirslain enemies emasculated and theirgenitals collected. The lack ofcircumcision among the Libyans andtheir allies is repeatedly mentioned:
.... Libyans slain whose uncircumcisedphalli were carried off: 6,359
as opposed to the.... [Ek]wesh who had no foreskins,slain, whose hands were carried off,(for) they had no [foreskins] ......and again enemies of unknown origin.... in heaps, whose uncircumcisedphalli were carried off to the placewhere the king was: 6,111 men ....James Henry Breasted Ancient Records
of Egypt Part Three, § 588The fact that they collecteduncircumcised genitals as trophies mayindicate that this was unusual in theireyes.
Boys destined for priesthood werecircumcised as part of the initial ritualcleansing, which also included theshaving of the whole body. Thepractice of circumcision became moreuniversal during the Late Period,perhaps as part of a rite of passage.... the Colchians, Egyptians, andEthiopians alone of all the races ofmen have practised circumcision fromthe first. The Phoenicians and theSyrians who dwell in Palestine confess
themselves that they have learnt it fromthe Egyptians, and the Syrians aboutthe river Thermodon and the riverParthenios, and the Macronians, whoare their neighbors, say that they havelearnt it lately from the Colchians.These are the only races of men whopractise circumcision, and theseevidently practise it in the samemanner as the Egyptians. Of theEgyptians themselves however and theEthiopians, I am not able to say whichlearnt from the other, for undoubtedlyit is a most ancient custom; but that theother nations learnt it by intercoursewith the Egyptians, this among othersis to me a strong proof, namely thatthose of the Phoenicians who haveintercourse with Hellas cease to followthe example of the Egyptians in thismatter, and do not circumcise theirchildren.
Female 'circumcision', a barbarity tothis day even more common incountries of equatorial East Africa thanit is in Egypt, may have been practisedoccasionally yough many think that theonly textual reference is really non-existent, the translation of thefollowing passage being wrong and nomention of women being made:... I was circumcised, together with onehundred and twenty men, and onehundred and twenty women...The Offering of Uhac. 2400 BCE
The knives used had stone blades.Flint or obsidian have edges sharperthan modern surgical steel. It is smallwonder that physicians would hesitateto replace sharp flint blades withcomparatively dull metal ones, madefirst of bronze and later of iron. Whenmetal instruments were finally used toany extent, the act of cauterizingaccompanied it. In some procedures,the blade was heated until it glowedred, and then used to make incisions. Itcut as well as sealed up the blood
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vessels, limiting bleeding.In the temple of Sobek there are
reliefs of medical instruments: bonesaws, suction cups, knives andscalpels, retractors, scales, lances,chisels and dental tools.
Trepanation, practiced in many earlycultures for a number of reasons, is notmentioned in any of the medicalpapyri, but seems to have beenperformed occasionally using malletand chisel. Just 14 skulls, some healedor partially healed, have been found.Limb amputations were alsoperformed.
labor Making splints
Wounds were bandaged after anapplication of fresh meat ,honey or fatafter the diagnosis the appropriatemedicine was selected from anapparently large number of availablepreparations, some of which were fastworking and others not.
Some prescribed for summer andothers for winter. if the patient was anadult, medicine was given in the form
of spills, but if the patient was still achild, it was mixed with mother's milk.
Some of the medicines used such asthe eye medicine were imported fromthe city of jab ail on the Phoeniciancoast. Other medicines were known ascure-alls, called repellents of death andconsidered the concoctions of re whohad invented them for use against hisown senility. Such medicine made ofhoney, wax, and fourteen kinds ofherbs, was applied in the form of aplaster to the painful area.
Medicine to be taking orallycame in the form of pills orsyrups and that to be appliedexternally was made in toointments or plasters.
The prescriptions indicatedwhether the medicine was tobe mixed, ground orpounded.
Bladesmade of iron and
bronze came relatively late toEgypt. When metal instrumentswere finally used to an extent,the act of cauterizing camewith it. In some procedures, theblade would be heated until itglowed red, and then used tomake incisions. It would cut aswell as seal up the wound tolimit bleeding.
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Index of Cases
1. A wound in his head penetratingto the bone of his skull2. A gaping wound in his head,penetrating to the bone3. A gaping wound in his headpenetrating to the bone (and)perforating his skull4. A gaping wound in his headpenetrating to the bone (and)splitting his skull5. A gaping wound in his head,smashing his skull6. A gaping wound in his headpenetrating the bone of his skull ,(and) rending open the brain of hisskull7. A gaping wound in his headpenetrating to the bone (and)perforating the sutures of his skull8. A smash in his skull under theskin of his head9. A wound in his forehead ,smashing the shell of his skull10. A wound above his eyebrow11. A break of the column of his nose12. A break in the chamber of hisnose13. A smash in the nostril14. A wound in his nostril15. A perforation in his cheek16. A split in his cheek17. A smash in his cheek18. A wound in his temple19. A perforation in his temple20. A perforation in his temple,penetrating to the bone, (and)perforating his temporal bone21. A split in his temple22. A smash in his temple23. A wound in his ear24. A fracture in his mandible25. A dislocation in his mandible26. A wound in his lip27. A gaping wound in his chin28. A wound in his throat29. A gaping wound in a vertebra ofhis neck30. A vertebra of his neck
31. A dislocation in a vertebra of hisneck32. A displacement in a vertebra ofhis neck33. A crushed vertebra of his neck34. A dislocation in his two collar-bones35. A break in his collar-bone36. A break in his upper arm37. A break in his upper arm, with awound on it38. A split in his upper arm39. Tumors with prominent head inhis breast40. A wound in his breast41. A diseased wound in his breast42. A sprain in the ribs of his breast43. A dislocation of the ribs of hisbreast44. A break in the ribs of his breast45. Bulging tumors on his breast46. An abscess with prominent headin his breast47. A gaping wound in his shoulder48. A sprain in a vertebra of hisspinal column
Case One: Instructionsconcerning a wound in hishead penetrating to thebone of his skull.
Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day (and) treatafterwards with grease, honey (and)lint every day until he recovers.
Flesh, alyough --------- over the boneof his skull, wiyout gaping of one (lip)from the other, being narrow, not wide.
Case Two: Instructionsconcerning a [gaping]
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wound [in his head],penetrating to the bone.
Treatment: [You] should bind [freshmeat upon it the first day; you shouldapply for him two strips of linen, andtreat afterward with grease, honey,(and) lin]t every day until he recovers..
Case Three: [Instructionsconcerning] a gaping[wo]und in his head,penetrating to the bone(and) perforating his[skull].
Treatment: Now [after you hasstitched it, you should lay] fresh [meat]upon his wound the first day. Youshould not bind it. Moor (him) [at hismooring stakes until the period of hisinjury passes by]. You should treat itafterward with grease, honey, and lintevery day, until he recovers...
Case Four: Instructionsconcerning a gaping woundin his head, penetrating tothe bone, (and) splitting hisskull.
Treatment: Now when you finds thatthe skull of that man is split, youshould not bind him, (but) moor (him)at his mooring stakes until the periodof his injury passes by. His treatment issitting. Make for him two supports ofbrick, until you knows he has reached adecisive point. You should applygrease to his head, (and) soften hisneck therewith and both his shoulders.You should do likewise for every manwhom you finds having a split skull...
Case Five: Instructionsconcerning a gaping woundin his head, smashing hisskull.
Treatment: You should not bind him(but) moor (him) at his mooring stakes,until the period of his injury passesby...
Case Six: Instructionsconcerning a gaping woundin his head, penetrating tothe bone, smashing hisskull, (and) rending openthe brain of his skull.
Treatment: Can't be treated
Case Seven: Instructionsconcerning a gaping woundin his head penetrating tothe bone (and) perforatingthe sutures of his skull.
First treatment: Now as soon as youfind that the cord of that man’smandible, his jaw, is contracted youshould have made for him somethinghot until he is comfortable, so that hismouth opens. You should bind it withgrease, honey, (and) lint, until youknow that he has reached a decisivepoint.Second treatment: You should havemade for him a wooden brace withlinen and put into his mouth. You
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should have made for him a draught of
w’h-fruit. His Case Eight:Instructions concerning asmash in his skull underthe skin of his head.
Can't be treated
Case Nine: Instructionsconcerning a wound in hisforehead, smashing theshell of his skull.
Treatment: You should prepare forhim the egg of an ostrich, trituratedwith grease (and) placed in the mouthof his wound. Now afterwards youshould prepare for him the egg of anostrich, triturated and made intopoultices for drying up that wound.You should apply to it a covering forphysician’s use; you should uncover itthe third day (and) find it knittingtogether the shell, the color being likethe egg of an ostrich.
That which is to be said as a charmover this recipe:
Repelled is the enemy that is in thewound!Cast out is the evil that is in the blood,the adversary of Horus, on every sideof the mouth of Isis.This temple does not fall down;there is no enemy of the vessel therein.I am under the protection of Isis;my rescue is the son of Osiris.
Now afterwards you should cool it forhim with a compress of figs, grease,and honey, cooked and cooled, andapplied to it.
Case Ten: Instructionsconcerning a wound abovehis eyebrow.
Treatment: Now after you haststitched it, you should bind fresh meatupon it the first day. If you find thatthe stitching of this wound is loose,you should draw (it) together for himwith two strips (of plaster), and youshould treat it with grease and honeyevery day until he recovers.
Case Eleven: Instructionsconcerning a break of thecolumn of his nose.
Treatment: You should cleanse (it)for him with two plugs of linen. Youshould place two (other) plugs of linensaturated with grease inside his twonostrils. You should put him at hismooring stakes until the swelling isreduced (lit. drawn out). You shouldapply stiff rolls of linen by which hisnose is held fast. You should treat himafterward with grease, honey, (and)lint, every day until he recovers. .
Case Twelve: Instructionsconcerning a break in thechamber of his nose.
Treatment: You should force it to fallin, so that it lies in its place, (and)clean out the interior of both hisnostrils with two swabs of linen untilevery worm of blood which coagulatesinside his two nostrils comes forth.Now afterwards you should take twoplugs of linen saturated with greaseand put them into his two nostrils. Youshould place two stiff rolls of linen,bound on. You should treat him
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afterwards with grease, honey, (and)lint every day until he recovers.
Case Thirteen: Instructionsconcerning a smash in thenostril.
Can't be treated
Case Fourteen:Instructions concerning awound in his nostril.
Treatment: You should make for himtwo swabs of linen, (and) you shouldclean out every worm of blood whichhas coagulated on the inside of hisnostril. You should bind (it) with freshmeat, the first day. when its stitchingloosens, you should take off of him thefresh meat. (and) you should bind itwith grease, honey (and) lint every dayuntil he recovers.
Case Fifteen: Instructionsconcerning a perforation inhis cheek.
Treatment: You should bind it withymrw and treat it afterward with grease(and) honey every day until herecovers.
Case Sixteen: Instructionsconcerning a split in hischeek.
Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day. His treatmentis sitting until its swelling is reduced(lit. drawn out). You should treat it
afterward with grease, honey, (and) lintevery day until he recovers.
Case Seventeen:Instructions concerning asmash in his cheek.
Treatment: You should bind withfresh meat the first day. His relief issitting until its swelling is reduced (lit.drawn out). You should treat itafterwards with grease, honey, (and)lint every day until he recovers.
Case Eighteen: Instructionsconcerning a wound in histemple.
Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day, (and) youshould treat afterward with grease,(and) honey every day until herecovers.
Case Nineteen: Instructionsconcerning a perforation inhis temple.
Treatment: You should put him at hismooring stakes until the period of hisinjury passes by, (and) you should treatwith grease, honey, (and) lint everyday until he recovers.
Case Twenty: Instructionsconcerning a wound in histemple, penetrating to thebone, (and) perforating histemporal bone.
Treatment: Now when you find thatman speechless, his [relief] shall be
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sitting; soften his head with grease,(and) pour [milk] into both his ears.
Case Twenty-One:Instructions concerning asplit in his temple.
Treatment: You should put him at hismooring stakes until you know he hasreached a decisive point.
Case Twenty-Two:Instructions concerning asmash in his temple.
Can't be treated
Case Twenty-Three:Instructions concerning awound in his ear.
Treatment: If you find, the stitchingof that wound loosen (and) stick in thetwo lips of his wound, you shouldmake for him stiff rolls of linen (and)pad the back of his ear therewith . Youshould treat it afterwards with grease,honey, (and) lint every day until herecovers.
Case Twenty-Four:Instructions concerning afracture in his mandible.
Can't be treated
Case Twenty-Five:Instructions concerning adislocation in his mandible.
Treatment: You should bind it withymrw, (and) honey every day until herecovers.
Case Twenty-Six:Instructions concerning awound in his lip
Treatment: Now after you haststitched it you should bind it with freshmeat the first day. You should treat itafterwards with grease (and) honeyevery day until he recovers.
Case Twenty-Seven:Instructions concerning agaping wound in his chin.
Treatment: You should apply for himtwo strips on that gash. You shouldbind it with fresh meat the first day,(and) you should treat it afterwardswith grease, honey (and) lint every dayuntil he recovers.
Case Twenty-Eight:Instructions concerning awound in his throat.
First treatment: You should bind itwith fresh meat the first day. Youshould treat it afterwards with grease,honey, (and) lint every day, until herecovers.
Second treatment: You should applydry lint in the mouth of his wound,(and) moor (him) at his mooring stakesuntil he recovers.
Case Twenty-Nine:Instructions concerning agaping wound in a vertebraof his neck.
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Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day. Now afterwardmoor (him) at his mooring stakes untilthe period of his injury passes by.
Case Thirty: Instructionsconcerning a sprain in avertebra of his neck.
Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day. Now afterwardyou should treat [with] ywrw (and)honey every day until he recovers.
Case Thirty-One:Instructions concerning adislocation in a vertebra of[his] neck.
Treatment: can't be treated
Case Thirty-Two:Instructions concerning adisplacement in a vertebraof his neck.
Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day. You shouldloose his bandages and apply grease tohis head as far as his neck, (and) youshould bind it with ymrw . You shouldtreat it afterwards with honey everyday, (and) his relief is sitting until herecovers.
.
Case Thirty-Three:Instructions concerning a
crushed vertebra in hisneck.
Treatment: can't be treated
Case Thirty-Four:Instructions concerning adislocation in his twocollar-bones.
Treatment: can't be treated
Case Thirty-Five:Instructions concerning abreak in his collar-bone.
Treatment: You should place himprostrate on back, with somethingfolded between his two shoulder-blades; you should spread out with histwo shoulders in order to stretch aparthis collar-bone until that break fallsinto its place. You should make forhim two splints of linen, (and) youshould apply one of them both on theinside of his upper arm. You shouldbind it with ymrw, (and) treat itafterward with honey every day, untilhe recovers.
Case Thirty-Six:Instructions concerning abreak in his upper arm.
Treatment: You should place himprostrate on his back, with somethingfolded between his two shoulder-
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blades; you should spread out hisshoulders, in order to stretch apart hisupper arm until that break falls into itsplace. You should make for him twosplints of linen, (and) you should applyone of them to the inside of his arm,(and) the other of them to theunderside of his arm. You should bindit with ymrw, (and) treat afterwardwith honey every day until herecovers.
Case Thirty-Seven:Instructions concerning abreak in his upper arm,with a wound on it.
Treatment: You should make him twosplints of linen; you should bind it withymrw; (and) you should treat itafterwards with grease, honey, (and)lint every day until you know that hehas reached a decisive point.
Case Thirty-Eight:Instructions concerning asplit in his upper arm.
Treatment: You should bind it withymrw; you should treat it afterwardswith honey, every day until herecovers.
Case Thirty-Nine:Instructions concerningtumors with prominenthead in his breast.
Treatment: You should burn him overhis breast (and) over those tumorswhich are on his breast. You should
treat him with wound treatment , Youshould not prevent its opening of itself,that there may be no mnh-w in hiswound (sore?). Every wound (sore?)that arises in his breast dries up as soonas it opens of itself.
.
Case Forty: Instructionsconcerning a wound in hisbreast.
Treatment: You should bind it withfresh meat the first day; you shouldtreat it afterward with grease, honey,(and) lint every day, until he recovers..
Case Forty-One:Instructions concerning adiseased wound in hisbreast.
Treatment: You should make for himcool applications for drawing out theinflammation from the mouth of thewound:
a. Leaves of willow, nbs’-tree ksnty.Apply to it.b. Leaves of ym’-tree, dung. hny-t’,ksnty, Apply to it.
You should make for him applicationsfor drying up the wound:
a. Powder of green pigment wsb-t,thn.t, grease. Triturate bind upon it.b. Northern salt, ibex grease. Triturate;bind upon it:
You should make for him poultices:Red spnn, garden tongue, d’r.t,sycamore leaves. Bind upon it. If thelike befalls in any member you should
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treat him according to theseinstructions.
Case Forty-Two:Instructions concerning asprain in the ribs of hisbreast.
Treatment: You should bind it withymrw; you should treat it afterwardswith honey every day until herecovers.
Case Forty-Three:Instructions concerning adislocation of the ribs of hisbreast.
Treatment: You should bind it withymrw; you should treat it afterwardswith honey every day, until herecovers.
.
Case Forty-Four:Instructions concerning abreak in the ribs of hisbreast.
Treatment: can't be treated
Case Forty-Five:Instructions concerningbulging tumors on hisbreast.
Treatment: There is no treatment. Ifyou find tumors in any member of aman, you should treat him according to
these directions.
.
Case Forty-Six:Instructions concerning anabscess with prominenthead in his breast.
Treatment
a. Sh,t-fruit, ntr.t, ksnty, Triturate, bindupon it.b. Fruit of ss, ksnty, mason’s mortar,water Triturate, bind upon it.
If there is resistance to these coolingapplications, you should avoid thoseremedies until all fluid which is in theabscess with a head exudes. Youshould treat him with wound-treatment, with applications fordrawing out the inflammation from themouth of the wound (sore?) in hisbreast:
Leaves of acacia, sycamore, juice ofym’-leaves, ox dung, hny-t’, Bindupon it.
You should make for him astringents,in his breast:
a. powder of green pigment, drt ofcedar, ointement fat, northern salt, ibexgrease, Bind upon it.
You should make for him poultices:Red spnn, sycamore. Triturate, apply toit.
Case Forty-Seven:Instructions concerning agaping wound in hisshoulder.
First treatment: You should bind it
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with fresh meat the first day.
Second treatment: If you find thatwound open and its stitching loose,you should draw together for him itsgash with two strips of linen over thatgash; you should treat it afterwardswith grease, honey, (and) lint everyday until he recovers. If you find awound, its flesh laid back, it sidesseparated, in any member of a man,you should treat it according to thesedirections.
Third treatment: You should not bindit; you should moor (him) at hismooring stakes,.
Fourth treatment: You should treathim afterward with grease, honey,(and) lint every day, until he recovers.
Case Forty-Eight:Instructions concerning asprain of a vertebra [in] hisspinal column.
Treatment: can't be treated
Mummification
The Process of Mummification
Tools used in surgery
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In order to go to theunderworld, you had to bemummified or embalmed.First, they would crack theskull and take out the brainsthrough the nose. Then theywould put in a liquid and let itdry. Then they would take outall of the organs, except theheart, and put them in specialjars. After that, they wouldreplace the real organs withfake ones that were put insidethe body where the old onesuse to be. They would washthe body in natron (natronwas a salty liquid) and theywould dry it with tree sapliquid, so it would be flexible. Thepriest or mummifiers would thenwash the body and oil or perfumethe body to make it smell good. Theywould wrap the pharaoh with 400yards of linen strips. The priestwould chant hymns and add charmsand trinkets for good luck. They alsowould mummify cats, dogs, or anybeloved pets. Animals were verysacred to the Egyptians and if youkilled one, the sentence was death.It takes 70 days to mummify a body
Embalming the body
First, his body is taken to the tentknown as 'ibu' or the 'place of
purification'. There the embalmerswash his body with good-smellingpalm wine and rinse it with waterfrom the Nile.
One of the embalmer's men makes acut in the left side of the body andremoves many of the internalorgans. It is important to removethese because they are the first partof the body to decompose.
The liver, lungs, stomach andintestines are washed andpacked in natron whichwill dry them out. Theheart is not taken out ofthe body because it is thecentre of intelligence andfeeling and the man willneed it in the afterlife.A long hook is used tosmash the brain and pullit out through the nose.ThenoseIn theprocess
of mummificationthe brain wasevacuated fromthe skull. The
This image cannot currently be displayed.
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embalmers used to remove the brainthrough the roof of the nose andevacuate it with fine instruments. Inlater dates, they used to remove avertebra from the back of the neckand evacuate the brain yogurt theforamen magnum and then replacethe vertebra back.Natron
A natural salt used to dry out deadbodies and internal organs in themummification process.
The body is now covered in the 15th
day and stuffed with natron which
will dry it out in 40 days. All of thefluids, and rags from the embalmingprocess will be saved and buriedalong with the body.
After forty days the body is washedagain with water from the Nile. Thenit is covered with oils to help the skinstay elastic.
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The dehydrated internal organs arewrapped in linen and returned to thebody. The body is stuffed with drymaterials such as sawdust, leavesand linen so that it looks lifelike.
Finally the body is covered againwith good-smelling oils. It is nowready to be wrapped in linen.
In the past, when the internal organswere removed from a body theywere placed in hollow canopic jars.
Canopic Jars
It was very important to ancientEgyptian religious beliefs that thehuman body was preserved.
A method of artificial preservation,called mummification was developedby the ancient Egyptians. During theprocess of mummification, all of themajor organs were removed andplaced in canopic jars.
What are canopic jars?
Jars used by ancient Egyptians tohold mummified remains. During
the mummification process theorgans of the human body wereremoved and preserved separately incanopic jars.
What did the Egyptians put insidethe jars?
The person's liver, intestines (guts),lungs and stomach were placed incanopic jas. Each organ was placedin a special jar with a toprepresenting an animal or humanhead.
Why did the Egyptians not removethe heart?
The heart was left inside the bodybecause the Egyptians believed thatin the afterlife it would be weighedto see whether the person had led agood life
The Canopic Jars were decoratedwith the heads of the four sons ofHorus.
Over many years the embalmingpractices changed and embalmersbegan returning internal organs tobodies after the organs had beendried in natron. However, solidwood or stone canopic jars were stillburied with the mummy tosymbolically protect the internalorgans
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Imsety the human-headed godlooks after the liver.
Hapy the baboon-headed god looks afterthe lungs
Duamutef the jackal-headed godlooks after the stomach
Qebe.
kebehsenuef the falcon-headedgod looks after the intestines
The four canopic jars were put intoa special chest which went into thetomb with the mummy.
The body has been cleaned, driedand rubbed with good-smelling oils.Now it is ready to be wrapped inlinen.
Wrapping the mummy
First the head and neck are wrappedwith strips of fine linen. Then thefingers and the toes are individuallywrapped.
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The arms and legs are wrappedseparately. Between the layers ofwrapping, the embalmers placeamulets to protect the body in itsjourney through the underworld
.
This is the 'Isis knot' amulet whichwill protect the body. This is the'Plummet' amulet which will keepthe person balanced in the next life.
A priest reads spells out loud whilethe mummy is being wrapped. Thesespells will help ward off evil spiritsand help the deceased make thejourney to the afterlife.
A priest reads spells out loud whilethe mummy is being wrapped. Thesespells will help ward off evil spiritsand help the deceased make thejourney to the afterlife.
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The arms and legs are tied together.A papyrus scroll with spells from theBook of the Dead is placed betweenthe wrapped hands.
More linen strips are wrappedaround the body. At every layer, the
bandages are painted with liquid
resin that helps to glue the bandagestogether.
A cloth is wrapped around the bodyand a picture of the god Osiris ispainted on its surface.
Finally, a large cloth is wrappedaround the entire mummy. It isattached with strips of linen that run
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from the top to the bottom of themummy, and around its middle.
A board of painted wood is placedon top of the mummy before themummy is lowered into its coffin.The first coffin is then put inside asecond coffin.
The funeral is held for the deceasedand his family mourns his death.
A ritual called the 'Opening of theMouth' is performed, allowing thedeceased to eat and drink again.
Finally, the body and its coffins areplaced inside a large stonesarcophagus in the tomb. Furniture,clothing, valuable objects, food anddrink are arranged in the tomb forthe deceased.
Now his body is ready for its journeythrough the underworld. There his
heart will be judged by hisgood deeds on earth. If hisheart is found to be purehe will be sent to live forall eternity in the beautiful'Field of Reeds'.
Materials UsedDuring theMummificationProcess
Most of thesematerials werementioned by theancient authorsHerodotus, Diodorus,or Pliny as being usedin the mummificationprocess. For each,there is a comment onmodern scientificevidence to support orrefute these claims.Items not mentionedby the ancient authors
but found in relation to mummiesstudied in modern times are listed aswell.Alum: There is no evidence of itsdeliberate use.
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Beeswax: This substance was oftenused to cover the ears, eyes, nose,mouth and embalming incision. It issometimes found on other parts of thebody. Beeswax figures of the four sonsof Horus accompanied the canopicpackages of Dynasty 21 mummies.Bitumen: The only human mummieson which bitumen was used were fromthe Graeco-Roman period in Egypt,and the material was not universallyused even then. It may have been usedon some animal mummies.Cassia and Cinnamon: Thesesubstances are similar; both are fromvarieties of laurel that grow in India,Ceylon, and China. In ancient timescassia and cinnamon consisted of thebark plus flower-tops, twigs, and woodof these plants. Assuming that cassiaand cinnamon were known during thetimes of the pharaohs, they wouldnaturally have been used as flavoringand perfuming materials and alsopossibly as incense. Herodotusmentions cassia and Diodorusmentions cinnamon (possibly the samematerial being meant in both cases) ashaving been used in mummification.Two scholarly references have beenmade to cassia or cinnamon in relationto mummies. Neither is consideredsatisfactory or final.Cedar Oil, Cedri Succus, Cedrium:The cedar oil spoken of by Herodotusand Diodorus is probably actuallymade from the juniper plant. Oneauthor says it was injected and theother that it was used for anointing.For each function, differing juniperproducts would be necessary: theinjection fluid was probably oil ofturpentine containing wood tar; theanointing fluid was probably ordinaryoil perfumed by volatile oil of juniper.Modern-day cedar oil is made througha distillation process unknown until alate date. The cedri succus mentionedby Pliny was the natural resin of some
coniferous tree, probably never cedar,but often the juniper. There is ampleevidence that this was used forembalming by the ancient Egyptians.Cedrium, as defined by Pliny, waspyroligneous acid containing mixed oilof turpentine and wood tar, for the useof which no Egyptian evidence hasbeen found. The term cedrium,however, might not unreasonably havebeen used to mean wood tar alone,which was sometimes employed by theEgyptians for embalming.Henna: The flowers were probablyused in ancient Egypt for perfumingointments and the leaves were used asa cosmetic to color the palms of thehands, the soles of the feet, and thehair. It was yought that it was used topaint these parts of mummies as wellas the finger and toenails, but thisdiscoloration may actually have beenfrom the embalming process.Honey: Two jars in Tutankhamun'stomb were labeled as containinghoney, but none was found in the jars.Juniper berries: These berries arefound both placed on the body andplaced in the tombs. They seem to bedirectly connected with the cedar woodused for coffins and shrines and thecedar oil used on the bodies. (See thecedar oil entry above.) Juniper does notgrow in Egypt, alyough it is found inother places in the Mediterranean. Itmay have grown in Egypt during anearlier period, but importation is morelikely.Lichen: In some Dynasty 21-23mummies, the abdomen was packedwith dried lichen.Natron: Natron, a naturally-occurring salt has been found in casesand jars in tombs, in packages intombs, in pits with refuse embalmingmaterials, encrusted in woodenembalming tables, and on certainmummies. It was regarded as a greatpurifying agent, probably because it
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cleansed by chemically destroying fatand grease. Natron was used in allpurification ceremonies and also wasmixed with incense for purification.Ointments: Mummification mayhave included anointing the body withfragrant gum-resins (frankincense andmyrrh) and various oils and fats (cedaroil, ox fat and ointments) as a religiousceremony between the end ofembalming and the beginning ofwrapping. This process is mentioned inseveral late Egyptian papyri. Afterwrapping, there was apparently anotherceremony that consisted of pouring aliquid or semi-liquid resinous materialover the mummy and sometimes alsoover the coffin and over the visceraafter they had been put into the canopicbox.Onions: These have been found inthe bandages and coffins from Dynasty22, and even as early as Dynasty 13.Onion skins were sometimes placedover the eyes of the dead. Onions alsohave been placed in the pelvis, in thethorax, and in the external ears.Paint: Black, blue, brown, grey,green, orange, pink, red, white, andyellow were the colors used in ancientEgyptian painting. The paints could beapplied to stone, cartonnage, wood, orpapyrus rolls. The type of paint theyused is called tempera. Tempera paintsare made by mixing the source of thecolor, called the pigment, with waterand an adhesive (a sticky substancethat helps the paint stick to the surfaceto which it is being applied). Thepigments used in Egyptian paints camefrom natural materials such aspowdered minerals (copper, forexample), chalk, and soot. For truetempera paints egg yolks are used asthe adhesive, yough some scientistsbelieve that egg whites and glue werealso used by the ancient Egyptians.Glue was created by boiling animalbones, skins, cartilage, and tendonsuntil the gelatin was released. [Note:
gelatin is what makes Jell-O harden.]The gelatin glue was then put in moldsand allowed to harden until ready foruse.Palm Wine: Both Herodotus andDiodorus state it was used for cleaningthe body cavities and viscera duringthe embalming process. It is not asubstance that remains on the body fora long period of time, so modernscientists have no current physicalevidence of its use.Resin: It was put in graves evenbefore mummification, probably forincense. In the tombs of mummies, itwas also found in conjunction withnatron. In Tutankhamen's tomb,personal ornaments and other objectswere made of resin. Resin was alsoused as a varnish and as a cementingmaterial.True Resins: True resins wereobtained from the easternMediterranean. The trees that mayhave been used were (Lebanon) cedar(yough it does not produce resins ingreat amounts), (Cilician) fir, and(Aleppo) pine.Gum resins: The gum-resins areprobably myrrh.Sawdust: It has been found inmummy body cavities, canopic jars,other tomb packages, and with refuseembalming material.Spices: Herodotus and Diodorusmention spices in general, but they donot list specific ones other cassia andcinnamon.Wood Pitch and Wood Tar:Wood pitch would have been used inlate mummies. Sometimes it is foundinside the skull. Wood tar has beenfound on an ibis mummy and afunerary vase. These were probablyimported, because they are fragrant andthe wood pitch and tar produced inEgypt would not have been fromfragrant, coniferous trees.
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Materials used inmummification:
1. linen2. sawdust3. lichen4. beeswax5. resin6. natron7. onion8. Nile mud9. linen pads10.frankincense
Mummification tools:
Brain hooks(replicas based on examples from theRijksmuseum, Leiden)Oil jar(Royal Ontario Museum 948.1.17)Funnel(replica)Embalmer's knife(Smithsonian Institution 221.389)
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Chapter3
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Religionin
Medicine1-Medical gods.
2- Medical Myths.
3-Medical pilgrimage.
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Relation betweenReligion andMedicine
The study of science and medicinewere closely linked to religion as seen inmany of the ancient rituals. The "pouring" and"anointing" we see in so many Egyptianworks is the application of electromagneticforces and not the application of actual fluids.Much of this was linked with 'magic' of somesort - as many unexplained things did occur.These were often considered miracles.
This image implies that something pouredinto the planet could cause spontaneousgrowth. The "pouring of water or an offering"and the outlandish angles at which it is beingdone tends to make it one of countless scenesreinforcing the idea that such scenes areinstead showing the migration or transmissionof electromagnetic forces. Every sacredsymbol - linked to the gods - had a scientificas well as an esoteric purpose.- Ancient Egyptian believed that maligndeities and diseases-demon bring manydiseases, there were many deities in ancientEgypt, and some were ambivalent towarddiseases, being involved in both causation andcure. However, other was mostly malevolent,believed to bring misfortune and illness.
1. THE HEALING DEITIES (gods)
- Few of the many gods of ancient Egypt wereprominent as healers. Doubtless a largenumber of deities practiced the curative art as apart of their general protective beneficence, ofwhich little or nothing is recorded; but much ofthe information which has come down to us isonly vague and suggestive. It is impossible tomake a list of the healing divinities which may
be regarded as even approximately complete;and the deities who are here discussed, someof them the chief gods of the pantheon andwith other, perhaps more important, functions,are set forth on the hypothesis that thepractices in their cults represent the religioushealing customs of ancient Egypt.
'AnuqetApisBes, or Besa.tauret or UeretHat-horHours
Isis or esetKhonsu or KhonsNeithNekhpetNephthys, or Nebt-hotPtah
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SekhmetSerapisThothBastetUzoit or ButoI-M-HottpAmenhatep Son of HapuMinor deities of Child-birthand Nursing :
HeqetRenenutet or Ran
'ANUQET ( )
'ANUQET,a goddess ofthe South, of the region ofthe cataracts, andapparently of Nubianorigin, she wasworshipped since at leastold kingdom times asdaughter of Re, but in theMiddle kingdom times shewas incorporated into thetriad Elephantine (Abu),Khnumu and Satet beingthe other members. Shewas a deity of fertility, and
like Heqet (the later consort of Kinumu) was agoddess of child-birth; while at Dakkeh (Per-Selket), the Greek Pselchis, she wasrepresented as the nurse of a king and was a" giver of life, and of all health, and of all joyof the heart.' Representation ofthe goddess depict her as a women wearingheaddress which consists of a low crownsurmounted with arrow of bound plumes,sometimes with arrow of bound plumes,sometimes with streamers at the rear oruraeus at the front. Her sacred animal was
the gazelle, and she is sometime depictedwith this animal or by means of it.She was one of the goddesses of an islandnear the First Cataract, on which was hertemple, the center of her worship, whenceshe was called 'Anuqet, the 'lady of Satet'(i.e., 'the Island of Seheil'). She had the sameattributes as her sister-goddess, Satet, whowas worshipped with her; and she wore afeather crown of un-usual form, arranged in acircle, suggestive of her foreign origin.'Anuqet was equated with Nephthys (Nebt-hot), and the Greeks identified her withHestia, she was worshipped throughout mostof lower Nubia and appears in themonuments such as the temple of Beit el–Wali along with other deities of the region.
She had also shrine at philae, where se wasidentified with Nephthys, DR Brugsch consideredher a personification of the waters of the Nile,and thought that her name signified ‘tosurround,’ ‘to embrace,’ and that it had referenceto the embracing and nourishing of fields by theriver.
Apis( )
APIS (pronouncedHap), the great godof Memphis and oneof the deities ofEgypt from earliesttimes, wasworshipped in the
form of a bull as personification of strengthand virility and might in battle , this being theincarnation of Osiris, the "beautiful image ofthe soul of Osiris" the son of Ptah" and later"the living replica of Ptah." The animalrepresenting the god was carefully chosen,being recognized by characteristic black and
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white spots, a triangle or square on theforehead, an eagle on the back or a crescenton the flank, and double hair on the tail.When he had been found, he was installed inhis temple, the Apiaeum, as "the holy god, theliving Apis" and when he died, hismummified body was buried with elaborateceremonies in the Serapeum or in a rock tombnear the pyramid of Sakkara. Osiris wasblended with the hawk Sokari, a deity of thedead related to Apis, and later with Ptah asOsiris-Apis (Osor-Hap), who became Serapisin the Greek period. The bull Apis wasconsulted for divination Pliny and AmmianusMarcellinus relate that the omen was good orbad according as Apis accepted or refused thefood offered by worshippers. Apis was ahealing divinity, one to whom the origin ofmedicine was ascribed Pausanias says that themanner of consulting the god was the same inEgypt as in Greece; the lamps were filled withoil, money was placed on the altar, and, withhis mouth to the bull's ear.- When Egypt fell under the rule of thePtolemies, a new god was created by PtolemyI in an effort to unify Greeks and Egyptiansby establishing a deity that would be familiarto both cultures. The new god was namedSerapis, which combined components of theGreek gods Zeus, Asklepios, and Dionysys aswell as the Egyptian deity Osiris and thesacred Apis bull cult. Although the god had aGreek appearance, it also had some of thefeatures of an Apis bull as well as an Egyptianname. Serapis was declared a god of fertilityand the underworld, but even thoughEgyptians tolerated this new deity, they nevertruly accepted it. On the other hand, becauseGreek leadership supported the new Serapiscult, many Greeks did accept and follow it,but the artificially created cult never achievedits goal of religious unity between Greeks andEgyptians.Apis is usually representing as a walking bullwich in post New Kingdom times, wasdepicted with a sun disk between his horns–often with uraeus rising from its base.Although Apis was usually depicted as a bull,
he was also represented with a human bodyand the head of a bull, wearing a globe,symbolizing the moon, between the horns.
the 5th dynasty Palermo stone indicates thatapis was worshipped as early as the reign ofden in the 1st dynasty. The god is known tohave been especially venerated at the site ofMemphis throughout most of Egyptianhistory, and according to the 3rd centurywriter Aelian, the god’s cult was establishedin that location by Menes and continued untilRoman times which clearly reflect s atradition of great antiquity for cult Apis.According to the pyramid texts and the Bookof the Dead, the Divine bull was alsoworshipped at sais and athribis in the Delta.
The Apis bull was regarded as the Ba ofPtah while it was living. The bull's mainsanctuary was near the temple of Ptah inMennefer, near the bull's embalming housewhere he became linked to Osiris after death.Herodotus wrote that the Apis bull wasconceived from a bolt of lightning, it wasblack with a while diamond on his forehead,the image of a vulture on his back, doublehairs on his tail and a scarab mark under histongue. The lightning was thought by theEgyptians to be Ptah in the form of a celestialfire, who mated with a heifer. With a creationgod as his father, the bull was believed to be afertility symbol. The heifer that produced thebull was venerated as a form of the goddessIsis. There was only one Apis bull at a time,and the cult of the Apis bull started at thebeginning of Egyptian history. While alive,the bull was known as the 'Spokesman' ofPtah and his 'Glorious Soul'
Accordng to the classical writers Herodotusand Plutarch, when the Apis bull reached its25 year it was killed with great ceremony. Itwas then embalmed and buried in the greatgranite sarcophagus in the vast subterraneangalleries of serapeum at saqqara. The funeralceremonies ware extensive and it was saidthat in the late period, at the height of itsworship, Egypt mourned for the deceasedApis as for the death of the pharaoh himself.
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BES, or BESA( )
The name Bes(perhaps from theword besa, ‘toprotect’) Bes, thoughoriginally a foreigndeity, either fromArabia or, moreprobably, fromCentral Africa, andderiving his mythsfrom Nubia, hadbeen adopted into thepantheon from earlydynastic times, the
first mention of him being in the PyramidTexts . recent studies tend to the view that hewas a purely human god, of negro or negroidcharacter, and that he was in origin a personof magic power, personified as a divinity andintroduced into the pantheon to executespecial dances designed for protection and toremove bad influences, evil genii, andmonsters of all sorts. Thus he appears as adeity of pleasure, mirth, laughter, music, anddancing; amusing, while protecting, childrenand their nurses. He strangled or devouredserpents, and caught dangerous animals, whilehis image was placed above the doors ofsleeping-rooms to keep away noxious beastsand evil spirits. The most ancient images ofthe divinity, which date from the MiddleEmpire, often represent him as holding aserpent in each hand, in the role of protectinginfants. He became a companion of tauret(Ueret) as a protector of child-birth andchildren and is frequently portrayed with herin the birthchamber of princesses, as in apainting, dating from about 1500 B.C., foundat Deir-el-Bahri. During the Sa'ite epoch, theimages of the deity multiplied and theybecame more varied, receiving a number ofaccessories, many of which were symbolic ofother divinities and which were assumed toaugment his mysterious power. At Thebes hewas represented as wearing emblems of war,but although this has been construed asindicating that he was a god of slaughter. it isprobable that these arms were for protectio orfor attack on ani-mals rather than foraggression. Armed with sword and shield, and
wearing a panther's skin, he performed danceswhich were like the warrior dances ofequatorial Africa.
Bes represented with full face as an uglydwarf with goggle eyes, flat nose, thick lips,protruding tongue, beard, shaggy brows,short, bent legs, and the grotesque figure of amountebank, Bes, like other dwarfs of Egypt,has been regarded by writers on medicaliconography as an example of achondroplasia.The Mettemich stele gives proof that the headof Bes was a mask.- By the end of the second millennium B.C,Bes were sometimes identified with the divinesibling Shu and tefnu, Bes became a giantdwarf whose body reached from underworldto the heaven. He could also be regarded asspecial embryonic form of the creatotr of thesun god.
Because Bes was believed to provideprotection from snakes, he is frequentlydepicted holding or biting serpents, and in thisform he assimilated, or was himself an avatarof, the demon Aha who strangled serpents inhis bare hands. Representations of Bes alsocommonly carry musical instruments, knives ,or the hieroglyphic sa sign signifyingprotection, as these attributes all reinforcedthe god’s protective nature. Unlike otherrepresentation of the god, those showing himdancing musical instruments or with snakesfrequently show him in profile view as wasnecessary for indication movement.- From the 3rd Intermediate period on, imagesof just the head or mask of Bes occur both asindependent amulets and as parts of othercompositions–the power of the mask alonebeing clearly considered to be sufficient forprotective purposes conversely, in his latercampsite form Bes is depicted as the head andsometimes body of four armed, winged andmany headed god with the tail of falcon andattributes of many of the deities with whomhe was combined. In the Greco-Romanperiod images of the god sometimes carry asword and circular shield to heighten hisprotective qualities or perhaps because he wasadopted as a military deity.
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Tauret or Ueret( )
tauret, a strange goddessof foreign importation,tauret along with hercounterparts is attestedsince old kingdom times.She is the most commonlyencountered form of theEgyptian hippopotamus.She was a creation of amagic order with aterrifying aspect to frightenaway hostile andmalevolent spirits ; and shelike Bes, had the duty ofprotecting children fromthe moment of birth
through their early, defenseless years.Monuments show that there were a dozenUpets, each presiding over a month. It isbelieved that at one time she was widelyworshipped, since the month Epiphi wasnamed for her, whence her name Ueret, whichappears in Greek as Thoueris ('the Great One'); and she is assimilated with many divinities.She was a benevolent deity, the * mistress oftalismans,' helpful in parturition, and aprotectress from illness ; and she appears eachmorning at the birth of the sun, as also in theevening at his death, while in a Pyramid Textshe is represented as a divine nurse. Bes, whobecame her companion, was sometimesregarded as her husband; and in a picture fromthe temple of Deir el-Bahri she is shownstanding with him beside the couch at thesupposed birth of the daughter to the queen ofThutmoseI.In later time times Tauret was known as Rertor Reret, the female hippopotamus, but shewas also identified with Isis, Hathor, Bast,
and other goddesses, she was supposed to bethe guardian of mountain of the west, throughwhich lay the road to Hades. It would appearthat she was certainly of totemic origin. Herpopularity seems to have been greatest duringthe New kingdom, and increased greatlyduring the latter period.probably She is portrayed as a composite
being, standing upright, sometimes crownedwith plumes or wearing the disk between twohorns, and as having elements which belongto the crocodile, the lion, and to man, as muchas to the hippopotamus, with a strong, pointedhead, a straight mouth and a double row ofsmall, sharp teeth, human breasts, theenormous body of a hippopotamus (perhapspregnant), and the paws of a lion. The mainattributes of goddess are the sa symbol ofprotection , the ankh symbol of life, and thetorch, the flame of which was intended bothdispel darkness and expel inimical forces.Usually the sa symbol is the largest of theseattributes and is placed on the ground beforethe goddess who rests one or both paws uponit.Although she appears in some late temple
scenes a protective deity and there is a templededicated to the related goddess Ipet (opet) atKarnak, Taweret was one of the Egyptiandeities who regularly had no form cult.Nevertheless, judging by the number of imageof the goddess that has survived, Taweretappears to have been one of the most popularof Egyptian household deities. She is widelyrepresented on amulets from Old Kingdomtimes onward. She was represented on beds,head-rests and other small items of furnitureas well as on cosmetic items.
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HAT-HOR( )
HAT-HOr ('House ofHorus, ' i.e., where the sunlives in the sky), one of themost ancient divinities ofthe Egyptian pantheon, wasfirst a goddess of theEastern Sky and then of thewhole heaven, finally beingnumbered among thecosmic deities. She was the' Mistress of Heaven/ thecounterpart of re, and morefrequently the consort ofHorus the Elder. As the'Mistress of Heaven' she satbeside the Persea tree, thecelestial tree sacred to her;and as a goddess of the
Underworld she received the dead, bestowednew life upon them, and from the fruit of thetree gave them drink and heavenly food. Shewas the deity of love, the patroness ofwomen, joy, and music, and was not onlyequated with 'Astart and Aphrodite, but wasidentified with all other female divinities,especially with Nekhbet, Uzoit, bastet, andNeith, who were sometimes referred to asgoddesses of child-birth. Thus she was aprotectress of the parturient and of mothers,and represented all that was best in women asdaughter, wife, and mother; while she waseven multiplied
into seven Hat-hors who foretold the future ofevery child at birth.Hat-hor was accorded the most extravagant
titles, such as mother of the world' and creatorof the heavens,' of the earth, and of everythingin them. she was worshipped throughoutEgypt under many titles or names of otherdivinities, as Isis at Panopolis, and Neith atSais, although her home and the center of herworship were at Dendera in Upper Egypt.Hathor was most often represented in
anthropomorphic form as a woman wearingalong wig bound by a filet, or with a vulturecap with low modius, surmounted by a sundisk between outward curving cow horns. Inthis form, in late representation, she is oftenindistinguishable from isis, who took overmany of her attributes and can only beidentified by inscription. In her form asmistress of the west Hathor wears a falconperched over a pole which served ashieroglyphic sign for west ’.often she isdepicted in turquoise or red sheath dress or ina chapels and representations in many othertemples through Egypt, Mut maintained alevel of independence, and the goddess’smain cult center was her own ‘Ishreu’precinct to the south of karnak temple.- Briefly, Hathor is a personification offemale principle-primitive, fruitful, attractive-such as is known to most barbaricpeoples
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HORUS( )
HORUS was a generic termfor very many deities of theEgyptian pantheon, all ofwhom were variants ofessentially two personalities'Horns the Elder' (Har~uer,the Aroneris of the Greeks),and 'Horus the Younger,' orHorus the Child' (Har-pe-khrad, the Harpokrates ofthe Greeks).
Horus the Elder was theson of Re and Hat-hor, or of Qeb and Nut,and was the brother of Osiris, Isis, Seth, andNephthys, born on the second of the fiveintercalary days, an old hymn, copied on apapyrns abont 310 B.C., containing thefollowing lines.Qeb and Nnt begat Osiris, Horus (the one
before the eyeless), Seth, Isis, and Nephthysfrom one womb,One of them after the other.He was a solarized divinity, connected withthe theology of Heliopolis, ' Horus of theHorizon' (Har-akhti), who prepared the wayfor the sun-god Be, the falcon, whose symbol,the winged disk, was seen in the sky. Horus,the face of the heavens by day, as contrastedwith Seth, the face of the heavens by night,was one of the very oldest deities of thepantheon; and his ancient and principal seat ofworship in Lower Egypt was at Edfn, thoughit is quite probable that the earlier, andperhaps original, center of his cult was atHierakonpolis (Nekken), 'the City of Hawks,'in the South. At Ombos (Ombite) he was thechief of a triad.Horus the Younger, or Horus the Child, was
the posthumous son of Osiris by Isis, thereincarnation of Osiris, the third member ofthe Osirian triad, and one of the principaldivinities of the Osirian circle of theUnderworld superseding Anubis as theconductor of souls, although by a confusionhe was also referred to as a solar deity, the'Rising Sun/ to whom were given the two eyesof Re. In the late dynastic period, when theworship of Osiris and Isis had becomedominant, Horus absorbed the attributes of all
Horuses, and in him was finally blendedevery va riant personality, from Horus thElderto the least significant Beginning with theNew Empire, Horus became more and moreimportant; and though mentioned by differentnames, he was identified and worshipped withall the deities of the pantheon, while theGreeks equated him with Apollo.Harpokrates, the Greek name of a variant of
Horus the Child, was a late development who,with Serapis and Isis, was the third member ofthe divine triad at Alex andria, Philae, andFayum, and was worshipped with Isis atPanopolis. He had the functions of Horus, andin Ptolemaic times assumed the attributes ofthe local deities with whom Amon-Ee hadbeen identified, and even those of this deity atthe center of his worship, at Thebes. Withouttemples, he was worshipped as a deity of thelower classes and of the home, and was oftenrepresented as a young boy standing betweenIsis and Nephthys, or as a child seated on alotus flower with a lock of hair on the rightside of his head and holding his finger to hislips. This figure has been misconstrued ascommanding the faithful to be silentconcerning the mysteries of their religion andwas so interpreted by the Greeks, who sometimes called the deity Sigalos, equating himwith Akesis, Telesphoros, and Euamerion ofthe retinue of Asklepios.The mother of Horus taught him the arts of
magic, the maladies of mankind, and theircures, and lie rendered signal service inhealing by his oracles . Horus of Letopolis(Khem) was the chief physician in the houseof Re (Turin Papyrus), and one of his mostimportant sanctuaries of healing was situatedthere, other well-known temples being atEdfu, Tanis (Zanet), Philse, and Abydos,while he was especially venerated atHeliopolis. Horns the Child was the subject ofsome of the most venerated and popularmyths of Egypt. As the son of Osiris and Isis,his life was sought by Seth, his father's bitterenemy and murderer; and Isis saved him onlyby hiding in the papyrus swamps near Buto,where he was born. While in the rushes, he
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was bitten by a scorpion and was in extremiswhen found by Isis, who called upon Be inthe heavens to save him, whereupon, leavinghis ' Boat of Millions of Years ' in mid-sky, hesent Thoth, who, with his magic words ofpower, restored the child to life. When Horushad grown to manhood, undertaking to beavenged on the murderer of his father and toestablish his own legitimacy, he engaged in athree days 7 battle with Seth, who wasdefeated and lost his virility, while Hornshimself was deprived of an eye, which,however, was restored when Thoth spat uponthe wound and healed it. Seth was in dangerof forfeiting his life, but was saved by theinterference of Isis, upon whom Horus turnedin anger and cut off her head, which Thothreplaced with the head of a cow, or, accordingto Plutarch removed from it the symbols ofher authority. Later, when Osiris wasvindicated of the charges made by Seth beforethe great tribunal of the gods at Heliopolis,Horus succeeded to the inheritance and thethrone of his father, receiving sovereigntyover the whole world.
Horus was one of the most universallyrecognized, beloved, and worshipped deitiesof the pantheon. The hawk was sacred to him,and he was usually represented with a humanbody and the head of a falcon, being calledthe 'hawk-headed Horns'; or he was pictnredas a child in the arms of Isis or some othergoddess, and occasionally as a boy(Harpokrates) standing by her side.
Frequently, we can identify a specific,strong cult center for an ancient Egyptian god,but because Horus was worshipped in manyforms, and because he assimilated many othergods, it is difficult to summarize the sites
associated with his worship. Clearly, he wasassociated with the area of Nekhen insouthern Egypt (Greek Hierakonpolis or "Cityof the Hawk") from very early times. he wasprobably the falcon deity worshipped theresince pre-dynastic times. However, Horus wasworshipped along with other deities atcountless Egyptian temples and the importantsites of his worship are known from one endof Egypt to the other, dating to the earliest oftimes to the latest periods of pre-ChristianEgypt. In fact, he continued to be venerated insome Old Coptic (Christian), ritual-power ormagical texts. In northern Egypt, the Horusgod was particularly venerated in the Delta atthe ancient site of Khem (Greek Letopolis,modern Ausim) since at least the beginning ofthe Old Kingdom. There, he was known asHorus Khenty-irty, or Khenty-khem,"Foremost One of Khem". Chapter 112 of theBook of the Dead tells how the Delta city ofPe (historical Buto) was given to Horus ascompensation for his eye which was injuredby Seth, which explains why this was such animportant cult center for the god. Behdet alsobecame a center of Horus worship in theDelta. Even outside of ancient Egypt proper,south in Nubia, we find temples dedicated tovarious forms of Horus at Quban (Horus ofBaki), Buhen and Aniba (Horus of Miam), aswell as the inclusion of the god in many othermonuments such as Abu Simbel andelsewhere.
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ISIS, OR EiSET ( )
Isis, one of the veryancient goddesses ofEgypt, the most belovedand generallyworshipped, held a placein the affections of thepeople above that of allother female deities.Born on the fourthepagomenal day, shewas the daughter of Qeband Nut, the sister ofOsiris, Horus the Elder,Seth, and Nephthys, the
wife of Osiris, and the mother of the ChildHorus.
Becoming the consort and mother of the sun-god, with the solarization of Osiris she wasidentified with all other celestial god dessesand was most intimately assimilated with Hat-hor ;while she was also one of the chiefdivinities of the Underworld, the Kingdom ofthe Dead, and, as the consort of Osiris,appears with him in the judgment scenesrepresented by Ma' at, and receives the title'Goddess of the ‘West' as a result of heridentification with Hat-hor. In her originalcharacter she was the rich, black soil ofEgypt, fertilized by the Nile; but later she wasconceived as the goddess of fertility and love,the close friend and protectress of women inall the vicissitudes of their lives, and wasequated with Astart, Aphrodite, Demeter, andPersephone. Originally independent, politicalchanges united her with Osiris, but she wasalways the more popular of the two, and morea divinity of the home and person than of thetemple and priest. Until the Twenty-sixthDynasty she wasseldom shown as a nursing mother, butthereafter the worship of the mother and childbecame increasingly general and during theRoman period was widely spread.
The Egyptian goddess Isis is one of thegoddesses that stood the test of time.
Isis is the Greek form of more ancientEgyptian names, and the name Isis isassociated with the word for "throne."Originally, Isis was known as Aset, or Eset.Isis is worshipped today, just as she has beenfor thousands of years, as the Lady ofHeaven, The Great Enchantress, Goddess ofMagic, The Goddess of Love and War, theGiver of Life, Queen of the Gods, andGoddess of Marriage and Protection.
In the Book of the Dead and in the PyramidTexts, Isis Is associated with many of themost important myths of The Egyptianreligion. As the faithful wife of Osiris sheSought and found the body of her husband,which had been Dismembered and scatteredby Seth, his murderer; breathing into hismouth, she restored him, and receiving hisSeed, she secreted him in the papyrus swampsagainst the further enmity of Seth; and there,aided by Thoth and attended by her sisterNephthys and by other goddesses Of child-birth, she brought forth Horus, nurturing himamong the rushes.
Isis, a healing divinity of the first rank,cared for the health of her people and wasespecially skilled in the treatment of children,having gained her knowledge by devisingcharms and remedies for her infant son (TurinPapyrus; Ebers Papyrus). To the suffering shecame "bringing with her words of magicalpower, and her mouth was full of the breathof life; for her talismans vanquish the pains ofSickness and her words make to live again thethroats of Those who are deadIn thepreparation of remedies she was appealed toby incantations, as in the following from theEbers Papyrus:"May Isis heal me as she healed her sonHorus of all the pains which his brother Sethbrought on him when he slew his fatherOsiris. Isis! Thou great enchantress, heal me,save me from all evil things of darkness, fromthe epidemic and deadly diseases andinfections of all sorts that spring upon me, as
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thou hast saved and freed thy son Horus, for Ihave passed through fire and am come out ofthe water. May I not light upon that day whenI shall say “I am of no account and pitiable '‘Re, who hast spoken for thy body. Osiris,who prays for thy manifestation. Re speaksfor the body, Osiris prays for themanifestation. Free me from all possible evil,hurtful things of darkness, from epidemic anddeadly fevers of every kind"To those who sought her aid in illness she
disclosed her Remedies through dreams byincubation, more especially In the laterperiod, when she was associated with Serapisat Alexandria and at Philse; and her temples,notably Those at Koptos and at Panopolis,were depositories of Ancient medical lore.She was also a child-birth goddess,And in this function she was associated withother divinities, as Nephthys, Heqet, andMeskhenet .
As a divine healer, Isis shared the secrets ofhealing and preparation of medical potions toher priestesses. Isis is also credited forbringing us the secrets of law and agriculture.If you ask anyone that esteems Isis to the roleof goddess in this present age; you will surelyhear them proclaim that Isis holds life in here
hands. Isis, with her ability to breathe life intosomething once dead, is worshipped today asshe has for centuries.
Isis of 'ten thousand names' was veneratedand worshipped throughout the whole of theknown Nile valley.From the period of theNew Kingdom she was assimilated withpractically every goddess in Egypt, absorbingtheir attributes, overshadowing them, andbeing worshipped in very many aspects in theshrines of other goddesses, either under theirnames and attributes or under compoundnames, such as Isis-Hat-hor or Isis-Neith. Theoriginal seat of her cult appears to have beenat Per-ehbet, near the city of Buto ;and shehad other temples in different parts of thecountry,Isis was associated with the new godSerapis at Alexandria, where she was thesecond member of the triad ;and this newcult, gaining in popularity, especially amongforeigners.
KHONSU, OR KHONS
( )
During the EarlyEmpire, Khonsu, the sonof Amon and Mut, andthe third member of theTheban triad, appears tohave been a travellingdeity, a messenger of thegods in the form of themoon ; and with the riseof the Theban Empireand the advancement ofAmon to supremacy as anational divinity, he was
recognized as an ancient form of the moon-god, and the son of Amon-Re. The earliestcertain mention of Khonsu is of his closeassociation withThoth as a moon-god, andbefore the Middle Kingdom he seems to have
been little known, especially outside of UpperEgypt. In his development he was associatedwith Hours as Khonsu-Horus, and at a latedate with Re as Khonsu-Re. During the periodbetween the Twelfth and EighteenthDynasties he came into notice more and morefrequently and thereafter he became animportant deity, his healing cult developedrapidly, and he was widely- known for hismiraculous cures, but there are no legends ofhim before the Ptolemaic period. He wasgreatly honored at Thebes, and Barneses III(1200-1100 B.C.) erected a large andbeautiful temple for him at Kamak, on theeast bank of the Nile, within the precincts ofthe great temple of Amon. There were threeshrines: the 'House of Khonsu,' 'the beautiful
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resting one' ; the ' House of Khonsu inThebes, Nefer-hotep'; and the sanctuary ofKhonsu as 'the god who carries out his plansin Thebes/ i.e., the divinity energized topermit his power to act outside the temple.The deity was also worshipped else-where, asat Edfu and Hermopolis, where he wasassimilated with Thoth as Khonsu-Tahuti, butthe chief interest attaches to his form asKhonsu-Nefer-hotep, who ruled over themonth, "the great god who driveth awaydevils" of sea, earth, and sky which are hostileto man and which attack him, causing pains,sickness, madness, decay, and death. Khonsumade women and cattle to become fertileAs the 'god in activity,' the divinity cured
Ptolemy Philadelphus of a dangerous disease;and in gratitude the monarch erected, in honorof the deity, a statue adjoining his sanctuary,the base of which is still preserved.
The image of Khonsu contained the soul ofthe god, and it announced his will by hanu,movements of the head. Khonsu- Nefer-Hotepwas credited with the ability to effect cures bysubstitution, loaning the healing forces fromhis own 'soul energy' (i.e., his Ba) to an imageor double, "bestowing upon it [by the nape ofthe neck] its protective fluid at four intervals."The 'true name' thus conveyed gave the statuepower to cast out demons and to cure disease,but the 'best of the divine substance' wasalways kept at Thebes. An instance of theefficacy of this transmitted power is relatedon the so-called Bakhtan stele, now in Paris.Khonsu was typically represented in
anthropomorphic form, usually as a youngerman wrapped in mummy bandages or atightly fitting garment, though his arms maybe partially or completely unrestrained. He isfrequently depicted wearing his lunar symbol,which consists of the full lunar disk resting ina crescent new moon upon his head.However, in his role as divine child of Amunand Mut, he commonly wears the sidelock ofyouth, even though he may also wear thecurved beard of the gods. Often, he holds thecrook and flail associated with Osiris andHorus, as well as a was or djed-headed staff.His most distinctive adornment, however, is aloosely hanging necklace with a crescent-
shaped pectoral element resting on his chestand with a heavy counterpoise on his back.This counterpoise usually has an invertedkeyhole shape, which is useful indifferentiating this god from representationsof the god Ptah, whose necklace counterpoiseis of a different shape. As a god of the sky,Khonsu may also be depicted with the head ofa falcon, but can be differentiated from Horusand Re by the lunar disk and crescentsurmounting his head. As a lunar deity, one ofhis symbols was the Cynocephalus baboon,considered a lunar creature by the ancientEgyptians, though he does not nearly sofrequently appear in this form as does the godThoth. In the later dynasties, Khonsu maytake human form on small amulets. Alsoduring Egypt's late history, he may bedepicted on plaques as fully human or in hisfalcon-headed form, together with his divineparents, Amun and Mut. He may also bedepicted like Horus, standing on the back of acrocodile.Khonsu was a major Egyptian god withsanctuaries throughout the ancient land ofEgypt, including temples at Memphis, Edfuand Hibis. However, his main cult center wasat Thebes. Within the precincts of the greatAmun temple at Karnak, his temple to thesouth of the first court was begun in the 20thdynasty by Ramesses III and completed by anumber of later rulers. Like his parents,Khonsu participated in various processions,such as the New Year's festival at the templeof Luxor, where the god's statue wastransported from his precinct at Karnak on asacred barque that could be identified by afalcon's head at its prow and stern. In thisfestival, the god traveled along his ownstatue-lined avenue which ran from his templeto Luxor, indicating his importance in this andother celebrations. In fact, the pylon ofKhonsu's temple, known as "Benent", was thestarting point of the processional avenueleading to the Luxor Temple, and in the lateRamessid period, most of the construction atKarnak, where one of his divine epithets was"the Greatest God of the Great Gods", focusedon his temple.
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Ramesses IV offers the first fruits of theseason to Khonsu in the Khonsu Temple at Karnak
Khonsu offers the palm tree of the years and the sed-festivalsymbol while Isis breast-feeds the young king prince wearing the white crown
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NEITH
- NEITH, one of themost ancient deities ofthe pantheon andprobably of Libyanorigin, adopted duringthe First Dynasty, thereis ample evidence thatshe was one of themost important deitiesof the prehistoric andEarly Dynastic periodand, impressively, herveneration persisted tothe very end of theparanoiac age. Hercharacter was complexas her mythologycontinued to grow overthis great span of time,and although manyearly myths of the
goddess are undoubtedly lost to us, had assymbols the shuttle, and a bow and arrows,whence it would appear that she was adivinity of weaving (perhaps of handicrafts)and of the chase, though in her later aspectshe was regarded as a form of Hat-hor and asa sky-goddess. Presiding over the city ofSax's, in the Delta, she was frequentlyreferred to under that name; and beingassociated with the theology of Atum-Re atHeliopolis, the father-god, she was called the4 mother-goddess/ 'Neith, the mighty motherwho gave birth to Re,' the ' great lady,' the'lady of heaven,' and the * queen of the gods' ;while the term ' self -born' or 'self- produced'was applied to her, and she was said to havebrought forth Be without the aid of a husband.- Although a prominent and highly respectedmember of the pantheon, she was alwayssurrounded with an air of mystery; the manytexts concerning her have not beenharmonized; and her composite, complexcharacter has not been clearly interpreted. Shewas assimilated with many of the principalgoddesses of Egypt in their varied aspects,
being allied with Isis as a protector of Horusand as a form of the magic powers of thesedeities, and with Sekhmet, Mut, Ubastet,divinities having child-birth functions, hersymbol being the vulture, indicative ofmaternity and of an obstetric function. Shewas also a healing deity, her temple at Sa'isbeing celebrated as a healing sanctuary, andhaving attached to it a medical school whichwas restored (by direction of Darius) duringthe Persian occupation.The Greeks, who equated the goddess with
Athena, attributed to her remarkable powers;and a statue of Neith, which is supposed tohave symbolized Truth and of which muchhas been written, bore an inscription given byPlutarch which he assumed to refer to Isisand which read : * * I am all that hathbeen, and that is, and that shall be; and myveil none hath uncovered (or revealed).
the first representation evidence for neith isthe early from of her emblem (two crossedarrows mounted on a pole)which occurs inpre-dynastic times. the first anthropomorphicrepresentation of goddess herself occursomewhat later, in the Early Dynastic period,and these representations make neith one ofthe earliest Egyptian deities depicted inhuman form. At firs, the goddess wear towbows on her head, and she is not depictedwearing Red crown of Lower Egypt, theregion with which she was most closelyassociated, until the 5th dynasty when sheappears this way in the temple of Userkaf atAbu Ghurob. Her representation frequentlydepict. Neith carrying only the was (power)scepter and ankh ( life) symbol, but in herguise as warrior goddess she frequently holdsa bow and arrow or a harpoon. Later in thehistory neith could also be portrayed inzoomorphic form. Herodotus records seeingthe image of the goddess as a kneeling sowwith a sun disk between its horns during herfestival at sais, and a bovine form of herimage was also used at esna. The goddesscould also appear in serpentine form as
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protectress of the king or of Re, as may beseen in the Book of the Dead (BD185) and inthe gilded wooden copra found inTutankhamun’s tomb. In her form as mothergoddess and as the mother of sobek, Neith isshown in the nursing motif, and amulets showthe goddess as a woman standing, suckling asmall crocodile at each breast.
Neith’s prominence in early dynastic times– as seen in 1st dynasty labels funerary stele,and in the name of her priestesses andcontemporary queens such as Neithotep andmerneith – suggest the goddess wasworshipped from the beginning of Egyptianculture. In fact, the earliest portrayal of what
is thought to be scared shrine in Egypt isassociated with neith. Her symbol stands inthe enclosure of reed-built sanctuary on anebony label from Abydos which seems todepict a visit made by 1st dynasty King Aha tosanctuary of neith.
NEKHBET
NEKHBET, thetutelary goddess ofthe cities ofEileithyiaspolis(Nekhab), themodern El-Kab(some 80 km southof luxor), andHierakonpolis, 'the"White City' ofhawks, was the best-known divinity of
child-birth in the pantheon; while in the earlyperiod she was one of the *two mistresses' ofthe prehistoric kingdoms into which thecountry was then divided ; Nekhbet ruling theSouth, while her sister, Uzoit or Buto, reignedover the North.Although she is described on monuments as
a deity of child-birth, she is more commonlyreferred to as a nurse who protected kings, asin the instance of Pepi, whom she suckled.The vulture, whose hieroglyph was used for'mother , was her emblem and was verycommonly shown with outspread wings.
Nekhbet is named in the myths as one ofthose in attendance upon Isis at the birth ofHorus, and she was intimately associated withthe other divinities of parturition, especiallywith Uzoit, Bastet, and Hat-hor, as well aswith Meskhenet (or Eannu), who was moredefinitely a nurse, particularly of kings andprinces; while other deities of Egypt areoccasionally mentioned in connection with
gestation and child-bearing, such as Nut, Mut,and Typho. Nekhbet further appeared togetherwith a goddess of the North, Uat or Uati,modern variants of one name, ordinarilycalled Buto (more accurately Uto), who wasalso a protectress of Monarchs' and who waslikewise represented in the form of a vultureand worshipped with the same honors atThebes, but who was placed in opposition ashaving a contrary character The Greeksequated Nekhbet with Eileithyia, and theEomans with Lucina ; and the city ofNekhbeyet was called * Civitas Lucinse.
Nekhbet was thought to be the wife of Hapi,in his Upper Egyptian aspect. She was alsolinked to Horus in his role of god of UpperEgypt. Due to her vulture form, she waslinked to the goddess Mut, the mothergoddess and wife of Amen. Both Mut andNekhbet were a particular type of vulture - thegriffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). It was thegriffon vulture that was usually related to thegoddesses and to royalty.
In Southern Africa, the name for anEgyptian vulture is synonymous with the termapplied to lovers, for vultures like pigeons arealways seen in pairs. Thus mother and childremain closely bonded together. Pairing,bonding, protecting, loving are essentialattributes associated with a vulture. Becauseof its immense size and power and its abilityto sore high up in the sky, the vulture isconsidered to be nearer to God who isbelieved to reside above the sky. Thus thequalities of a vulture are associated with
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Godliness. On the other hand the widewingspan of a vulture may be seen as allencompassing and providing a protectivecover to its infants. The vulture when carryingout its role as a mother and giving protectionto its infants may exhibit a forceful naturewhilst defending her young. All thesequalities inspired the imagination of theAncient Egyptians. They adopted whatseemed to them at the time to be motherlyqualities, the qualities of protecting andnurturing their young.
From her earliest appearance Nekhbet isoften represented as a vulture either standingin profile view, or with wings out-stretched indirect view, with only head and legs inprofile. Often the Nekhbet vulture is depictedholding shen or ‘eternity’ hieroglyphic in herclaws, though this isan iconographic element
associated with a number of deities.Assimilation with her northern counterpart ledto Nekhpet occasionally being depicted as aserpent ( just as wadjet may sometimes beshown in vulture form). In anthropomorphicform Nekhbet was usually represented as awoman wearing a vulture cap, though shecould also be shown wearing the white crownof upper Egypt.
Nekhpet possessed an impressively largesanctuary at el-kap, though little has survivedof his cult center. Most of the present ruinsthere date to the later Dynastic period, andonly traces remain of the New Kingdom andMiddle Kingdom structures. Nothing has been
found of the shrine which undoubtedlystoodat his site in very early times.
NEPHTHYS, OR
NEBTHOT( )
NEPHTHYS, the *Mistress of the temple andan ancient deity of theOsirian cycle, was, ingeneral character, thegoddess of death, whenceshe was called Mistress ofthe West'; yet herpersonality was essentiallypassive, and she appears ascomplementary to Isis.Born on the fifth
epagomenal day, she was the daughter of Qeband Nut, and the sister of Osiris, Seth, Horusthe Elder, and Isis ; but though she was thewife of Seth, she was an attendant upon Osirisin the judgment scenes and a faithful friend toIsis. She aided her sister in searching for andcollecting the remains of Osiris, and incarrying them to Abydos for interment; andshe watched over Isis in the swamps whileawaiting the birth of Horus, afterward beingone of the child's nursing mothers. She wasintimately associated with Nekhbet and Uzoit,Heqet, and Meskhenet, and cooperated with
them as deities connected with child-birth(Westcar Papyrus,) .- Like Isis, Nephthys was skilled in magic,mighty in words of power/ and a healingdivinity, while with Osiris and Isis she wasone of the 'great sovereigns' of Mendes in theDelta. She had numerous titles, of which themost common were 'lady of heaven,' *mistress of the gods,' and ' great goddess, ladyof life'; and she was worshipped in manyplaces, especially with Isis at her great templeat Per-ehbet (Plutarch).- the usual manner of depiction for Nepthys isanthropomorphic as a female goddessdistinguished only by hieroglyphic symbolsfor her name which she wears on her head.Nepthys may also represented as a kite,however, especially in the vignettes offunerary texts where the two sisters aresometimes depicted in this avian formguarding the body of osiris. In human formNephthys was represented at corners or endsof sarcophagi, coffins and shrines forprotection of their contents.-Despite her important position in ancientEgyptian funerary beliefs and her widespreadrepresentation, Nephthys appears to have hadno temple or formal cult of her own thoughher association with ,'Anuqet and other deitiesled to the representation of Nepthys in their
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sanctuaries. Amulets of the goddess are quitecommon.
PTAH
- PTAH, one of theprimeval deities,called 'the very greatgod,' he personifiedthe rising sun, orrather, a phase of i-that is, he representedthe orb at the timewhen it begins to riseabove the horizon, orimmediately after ithas risen. The name issaid to mean ’opener’from circumstancethat Ptah was thoughtto open the day; butthis derivation has
been combated. Dr Brugsh suggests ‘sculptor’or ‘engraver’ as the true translation, and asPtah was the god of all ancicrafts it seemsmost probably that is correct. representedwisdom and was a cosmic divinity, 'thecreator of the gods and of the world,' a fellowworker with khnumu in the creation of theuniverse, molding the solar and lunar eggs onthe potter's wheel, and executing thecommands of Thoth and of the Seven WiseOnes of the goddess Meh-urt who planned theworld. As a creator he was Ptah- Tetenen andan architect, adivine artist in stone and metal'who formed works of art/ his high priestbeing the chief artificer. Ptah par- took of thenature of Thoth and was called 'lord of Ma’at'at Memphis, which was named Hat-ka-Ptah,'Place of the Soul of Ptah/ and in which hehad been adored from archaic times as thegreatest of all divinities.
Ptah, "the god of the ' propitious’ face wasthe chief of the Memphite triad, his wifeSekhmet and Ms son Nefer-tem (or, later, I-m-hotep, who displaced Nefer-tem)
completing the group. He was identified withmany other deities whose powers he wassupposed to possess, but more closely withApis and Osiris than with others. Apis wasregarded as the incarnation of the soul ofPtah, and in dying became Sokari, who was adivinity of a place near Memphis and whowas transformed into a god of the earth and ofthe dead when this became a necropolis. Ptahwas then blended with Sokari, and later, whenabsorbed by Osiris as Osiris-Apis, theybecame Osor-hap, the Serapis of Ptolemaictimes.Ptah was a therapeutic divinity of great
renown, and his temple at Memphis wascelebrated for the marvellous cures which heeffected. It appears that from early times theremedies for the healing of diseases wererevealed to suppliants at his shrine in dreamsduring sleep in his sanctuary. As anincubation deity he received the epithetSotmu, and it was chiefly in his aspect asPtah-Sotmu that he was adjured to 'hear theprayer/ and when morning came the response,when made, was interpreted by the LearnedMen of the Magic Library/ or was found in asealed box containing a book with directinstructions to be copied and followed.The scarabens was the sacred emblem of the
deity, although he was occasionallyrepresented by the frog. He was commonlydepicted as a bearded man with close- fittinggarments and a cap without ornament, seatedand holding in his hands the emblems of lifeand stability ; but occasionally he wore theostrich feathers of Osiris and held his staff.The Greeks equated him with theirHephaistos.
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SEKHMET( )
SEKHMET wasthe second memberof the Memphitetriad, the consortand female counterpart of Ptah; and hername, assumed tohave been derivedfromsekhem(strong')corresponded to herpersonality, whichwas strong, mighty,and violent. Sherepresented fire andthe intense,destroying heat ofthe sun, and was at
times an avenging deity, the 'Lady ofpestilence.
Sekhmet was a therapeutic divinity and wasassociated with Ptah at his healing shrines,her priests being celebrated in the curative artand reputed to have unusual skill asbonesetters. She overplayed the part ofprotecting the good and annihilating thewicked, and bore many titles, as 'greatlybeloved of Ptah' or 'lady of heaven, mistressof two lands,' although her most commonepithet was the 'Lady of Flame. She wasassimilated with Mut and Neith, and both sheand her sister Bastet were identified withforms of Hat-hor, while in dynastic times shewas blended with re and Bastet, being calledSekhmet-Ubastet-Re. She was ordinarilyconfused with bastet and Uzoit. Her closerelations in religion with Amon and Mut atThebes have been shown in modernexcavations at Karnak by the finding of morethan one hundred and eighty statues of her inlarge size bordering the avenue leading to thetemple of Amon. The goddess wasrepresented with the head of a lioness, usuallysurmounted by a solar disk with the ureus.
Because sekhmet was said to breath fireagainst her enemies she was adopted by manyEgyptian kings as a military patroness andsymbol of their own power in battle, and borematial titles such as ‘smiter of theNubians’.the goddess also hade power toword of pestilence and she could function as a
healing deity, even being called ‘sekhmet,mistress of life’.Sekhmet was most frequently depicted in
semi anthropomorphic form as a lioness-headed women. She often wears a long wigand usually has a solar disk balanced atop inthis aspect. The long dress worn by thegoddess is often coloured red, and one ofsekhmet’s epithets was ‘mistress of red linen’symbolizing either her native lower Egypt orher warlike nature. Sometimes her garmenthas rosette pattern over each nipple and whilethis has been suggested to reflect patterns inthe shoulder hair of lion it is perhaps reflectsan astronomical symbolism of the ‘shoulderstar’ of the constellation Leo which is markedin Egyptian astronomical painting. During thereign of Amenophis II, hundreds of statues ofsekhmet were set up in the area of the templeMut to the south of great temple of Amun atKarnak.Although the main cult centre of sekhmet
was Memphis, the goddess had temples inmany other areas. A sanctuary was built in herhonour Abusir (where she appeared inrelieves as early as the 5th) and she isrepresents in numerous temples up throughthe Greco-Roman period.
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SERAPIS, OR OSOR-HAP
( )SEBAPIS was introduced into the Egyptian
pantheon byPtolemyI withtheintention ofestablishing agod inwhoseworshiptheGreekscouldjoin at acommon shrine
and who would be distinctive of his reign.Finally, in a dream, he saw the great statue ofa deity which he was told to bring toAlexandria (Plutarch), and, after a search, theimage, found at Sinope in Pontus, wasobtained with some difficulty and taken to thecapital, where it was set up with great pompand ceremony, the temple of Osiris-Apisbeing rebuilt, and the large, celebratedSerapeum of Alexandria becoming the centerof the divinity's cultic worship.The Egyptians were told that the god was afusion of Osiris and of Apis of Memphis.Serapis was a complex character, but he was ahealing divinity par excellence.
From the 18th Dynasty, Osirapis isdescribed as, "the great god, Khent, Amentet,the lord of life forever," Apis and Osiris werejoined together by the priests of Memphis,where the attributes of Apis had been made toassume a funeral character and hencerecognized as a god of the Underworld. On amonument of the 19th Dynasty, Apis is saidto be "the renewed life of Ptah," and in aninscription of the 25th Dynasty he is calledthe "second Ptah." In the same text we have amention of the "temple of Asar-Hapi(Osirapis)," and here it is clear that hisidentity had been merged with that of Osiris.The identification of Apis with Osiris was
easy enough, because one of the mostcommon names of Osiris was "Bull of theWest". Apis was, in fact, believed to beanimated by the soul of Osiris, and to beOsiris incarnate. The appearance of a newApis was regarded as a new manifestation ofOsiris upon earth.The iconography of Serapis was dominated
by Hellenistic elements. In hisanthropomorphic form, he was represented asa man wearing a Greek style robe with aGreek hairstyle and full beard. Surmountinghis head was often a basket or a tall, dry cornmeasure (holding a quarter of a bushel),representing his fertility attributes as well ashis association with Osiris, who wassometimes a god of grain. At times, he wasalso provided with curved ram's horns. At hisfeet might also set the three-headed dogCerberus, the guardian of the underworld.The chief center of the worship of Serapis in
Ptolemaic times was Alexandria at the greatSerapeum, which was considered a wonderand a site of pilgrimage throughout theMediterranean world, until it was destroyedby order of Emperor Theodosius in 389 AD.The Serapeum which Ptolemy repaired, orfounded, was probably around Rhakotis nearPompey's pillar and was a very remarkablebuilding. Interestingly, Rhakotis was thesmall Egyptian village that had been locatedon the site of what would become Alexandria,and some traditions hold that Osirapis was itslocal God. The Temples main plan seems tohave resembled that of the famous Serapeumat Memphis, but parts of it were richly paintedand gilded, and it possessed a fine librarywhich was said to contain some 300,000 (orperhaps as many as 42,000) volumes. Thelibrary was actually an annex of the GreatLibrary of Alexandria, and hence known asthe "Daughter Library". Within the templewas a specific and famous statue of Serapis.How the statue came to be in Alexandria atthis temple is of some interest. Traditionholds that, while Ptolemy was considering thepossibility of a hybrid god to unit theEgyptians and Greeks, he had a dream,wherein a colossal statue of some godappeared to him and bid the king to remove itto Alexandria. According to Plutarch, he hadnever seen a similar statue, and he knew
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neither the place where it stood, nor to whomit belonged. One day he happened to mentionhis dream to Sosibius, and described thestatue which he had seen, where on this mandeclared that he had seen a statue like it atSinope. Tradition says that this was Sinope onthe Pontus, and adds that as the inhabitants ofthe city were extremely unwilling to part withtheir statue, it, of its own accord, after waitingfor three years, entered into a ship and arrivedat Alexandria safely after a voyage of onlythree days. However, others provide that afterthree years of futile negotiations, Ptolemy'smen simply stole, the statue, claiming that ithad boarded their boat on its own.
THOTH, THOUT, OR
GAHUTI( )
THOTH, the Egyptianmoon-god installed byRe, personified theintellect of the lunardeity, as well as hiscreative and directingpower ; and he was theorderer of the cosmos,speaking the wordswhich resulted in thecreation. He was thedivinity of wisdomthrough whom all mentalgifts were imparted toman, and was thepossessor of every kindof knowledge and ofeverything that
contributed to civilization and refinement,whence he was the inventor of letters,language, and numbers, and of the arts andsciences, including astronomy,architecture,medicine, and botany. the authorof the institutions of temple worship, and thebuilder of shrines, besides being the 'Lord ofthe Divine words' who devised the sacredritual for proper approach to deity withprayers and sacrifices. He was, moreover, the'Lord of Laws/ the master of law in itsphysical and moral conceptions, the 'knowingone' who "looketh through bodies, and testethhearts"; and, accordingly, he became the
divine arbiter to whom appeal was made forassistance in important matters under dispute.
He was also 'great in magic/ the mightiest ofall magicians; and the god Hike' of the OldKingdom was possibly a form of Thoth, whilehe was regarded as the personification of theintelligence of Ptah.Thoth thus appears asabove the ordinary Egyptian divinities, "a godwhose mind is all-penetrating, and allcomprehending," 'the Mysterious/ 'theUnknown.' "The character of Thoth is a loftyand beautiful conception, and is, perhaps, thehighest idea of deity ever fashioned in theEgyptian mind."Thoth was a protector against evil, and
especially against illness, delivering manfrom the perils that threatened him, as well asfrom the evil demons that beset him."My god Thoth is a shield round about me"(AnastasiPapyrus). The essentials of medicineconsisted in the rites and formulas by whichunseen malicious beings which caused diseasewere exorcised and expelled from the bodiesof victims, and hence were magical, so that,as a magician, he was a powerful patron ofphysicians, who besought him to give skill to'those who know things,' to 'physicians whoare in his train ' (Hearst Medical Papyrus). Anenormous number of amulets in the form offigurines of the god have been found in allparts of Egypt, and are supposed to refer tohis functions as magician and healer; while
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according to the old texts, he played the partof the 'physician of the eye of Horus.
Thoth had a primitive shrine atHierakonpolis, where standards show thesacred ibis, but the first trace of a cultic centerwas at his sanctuary in Hermopolis, whichbecame probably the greatest healing templeof ancient Egypt. Amedical school and librarywere connected with it, and ClemensAlexandrinus describes forty-two hermeticbooks, books of Thoth, which werediscovered there, six of which, numberedfrom thirty seven to forty-two, weremedical.Presumably, as an assistant, Safekht(or Sekhauit) was attached to the library,being the lady of letters,mistress of the houseof books.' At the temple of Philse, Thoth wasespecially venerated and received the titles of'Lord of Phite,' Lord of Eshmunein,' 'Thoth ofthe Abaton,' and 'Thoth of Pnubs.' His cnltwas fostered in Nubia, his chief sanctuarythere being at Dakkeh, and another was atDendur ; but in both he appeared in the formof Shu. The use of the dream oracle byincubation in the temple at Hermopolis isconfirmed by numerous texts, and there aremany suggestions that it was in use at hisother shrines.
At his own city of Hermopolis, Thoth wasthe chief of a company (pant} consisting of anogdoad of four pairs of male and femaledeities, his own feminine counterpart andconsort being the goddess Ma' at. In the mostancient texts, an ibis on a perch is the symbolof the god, and he was usually representedwith a human body and an ibis- head,occasionally surmounted by a feather crown,though he is also depicted as an ape or dog-headed baboon. The Greeks equated him withHermes, as Psychopompos.Although there is considerable overlapping
in the iconographic use of the two forms inwhich thoth was manifest – the ibis and thebaboon – there are also some differencesworth noting. In his purely zoomorphic formsthe baboon is somewhat more prevalent inrepresentation than the ibis. though
representations of the gods as an ibis-headedman are most common of all.thoth’s appearance in the names of severalNew kingdom monarchs shows importantroyal acceptance and patronage of god’s cult,but earlier references to offerings made inprivate tombs on the festival of thoth alsoshow the importance of this god to non royalindividuals and his worship appears to havealways had a wide base among ancientEgyptians. It is uncertain whether the ancientKhemnu, which the Greeks called Hermopolisor ‘Hermes-town’(the modern el Ashmonin)in the middle of Egypt was the original cultcenter of thoth, although it was certainly hischief centre of worship in dynastic times. It ispossible that thoth had an early cult centre inthe Delta as the 15th lower EgyptianNome had the ibis as its emblem.Thoth alsohad sanctuary as el Baqliya in Delta.
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UBASTET, OR BASTET( )
UBASTET, the'Lady of theWest' of the Deltaand one of themost prominentof the ancientdeities of thepantheon, wasprimarily, likeher sisterSekhmet, agoddess of fire,but expressed theidea of the milderheat of the sun,the warmth which
germinates the seed and encouragesvegetation. She was sometimes represented asa huntress and was also a healing divinity towhom the origin of the medical art wasascribed, a goddess of the birth-chamber, anda protectress of children. The center of herworship was at Bubastet (Per-Baste), and hertemple and festivals were among the mostinteresting in Egypt (Herodotus, Diodoros,Pliny, Strabo). Identified with most of thewell-known feminine deities of the Nilevalley and worshipped under their names, shewas known at Thebes as Mut-Ubastet and wasdepicted as Isis, while at Memphis she had a
temple where she was identified with hersister Sekhmet and where they bothrepresented the devouring, destructive heat ofthe sun (Herodotus, ) Her association withKhonsu at Thebes has led to the surmise thatshe was a moon-goddess. The cat was sacredto her, and being depicted with the head ofthat animal, she was called the cat-headedgoddess'; but in the later period she wasregarded as a variant of Sekhmet, and thenhad the head of a lioness, surmounted by theuraeus. The Greeks equated her with Artemis(Herodotos).- there is some confusion over Bast andSekhmet. She was also considered to be themother of Nefertem, as were a few othergoddesses! Sekhmet was given the title the'Eye of Ra' when she was in her protectorform... but Bast and Sekhmet are not the samegoddess (unlike Hathor who becomesSekhmet as the 'Eye of Ra'). This all gives riseto a lot of confusion about these goddesses.Bast and Sekhmet were another example ofEgyptian duality - Sekhmet was a goddess ofUpper Egypt, Bast of Lower Egypt (just likethe pharaoh was of Upper and/or LowerEgypt!)... and they were linked together bygeography, not by myth or legend. These twofeline goddesses were not related by family,they were both very distinct goddesses in theirown rights. She was one of the oldergoddesses, mentioned in the Book of the Dea
UZOIT, UAZIT, OR BUTO ( )
UZOIT was one of the olddivinities of the pantheon, the'goddess of the North,' who withher sister Nekhbet at theirrespective ancient Capitals ofLower and Upper Egypt, Butoin the Delta and El-Kab in theSouth, ruled over theseprehistoric kingdoms ; and theywere called serpent goddesses,since they often symbolized thetwo Egypts in this form.- Like her sister Nekhbet, Uzoit
was a deity of childbirth and was also a
celebrated magician, frequently identifiedwith Isis. She assisted Nephthys in hiding Isisand in caring for her in the papyrus swamps,and with Nekhbet and other goddesses shesuperintended the birth of Horus,subsequently acting as one of his nursingmothers. Her own city, the chief seat of herworship, was at Buto, and here, in her greattemple, Pe-Dep, she conducted a renownedhealing oracle (Herodotos). During Ptolemaictimes, the pr-mst, ' birth-house,' also calledthe (ht bw) 'house of purification,' in whichwomen are supposed to have remainedfourteen days after delivery, was attached to
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the temples of goddesses. Uzoit was called'mistress of all the gods,' or 'Uzoit, Lady ofheaven,' and was assimilated with Hat-hor,Nekhbet, and Isis. Her symbol was the uraeus,
and she wore the asp on her headdress, beingcalled the 'Urseus Goddess. The Greeksidentified her with Leto.
I-M-HOTEP( )
I-M-HOTEP, thearchitect of KingZoser of the ThirdDynasty (2900B.C.), the builderof the SakkaraPyramid, anastrologer of thepriests of Re, hewas renowned forhis wise sayingsand became apatron of learning,of scholars, andespecially of
physicians. At his death Imhotep wasprobably buried in the funeral complex atsaqqara, but his tomb has yet to bediscovered, After the New Kingdom (1580B.C.), writers made libations to him; andgradually losing his humanity, he was deifiedafter the Persian period (525 B.C.) andelevated to the rank of a healing divinity. Inhis divine character he was the 'Son of Ptah'and of Sekhmet, and having displaced theirson Nefer-tem, he was made the third memberof the great Memphite triad. Belated to Thothin function, I-m-hotep occasionally absorbedhis funerary duties, and as scribe of the gods 'he was the author of words of power whichprotected the dead. It has been established thatthe ibis sacred to thoth was in later dynastiesassociated with Imhotep as well, and atsaqqara the mummified bodies of half amillion ibis have been discovered Iunderground. It is though that the sick madepilgrimages to his tomb and left the ibies asofferings in the hope that he would cure theirills. He was also closely related to the deifiedsages Amon-hotep and
Teos, who were associated with healing.Beautiful I-m-hotep, 'He who cometh inpeace,' owed his fame and power to his skillin the healing art. He was the good physicianboth of deities and of men, "the god who sentsleep to those who were suffering and in pain,and those who were afflicted with any kind ofdisease formed his especial care
surviving statue fragments from saqqarademonstrate that Imhotep was granted theunique privilege of being named alongside hisking, Djoser in formal statuary, butrepresentations of the priestly architect are notknown till much later. Nevertheless, from thelate period onwards votive bronze and othersmall sculptures as well as amulets ofImhotep were common: Usually he isdepicted in scribal fashion, seated andwearing a long kilt and skull-cap or shavenhead with papyrus roll inscrolled across hislap to symbolize his scholarly nature andscribal patronage.
The veneration of Imhotp grew todeification in the Late period and the Greco-Roman era when his cult reached its peak.And a number of shrines and temples werededicated to the deified scholar. His main areaof saqqara. on island of philae, and at thebeswhere he was also worshipped along with thedeified 18th dynasty sage Amenophis son ofHapu at Deir el Bahri and in the Ptolemaictemple at Deir el madina. An importantinscription regarding him was placed in thetemple of ptah at Karnk , upon which wasplaced the following inscription :"Great one, Son of Ptah, the creative god, ...the god of divine forms in temples, who giveslife unto all men, the mighty one of wonders,the maker of times, who cometh unto him thatcalls upon him wheresoever he may be, whogives sons to the childless, the chief lector-priest 5 the image and likeness of Thoth thewise one.
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Amenhotep son of Hapu
Amenhatp son of Hapu was born in the Deltatown of Athribis 1430 BC and rose todistinction as a royal scribe and overseer of allthe king’s works under Amenopis III. Heappears to have moved to royal courts atthebes in about 1390 BC and lived there until aman of venerable age, having
directed the construction of some of thegreatest architectural wonders produced inancient Egypt. Amenhatp’ works included notonly the planning and construction of some ofthe great monuments in the area of thebes –such as the mortuary temple of Amenophis IIIand its great colossi of memnon - but also thetemple of soleb at nubia and temples in otherareas of realm. Accorded great honour duringlife time, after his death amenhtp was deifiedfor his wisdom and in later period for hishealing power.- As a deified person Amenhatp son of Hapuwas depicted only in human form. During hislifetime several granite statues were set upshowing him as scribe in the temple of Amunat karnak (fine example are now in theEgyptian museum in Cairo and Luxormuseum) and he appears in the beautifullycarved scene in the tomb of his relative,thevizier Ra’moseat thebes.- Unlike the more widely spread veneration ofImhotep the worship of Amenhotp son ofHapu was limited mainly to the Theban areaand can be seen to have grown in two stages.Even in his lifetime his importance led to heerection of funerary cult temple next to that ofAmenhtp III on the west bank of the Thebes.
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Minor deities of Child-birth and Nursing
In addition to the two principal divinities ofchild-birth, Nekhbet and Uzoit, there wereseveral minor goddesses, connected with thelying-in chamber, who gave easy births andcared for the child, but whose personalitieswere not clearly developed and defined.Among the more notable of these were
Heqet( ), the later consort ofKhnumu, a birth deity and 'goddess of the
cradle'; Meskhenet ( )('birth-place'), who though associated with the dead,is more frequently mentioned in connectionwith the birth-chamber and with the care ofchildren, and who was sometimes regarded asa feminine deity of fate; and Benenutet, adivinity of nursing, who was identical with
the aspheaded Renenutet (), and who was called a divine nurse ofprinces.Meskhenet, the name of the brick orcouple of bricks on which women crouched ingiving birth, was a symbolic goddess,personified under a sign on the headinterpreted as a bicornate uterus.In the textsshe is coupled with Khniimu or withEenenutet.
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Meskhenet
Heqet
Renenutet
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Medical Myth
Imhotep:‘He was the divinity of physicians and ofall those who were occupied with themingled science of medicine and magic'.His suppliants usually receivedinformation of the curative remedy indreams by incubation, as shown byepigraphs and related in tales and in thevision of the deity usually began byidentifying the suppliant, and thenrevealed the directions for treatment.Satni relates that his wife Mahituaskhitappealed to the god for relief fromsterility, prayed and slept in his temple,and dreamed that he told her to pull aliving colocasia plant, leaves and all, andmaking a potion, to give it to herhusband. This she did and she conceivedat once. Another case of sterility, curedby a remedy similarly revealed in adream during temple-sleep, is recordedon the Memphite Stele of Psherenptah ofthe Augustan.
Isis:In the Book of the Dead and in thePyramid Texts, Isis is associated withmany of the most important myths of theEgyptian religion. As the faithful wife ofOsiris she sought and found the body ofher husband, which had beendismembered and scattered by Seth, hismurderer; breathing into his mouth, sherestored him, and receiving his seed, shesecreted him in the papyrus swampsagainst the further enmity of Seth; andthere, aided by Thoth and attended byher sister Nephthys and by othergoddesses of child-birth, she broughtforth Horus, nurturing him among therushes.
Isis gained her unusual powers as amagician by means of a stratagemthrough which she learned the secretname of the supreme god Re, when hewas old and feeble. Originally a humblemember of his household, she mixed hisspittle with earth and created a scorpion,which was placed in the path until Reshould walk forth, when it stung him onthe heel. Not knowing what the troublewas, and feeling himself dying, he calledloudly for help, where upon, Isis, amongothers, came with profuse protestationsof sympathy. During his extremesuffering she begged Re to disclose toher his secret name that she might use itfor his cure, but he long demurred,saying that his father had locked thename in his breast in order that no godshould have power over him, anddeclaring that it could be obtained onlyby a surgical operation. Re finallyyielded, however, and Isis performed theoperation, secured the name, cured thegod, and thus became the supremeenchantress of Egypt, a sorceress oftenreferred to as Weret-hlke', 'she who isgreat of magic' (Turin Papyrus,).
Thoth:According to the old texts, he played thepart of the 'physician of the eye of Horus(Hearst Medical Papyrus, xiv, 9), healingthe 'eye of the sun' when he restored theeye of Horus after his fight with Seth;and he was especially efficacious againstthe attacks of scorpions. "With his spittlehe healed the wound of his own arm,received while endeavoring to composethe Horus-Seth struggle (PyramidTexts,), and in invocations lie wasreminded of his own physical troubles,possibly of this incident: "Thoth, healme as thou didst heal thyself" (Book ofthe Dead,).
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MEDICAL PILGRIMAGE
IntroductionPilgrimage is a journey inward as
well as outward. Pilgrims seek tostrengthen and renew their faith throughtravel.Our working definition of pilgrimage isa transformative journey to a sacredcenter.That’s what makes pilgrim differentfrom being a tour. For a tourist, Pilgrimstravel with a clear intention, to drawcloser to God. They make their journeywith a heightened expectation. As JohnBunyon famously described pilgrims andtheir spiritual progress (1678):There’s no discouragement;To make them once relent;Their first avowed intent;To be a pilgrim.
Pilgrimage is sacred travel, travel as asacrament. You may know the definitionof a sacrament: “an outward and visiblesign of an inward and spiritual grace.”Our travel to historical and scenic sites isthe outward part, our drawing closer toGod is the inward part.And thus we expect to returntransformed or changed or convertedfrom the person we were when we beganour journey. We will not return the sameas we were when we left. Pilgrims returnfrom their journey with a “boon,”something good that will enrich theirlives in the everyday world back athome.Modern visitors to the beautifullydecorated temples at Abydos thepilgrimage to this sacred place oncemade by many ancient Egyptians to
fulfill their religious obligations in muchthe same way that Jerusalem hasattracted worshipers of many faiths forthe past two millennia. For more than3,000 years, Abydos was revered as aholy center where pharaohs andcommoners participated in festivals andprocessions in honor of the gods,especially Osiris, ruler of the Egyptianunderworld. Those who could afford itmemorialized their visit to Abydos,building a permanent monument in stoneor brick to house a carved stone steladepicting themselves and their families.This was their way of ensuringpermanent participation in the sacredrituals of the town.During most periods of ancient Egyptianhistory, people settled in the fertile plainaround the temples and cemeteries madeAbydos a bustling place. A large portionof the population must have beeninvolved in supporting pilgrimage andworship. Similarly, villagers who livetoday among the ruins of Abydos hopefor plentiful tourism to supplement theirincome from farming and smallbusinesses. The forebears of today'ssouvenir sellers might have beenvendors of votive offerings, amulets, andcarved stelae upon which visitors couldhave their name and prayers for a goodafterlife carved. Others would havemade a living as accountants, priests,farmers, brewers, bakers, and craftsmensupporting the daily functioning of theenormous temple complexes erected tocelebrate the relationships betweenrulers and the gods. The stone temples,which are today the attraction fortourists, were in ancient times largelyhidden from view by enormous brickenclosure walls. Temple complexes inancient Egypt would have beensurrounded by great expanses ofstorerooms, workshops, offices, houses,
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gardens, and granaries dedicated to thefunctioning of the cults of gods andkings. The campus of a modernuniversity provides a good idea of thediversity of activities which went on inan ancient Egyptian temple, whichextended far beyond the sacred ritualscarried out in the temple's innermostrecesses. Temples stood at the center oflocal economies as well, and we knowthat the temple of Seti I at Abydosreceived revenue from far-off venturessuch as mineral rights in Nubia, waterrights on the Nile, and holdings offarmland throughout Egypt far beyondAbydos itself.Ancient pilgrims sailing west from theNile along manmade canals would havetaken in views of a large ancient citybuilt up around the fortress-like brickenclosures of numerous royal templecomplexes built along the desert's edge.The sandy expanse of desert beyondthese temples would have been dottedwith brick memorial structures andtombs of those who chose to be buriedhere, as well as by royal stone shrinesand chapels built as way stations alongmajor processional routes. Reminders ofthe beginnings of Egyptian history 5,000years ago would have still been asvisible 3,000 years ago as they are today.These include the brick enclosure knownas Shunet es-Zebib (a later Arabic namemeaning the "Storehouse of Raisins"), aswell as the reddish mounds concealingthe tombs of Egypt's first kings.Explorers and archaeologists working atAbydos since the early nineteenthcentury have largely focused on thestone remains left behind by the ancientpilgrims, particularly the impressivebuildings inscribed and decorated bykings and the high elite. Despite thewealth of objects in museums worldwidethat derive from Abydos, it is really only
in the past 35 years that we have anyidea of the setting and context of most ofthis material, largely through excavationsince 1967 carried out by the Universityof Pennsylvania-Yale University-Institute of Fine Arts, New YorkUniversity Expedition to Abydosworking closely in cooperation of theSupreme Council of Antiquities ofEgypt. The Abydos Expedition has donemuch to place earlier discoveries inperspective, and has added volumes ofnew data on ancient activity at Abydosthrough exciting discoveries which inmany cases rival those of FlindersPetrie's generation.Each season of excavation since 1986has seen important results that are ofinterest in isolation, but combinedtogether enable a re-evaluation of one ofEgypt's most important ancient centers.Clarifying the relationship betweentemple, town, and cemetery is a threadwhich connects much of the work doneat Abydos in the past three decades. In abasic way, this means that looking at thefugitive brick and organic remains oftowns and cemeteries, and turning ourattention to deriving information fromcareful excavation of badly destroyedancient buildings which were oftenneglected by earlier archaeologists andexplorers. Careful attention to traces ofdomestic activity, most often preservedin the architecture and trash of fallen-down brick and mud houses, issignificantly fleshing out our picture oflife in this ancient place.In recent years at Abydos, re-excavationof sites that were identified and partiallystudied a century ago has repaid theeffort. Modern approaches, techniques,and questions, as well as a moredeliberate and meticulous approach, hasrevealed new detail about long-knownparts of Abydos, and has revealed that
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far more remains to be found than onemight expect. The discovery of battlescenes depicting Ahmose's defeat of theHyksos is one of the vivid example ofthe value of returning to a site thought tobe long-since exhausted. Finally, entirelynew and surprising discoveries awaitarchaeologists at Abydos. Blocks of a lottemple inscribed with the distinctive artstyle of King Akhenaten's reign havebeen found in the ruins of a temple ofRamesses II at Abydos, andarchaeologist David Silverman believesthese perhaps indicate an as-yetundiscovered shrine of Aten existed atAbydos. No doubt, continued work bythe combined Abydos projects, as wellas by the German ArchaeologicalInstitute, will continue to yield newdiscoveries and insights at one of ancientEgypt's most important sacred and urbancenters.Rituals and Attunements frominternationally renownedMedical Tools and Techniqueswill be taught to enhance andprotect your energy:Where pilgrimagestarted and its reasons:
1)El Dier EL Bahari:
From the late Hellenistic period we findextensive pilgrimage-graffiticharacterized by several set formulas,particularly one in which writer recordsadoring before the deity himself and hisfamily or friends attested at memnonionand at temple of ISIS at phyla location inupper Egypt, where the conditionsfavored preservation pilgrims sometimeshold palm-branches, and their visits maysometimes be commemorated by imageof foot.
Healing Pilgrimage
Both Egyptians and Greek visitedsanctuaries for the sake of healing, therewas a popular healing shrine at dier elbahari in upper Egypt , a temple ofIMHOTEP
(identified by the Greek with Asclepius)and AMENHOTEP , built into themortuary temple of QUEENHATSHEPSUT , other parts of el dier elbahari had been centers of healingpilgrimage from the period of the newkingdom in the roman period .
We know a healing shrine associatedwith the healing deity ( PIURIS ) {adeified man , and thus given the title "HS Y"} at ain – el – labakha.
AMENHOTEP also worshipped in theseries of rock-cut chambers on the upperterrace of Hatshepsut`s temple with thesite replacing madinet habu as the centerof his worship sometimes around300B.C it was here that amenhotep(AMENOTHES"in Greek) can best beseen as an oracle god and a god whohealed his worshiper directly or gavethem prescriptions.
Amenhotep`s role as divine physicianwho sharing his medical practice withIMHOTEP cured both through healingmiracles and by providing treatments orprescriptions for those engaging in therape tic incubation but who did notprovide long-term sanatorium-likefacilities of the sort seem also where in
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the ancient world; the cult`s oraclesfunction which probably involved bothwritten oracles and dream-oracles
(and at times may have depended onhidden cult officials simulatingamenhotep`s voice for worshipper`sbenefit)
Christian Time
Around 600 A.D Christian monasterythat was probably named forst.phoibamon was established in theformer temple of amenhotep andimhotep this monastery flourished fortwo centuries and even after it wasabandoned continued to drew Christianpilgrims until the thirteenth centaury asCoptic graffiti reveal it is particularlynoteworthy that under st.phoibamon thesite`s healing function continued ( orrestarted ) for several century showworshippers being treated for illnesses atthe site, and even engaging in incubation.
Deir el-Bahri TempleDeir el Bahri Temple and PalaceComplex
Djeser-Djeseru, or "Sublime of theSublimes" in the ancient Egyptianlanguage, is part of a complex ofbuildings known collectively as Deir el-Bahri, Arabic for Monastery of theNorth.
Deir el-Bahri Temple Complex (alsospelled Deir el-Bahari) includes one ofthe most beautiful temples in Egypt,perhaps in the world, built by thearchitects of the New Kingdom PharaohHatshepsut in the 15th century BC.
pilgrimage to karnak temples:
About Karnak TempleKarnak is the home of the god Amunwho was an insignificant local god untilthe 12th dynasty For the largelyuneducated ancient Egyptian populationthis could only have been the place ofthe gods. It is the mother of all religiousbuildings, the largest ever made and aplace of pilgrimage for nearly 4,000years. Although today pilgrims aremainly tourists. It covers about 200 acres1.5km by 0.8km
The Pilgrimage ToDenderah:Denderah:
Is 60 Km north of Luxor Isolated onthe edge of the Western Desert, thisbeautiful temple was built in the time ofthe last Ptolemaic kings to homour thegoddess Hathor, the goddess of joy,music and love. A zodiac decorates theceiling of one of its rooms. You accessthe temple's terrace through a stairwaywith the sides decorated by low-relief ofa religious procession. The terrace'svantage point is magnificent.Denderah: was the chief seat ofworship of hathor whose most familiarand comprehensible aspect was that ofAPHRODITE of the greek , patroness ofearthly love .
But like all major Egyptian hathor hadmany faces and aspects some of themlargely inscrutable .
The name hat-her means house of horseand hathor of dendera was the consort ofhorse of edfu avenger of his father ,
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Osiris each year in ptolemic times ( andprobably earlier as well ) there was animmense reciprocal festival , withpilgrimages to and from between thetwo temples , protected joyouscelebrations and Dionysian revelry . atthe same time , however , hathor wasconsidered a patroness of healing (afunction usually associated with sekhmet) and recent work indicates that one ofdendera`s most important roles was as ahealing center .operating on severallevels:.
As a place of pilgrimage wheremiraculous cures were affected by thegoddess , as a place where all manner ofmagical and psychological therapieswere practiced, and as a hospital in moreor less our modern sense.
Places of Pilgrimage in The Temple ofHathor:
The Temple of dendara was built for godHathor, wife of Horus, was the goddessof the sky, fertility and healing, and therituals performed by her priestessesincluded the use of a cestrum, or rattle.
Temple of dendara had severalinterrelated functions. It was a veneratedplace of pilgrimage where miraculouscures were effected by the goddess thispilgrimage was during the Greek androman period . it was a sort of hospitalwhere various physiological and magicaltherapies were practiced
Enclosed within precincts of denderacomplex are sacred lake where pilgrimswere making their prays. and a templeof goddess Isis and a brick sanatoriumwhere divine healing was practiced
There are many reliefs of figures andrituals on the exterior of the temple,
including pharaohs, Egyptian deities,and Roman emperors.
There is also a sanatorium wherepilgrims could bathe in the sacred watersor take holy water which had been runover magical texts to infuse it withpower and take home with them.
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Chapter4
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Magic inMedicine1- Introduction.2- Ancient Egyptian Magic: “HEKA”.3- Process of using magic.4- Uses of magic in Ancient Egypt.5- Therapeutic value of Magic.6- Medical Amulets.7- Medical Spells.8- Magical wands in Ancient Egypt.9- Conclusion.10- References.
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OverviewOf AncientEgyptianMagicIntroduction
There are many definitions ofMagic. One of the definitions of Magic inThe American Heritage Dictionary is:"The practice of using charms, spells, orrituals to attempt to produce supernaturalevents or to control events in nature."
Another definition from another source is:"Magic is the attempt to produce aresponse in the god and to manipulate himor her for human purposes. Ancientsbelieved that the gods could bemanipulated."
And I have defined magic as thefollowing:"Employing a technique or ritual, tomanipulate or control a natural or spiritualphenomena or event, by supernaturalmeans."
My definition goes well with theEgyptians use of the term Magic. TheEgyptians used magic for both practicaland religious purposes. They believedmagic was a divine creation for the benefitof humanity. It was considered a field ofknowledge just like architecture, literature,medicine, Astrology etc. It was justanother category of knowledge to be usedin coping with their environment andreligion.
In our modern society, the word magicdoes not convey the force it did in theancient Egyptian culture. To theEgyptians, magic was a real and potentforce. It was a tangible mean ofcommunicating, manipulating, andcontrolling their gods. For example, theirlife depended on agriculture and thus theweather. Using magic to control theweather was important for their survival.Also, as we will be exploring, magic wasessential after death for safe passagethrough the afterlife.
Examples of some important ancientEgyptian magic rituals concern defenseagainst enemies. Wax or clay figures ofthe enemy were ritual destroyed. Alsomagic was used to keep away spiritualenemies (i.e. god's that were not favorabletowards them or wanted to harm them).Also personal spells were used againstsomeone's enemy. For example, there arespells that invoke evil gods to appear in aperson's dreams. Also personal use ofmagic included the use of love potions. Itusually consisted of some liquid or foodthat came with an incantation. To theancient Egyptians, it would not differmuch from a medical prescription.Remember, magic was just another field ofknowledge like medicine and was very realto them.
The purpose of the magic was to compelthe help of divine powers. Usually, theperson carrying out the magic wasidentified by name with a deity to obtainfrom him the power of that god. Also theperson might threaten that god with direconsequences if his demands were not met.
Many of the Egyptian gods were invokedusing magic, but the most frequent godinvoked was Isis, since she was theprotector of her son (Horus), with whomthe person seeking help would beidentified with.
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Ancient Egyptian Magic:“HEKA”
What is “Heka”?The word heka can mean several
things, each contributing to ourunderstanding of the complexities ofancient Egyptian magic. The function ofheka is described in the Instruction forMerikara, the Middle Kingdom teaching ofthe Pharaoh Amenemhet I (c. 2000 BCE):
"He [Re] gave them [mankind] the heka asa weapon in order to ward off the effect ofdangerous events."
Another definition of heka is given infunerary spell 261 of the Coffin Texts,from a Middle Kingdom sarcophagus. Thespell is entitled "To become the godHeka", and reads as following;"I am he whom the Lord of all made beforeduality had yet come into being… the sonof him who gave birth to the universe… Iam the protection of that which the Lord ofall has ordained… I am he who gave life tothe Ennead of the gods… come to take myposition that I may receive my dignity.Because to me belonged the universebefore you gods had come into being. Youhave come afterwards because I amHeka."
There are two aspects of this concept. Thefirst one is the name of the deity Heka. Theother one is the act of using heka.
Heka was seen as a gift from the sun godRe to mankind (his offspring), amanifestation of his creative energy as anembodiment of his Ba (his soul). Itempowered man to create using words andactions, mirroring the sun god's creation ofthe universe. Heka can be seen as thecreative force or life-giving energyconnecting the objects, links and symbolsof life with the universe, like a subtletapestry of energy, which the magician
must learn to read if s/he is to effectivelywork magic.
Heka is also the inherent magical energy(man or personal power) found withinliving beings. Different creatures wereperceived as possessing different amountsof heka. The gods had the most heka. Thepharaoh (as a channel for the divineenergy) also had a lot of heka, as didpeople who were considered unusual, suchas dwarfs and people with birth defects.Red hair was considered a sign of havingmuch heka, due to the magical associationswith that color. And of course the otherclass of being with a lot of heka was thedead, hence the use of spells calling on thedead to assist with performing rites.
RepresentationAs well as being the term for
magic, Heka was a god, indeed he was thegod of magic. Or perhaps it would be morecorrect to say he was magic, being thedivine personification of magic. He issometimes shown in images as appearingamong the crew of the solar barge. He wasdepicted as a bearded man wearing a lionnemes headdress.
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The hieroglyph used from 1000 B.C. towrite his name was interchangeable withthe concepts of god and power. Visuallythe hieroglyph depicted the hindquarters ofa lion, and may well be linked with hisattribution as one of the sons of the lion-headed goddess Sekhmet. In this form hewas shown as a young child with a solardisk on his head.
With Sekhmet's son Nefertum (purity)being considered to be an avatar of the SunGod Re, it is possible that Heka may alsohave been seen in this light. This presentsa line of apostolic succession of power,from Re to his daughter Sekhmet, andhence to her sons Heka and Nefertum, whoalso embody the qualities of Re betweenthem.
TitlesOne of the titles of the god Heka
was the one who consecrates imagery,referring to the ability of the god toempower creative thoughts and actions and
translate them into their physicalequivalents in the physical world.So, Heka was also perceived as theanimating and manifesting force of everyritual act. In this context heka is thus bothintent and action: the cause, the act and theeffect.
Another title of the god Heka was Lord ofKa's, referring to the soul. This is asignificant title, as all mankind and eventhe gods had ka’s. In the Middle to LateKingdom Heka was seen as the ka of Re,with Re declaring, "Heka is my ka." Fromthis perspective Heka can be seen as beingas significant as Maat as part of theunderlying force and flow behind thewhole of the cosmos.
Heka and the myth of creationCoffin Text spell 648 stresses not
only the role of Heka as Lord of Ka’s, butalso as the power the gods used, and theinherent magic of the word;"His powers put fear into the gods whocame into being after him, his myriad ofspirits is within his mouth. It was Hekawho came into being of himself, at seeingwhom the gods rejoiced, and through thesweet savour of whom the gods live, whocreated the mountains and knit thefirmament together."
In conjunction with Sia (Perception) andHu (Creative logos), Heka was involved inthe creation of the first time and theseparation of heaven and earth. This is oneof the reasons why these deities are shownin the solar barge of Re, as they are all partof the process of first creation, which themagician returns to by creating a sacredspace and performing magic (heka).
This is also why he is "Heka who openshis two eyes that the two lands might see",for he is the agent of Re, whose perception(Sia) and utterance (Hu) empowered by
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magic (Heka) ensures the continuances ofthe cycle of daily creation.
Heka is also referred to as the ElderMagician, emphasising his primal natureas the first child of Atum-Re, anddistinguishing him from younger deities ofmagic who draw ultimately on his power,like Isis.
As has already been mentioned, Redeclares that Heka is his ba, and this isstated unequivocally in The Book of theHeavenly Cow, where Re declares:"I am the one who made heaven and whoestablished it in order to places the ba's ofthe gods within it. I shall be with them foreternity which time begets. My ba is Heka.It is older than it [time] … the ba of Re isin Heka throughout the entire land."
Association with MaatThe association between Heka and Maat isindicated in one of the Vienna Papyri,where Heka is described as "Controller ofthe House of Natural Law". Natural law isthe function of Maat, so this implies thefunction of magic as part of the normalfunctioning of the universe, within thebalance of Maat.
Origin of the title of Wer-HekauThe title Wer-Hekau, meaning
Mighty of Magic, is derived from heka.This title was used by several of the majordeities, all of whom were particularlylinked with magical powers, specificallyAnubis, Isis and Thoth.Originally Weret-Hekau (the Great ofMagic) was a cobra goddess, whose formmay have survived into serpent wands, butshe was assimilated into other deities likeIsis at a very early stage. She also had alioness form, thus possessing the qualitiesof the two most common powerfulcreatures amongst the deities.
Heka, Akhu, and SauHeka needs to be distinguished
from other forms of magic to appreciate its
usage in ancient Egypt. As well as hekathere was “akhu”- the spells orenchantments practiced by the dead, and“sau” which was amuletic magic.
EtymologyThe word heka continued to be
used through until Roman times. After thisit was succeeded by the Coptic word hik(xik), which was equated to the Greekword mageia (and hence magic).
The Process of usingmagic
It should be stressed that heka waslargely used as a preventative form ofmagic, a sort of ancient crisis management,to help deal with events like animalattacks, infectious diseases, disasters, andof course the perils of childbirth. Anti-social magic (i.e. cursing) did not reallyform a part of heka until the Romaninfluence in the latter days of ancientEgypt. As such heka is ideal for anyonewishing to develop themselves throughpursuing a positive magical and spiritualpath.
Heka as black magicThe one example of heka being
used as black magic comes from the 19thDynasty. The Harim Conspiracy involvedseveral functionaries using written magicalspells, wax figurines and potions toattempt to kill Ramesses III. Theconspirators of this failed attempt atregicide received the death sentence andalso the ultimate punishment given totraitors and enemies of the state. All tracesof their names were removed fromexistence, as if they had never existed, sothat their being was annihilated.
The major instance of heka being used in amanner that would be seen today as blackmagic was the practice of cursing againstenemies of the state by the Pharaoh, such
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as enemy armies. Details of suchtechniques are recorded in the so-calledExecration Texts, which are not covered inthe current volume as they are not relevantto the personal practice of Heka. Thishowever was not seen as cursing, as it wasan effort to protect the sovereignty ofEgypt. In such instances sympatheticmagic on a grand scale might be resortedto, with models representing enemy shipsor troops being ritually destroyed.
Actions of beings with hekaIf somebody was having problems,
with illness or bad luck, this was oftenviewed as the actions of beings with heka.It could be an angry ghost, a sorcerer, oran angry deity that the individual hadoffended. To this end the individual wasseen as the victim of circumstances, andthere was no guilt associated with seekinga practitioner of heka to help fight off thenegative influences being experienced. Byrestoring the correct balance problemswere resolved, again demonstrating thenature of heka as being the natural andcorrect flow of energy towards harmonywithin the universe.
Heka PractitionersIt has been suggested that there was
a separate class of magicians operating onthe fringes of society performing heka forthe masses, but evidence now indicatesthat the practitioners of heka were usuallynone other than priests, acting asmagicians and earning an income outsideof their temple duties. Priests served onemonth in four in the temple and spent theother three months with their families,were they were not bound by all the sametaboos and strictures as when serving thegods in the temple. During this time in thecommunity they were thus available toassist members of the community whomight need their aid.
Whether clinical or magician, mostphysicians came from the ranks of priests,because Sekhmet, the lioness-headed
goddess, was associated with medical arts,and her priests were considered superiordoctors, although some were skilled inclinical, others in magical, medicine.
How Priests or Physicians analyzedthe disease and started the curingprocess?
First they see where’s the wound orinjury.. Secondly they start the‘Examination’, where the surgeon is toldhow to probe the wound and what to lookfor. Each case ends with a “Diagnosis.”The Physician is told to state what theinjury is, then whether he can treat it bysaying one of three things:
“An aliment which I will treat”(those he could cure).
“An aliment with which I willcontend” (those he hoped to cure).
Or “ An aliment not be treated”(those he couldn’t cure).
14 cases were mentioned in the Edwinsmith papyrus were so severe that thephysician was instructed to say they couldnot to be treated, including bulging tumorsin the breast and such severe fractures ofthe temple that blood flowed from noseand ears of a patient unable to speak. Andother many mysterious problems to them..The intention of such a hopeless diagnosiswas not for the patient’s good, but toprotect the reputation of the doctor –Business would suffer if he treated toomany patients who died.
Uses of Magic in AncientEgypt
Dreams and PropheciesMagic was also used for the
prediction of the future. One way this wasdone was by asking the statue of a godwhich acted as an oracle. Also predictionof the future could be obtained through the
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interpretation of dreams. The Egyptiansviewed dreams as a mean in which thegods could make contract with humans.Another practice, known as "incubation",involves the sleeping in a temple in orderto receive prophetic dreams from a god.
The following is an example of a dreaminterpretation taken from the ChesterBeatty III papyrus;
"If a man sees himself in a dreamslaughtering an ox with his ownhand, good: it means killing hisadversary.
"Eating crocodile flesh, good: itmeans acting as an official amonghis people.
"Submerging in the river, good: itmeans purification from all evils.
"Burying an old man, good: itmeans flourishing.
"Working with stone in his house,good: fixing a man in his house.
"Seeing his face in a mirror, bad: itmeans another wife.
"Shod with white sandals, bad: itmeans roaming the earth.
"Copulating with a woman, bad: itmeans mourning.
"Being bitten by a dog, bad: itmeans he will be touched by magic.
"His bed catching fire, bad: itmeans driving away his wife.
Magic for the DeadIn the afterlife, it was important for
the deceased to be equipped with magicalspells for their protection. The earliestcollection of such spells was foundinscribed inside Old Kingdom royal
pyramids. These are called "PyramidTexts" since they were inscribed on thewalls of the pyramids. Approximately 800of these incantations have been found.Osiris first appears in these texts as thelord of the dead.
Initially, only the King had the promise ofimmortality. During the First Intermediateperiod, this promise started to be extendedto a wider social class. Thus during thisperiod there was an expanded collection ofthese incantations. In fact, more than 1100spells have been found. These spells werenow copied onto the interior surfaces ofcoffins. Thus these texts are referred to as"Coffin Texts". Many of these werebasically guide books to the underworld sothe spirit would not get lost.
Later, during the New Kingdom, thesespells were copied onto papyri scrolls andwere available to anyone who could payfor them. We know these as the "EgyptianBook of the Dead". The Egyptians calledit by its true name which was the "Book ofGoing Forth by Day". These books werenot standardized and many variationsoccur. Thus, magic was important notonly to the ancient Egyptian in this life,but also in the afterlife.
The Book of the Dead contained nearly 200Magical Spells designed to help withovercoming the dangers of the underworldsuch as defeating fearful beasts, avoidingvarious traps and demons. These spellsincluded transformation the ability to changeinto different beings such as a mythicalphoenix or a honed snake. The correctmagic spells would need to be recited to pass varioustests to guarantee safe passagethrough the terrifying trials of the Underworld whichled to the Hall of Two Truths where their actions intheir mortal lives would be examined - the EgyptianMagic Spells were essential for the Day of Judgment.The priest magicians had the spells which could helpan Ancient Egyptian to become immortal.
The Usage of Magic in Medicine
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In the Ancient Egyptian world, Strong beliefswere held about the existence of magic and spells &their great role and effect in medicine and health care.. They believed that physical remedies only, weren’tenough for the process of curing or healing a disease..Therefore Magic and Medicine were extremelyassociated together in the ancient Egyptian daily life,and neither of them could replace the role of the othersince they both acted as two compatible domains intheir worlds, and the two fields should be presenttogether for the completion of a successful healingprocess.. In other words, it was a rational relationshipthat a physical therapy should be accompanied bymagical and spiritual spells to insure the cure fromany of the diseases.. While on the other hand, spellsand supernatural powers and abilities weren’t enoughto result a cure without a physical remedy.
Therefore, we conclude that Ancient Egyptianmedicine was a mixture of magical and religiousspells, with diagnosis and remedies usually basedupon a keen observation of the patient.
Nebra states that; the cause of his son'sillness was divine displeasure at some sincommitted by the young man. TheEgyptians did not categorize aliments inthe same way that we do. Certain symptomsmight give rise to religious associations.Clues to the choice of treatment must oftenlie in the diagnosis of what force wascausing the problem.
Anthropologists studying primitive medicine lookfor both an immediate and ultimate causeof any disease or accident. The immediatecause may be obvious, or it may be a matterof guesswork. The bite of a scorpion wouldbe an obvious immediate cause for apatient's distress. The immediate cause of afever would be harder to assess, but whatEgyptians theorized that 'bad air'caused epidemics or severe infections. Theimmediate cause tells you how somethinghappened. The ultimate cause attempts to explainwhy.
Snakes and scorpions were sometimes regarded asforms taken by the restless dead or as embodimentsof the evil forces or the forces of chaos. Epidemics
were associated with the sultry last months of theyear, but their ultimate cause was thought to be theterrible power of the goddess "Sekhmet" (as she hadthe powers of infecting and spreading diseases andeven healing them ).. An Egyptian doctor, or Sekhmetpriest, might treat only the immediate cause or hemight try to deal with the ultimate cause as well.
Clearly, diagnosis was of crucial importance inEgyptian medicine. When assessing the immediatecause, Egyptian doctors did not usually name aspecific disease. Instead they located the area orsystem of the body that was causing the problem, (i.e.;Sight, Touch, Hearing, and Smell) might all beemployed to arrive at a diagnosis. Touch was used totake the patient's pulse (as that was known as the'Voice Of The Heart') and to feel how hot a woundwas. Hearing was used to deduce if a newborn babywould live from the sound of its crying.
Healing was a major function of many 'cippi' andmagical statues, but the inscriptions written on theback of the statue indicates that they were used to
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treat a much wider range of problems than bites andstings, also some healing spells were accompanied bythe inscription there. They believed that all manner ofconditions with no obvious origin might be attributedto an unknown poison flowing through the body.
In the myth of the poisoning of the infant'Horus', the symptoms described areconvulsions, dribbling, and hightemperature. These would be found in avariety of ailments that could suddenlyendanger a young child. The anti-venomspellsseem toexpressalltheEgyptiansdarkestfearsaboutsuddenblowsof fate andthe terrifying intrusions of chaos into thefragile world of order.
Six volumes containing the secrets of thephysicians are said to have been kept inEgyptian temples. Medical works werecertainly handed down over long periodsso that glosses became incorporated intothe texts. Some of the surviving papyri arespecialists works others contain treatmentsfor a wide variety of conditions and evenhousehold hints and recipes for cosmetics.This makes them similar to the household
books of tried remedies and recipescompiled by literate European housewivesfrom the sixteenth to the early nineteenthcentury A.DThe specialist vocabulary of the medicalpapyri is extremely difficult to translate sothe exact nature of many of the illnessesand treatments remain uncertain.
Only random selection of papyri hassurvived, so it is impossible to be surewhat range of medical texts was incirculation at any particular period. It isdoubtful whether there ever was a time inEgyptian history when medicine and
magicwerenotcomplementaryparts ofdoctors’skills.
Most ofthetenor
so surviving papyri contain a mixture ofmedical and magical remedies. The firsteditors and translators sometimes omittedthe magical parts. In the originals, therational cures and the spells are not usuallyseparated. Both can be introduced by thesame words meaning diagnosis andprescription. The papyri tend to begrouped in sections relating to the type ofcomplaint rather than to the methods oftreatment. the few papyri such as theEdwin smith surgical papyrus which seempredominantly rational in approach couldhave belonged to practitioners who also
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owned magical papyri or who had beentrained in an oral tradition of magic therubrics to some spells state that they are tobe spoken by any doctor or any Sekhmetpriest .
What most commentators mean by rationalmedicine is treatments that are in accordwith the scientific world view which webelieve to be objectively true. How evermany ancient practices that seem bizarreand irrational to us were based onelaborate theories about the workings ofthe body or the classification ofsubstances. Stress on the significance ofsimilarities in name of appearance sometimes led to treatments that were actuallyharmful medical practices to be exposed.
As early as the third century BC, someGreek thinkers tried to formulatedistinctions between (rational medicine)and treatments based on superstition orsupernatural intervention when the papyrifrom Egypt were first translated, scholarsput forward the theory that medicine hadenjoyed a golden age of scientificrationalism in the third millennium BC,but that thereafter it was increasinglycontaminated by magic.
The Egyptian pharmacopoeia with itsextensive use of blood and excrementseems as weird as any of the ingredientsused in magic. At least nineteen types ofexcrement are mentioned in themagico-medical papyri.
The use of excrement in medicine wasoften motivated by the principle of treatinglike with like. Many illnesses wereattributed to faults in the digestive process.The digestion of food was compared to theputrefaction of a corpse. If residues ofrotting food remained in the body theywere thought to rise and cause trouble.Medicines or fumigations containingexcrement were thought to encouragethese residues to come down to the rectum.Seemingly bizarre treatments can be theend result of careful process of thought.They are quite rational within the contextof the Egyptian world view.
As in ancient Egypt snake –bite victimsare treated with water poured over theinscribed stelae. However this stage ispreceded by the priest-in-charge cuttingopen the wound and trying to remove thepoison. The water poured over the statue ispart of a vigorous attempt to cleanse thewound. An ancient Egyptian scorpion –charmer probably treated his patients in asimilar fashion. A very late anti-venomspell in the London Leiden papyrus doesdescribe the sucking of poison from thewound before the incantations begin. Oneearlier example mentions placing a breadpoultice on the sting to draw out thepoison.
Many practical treatments, such asbandaging, fumigations and theadministration of potions, rubs, poultices.Enemas, douches and suppositories, aredescribed in the magico-medical papyriwithout any accompanying recitation orother magical method. However generalspells to accompany some of these types oftreatment are recorded. One early secondmillennium BC spell is to be said duringthe drinking of a medicine. It describes themedicine as a form of heka that will driveharmful substances from the body. Thespell then alludes to the fight betweenHorus and Seth and the healing of the
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injured gods. General spells for bandagingor for removing dressings from woundsare also known.
Thus a woman suffering from irregularperiods is to take a herbal remedy whilereciting (unstated) magic words. Thesewere presumably taught to her by thedoctor. The decision on whether to userecitations may have depended on whetherthe doctor felt it necessary to engender anatmosphere of authority and confidence.Bone setting and simple surgery are rarelyaccompanied in the surviving texts bymagical invocations. Other conditions,such as headaches nearly always are. Aneat division into the treatable and theuntreatable is not a complete explanationfor the use of magic. Some conditions thatwere easily treatable by Egyptiantechnology, such as minor burns, and someconditions that would have solvedthemselves fairly rapidly, such as ascorpion sting to a healthy adult, occurconstantly in magical texts. It could beargued that magic was popular in thesecases because it always appeared to work.
There were clearly some elements ofpersonal choice in the combination ofmedical, magical and religious meansresorted to in any specific case.Some papyri that are assumed to have beenwritten by and for male doctors or priestsdescribe internal examinations of womanfor gynecological and digestive problems.This would have been unacceptable inmany ancient cultures. Ancient Chinesedoctors were allowed to touch no morethan wrist of a female patient.
Medicine in Egypt is normally thought ofas a male occupation, but a literate lady ofthe house with a large staff of femaleservants may well have done some of herown doctoring.The immediate cause of the patient’scondition would have been a householdaccident, but the ultimate cause was heldto be the goddess Sekhmet who was
associated with the harmful aspects of fireand heat. Various types of demon whocaused fever were emissaries of Sekhmetidentifying the ultimate cause of a diseaseor wound, or even the disease itself, with asupernatural being was characteristic ofEgyptian medicine. Headaches, stomachproblems and fevers are frequentlyreferred to as being caused by demons,ghosts or hostile manifestations of deities.Various bodily fluids of these demonswere thought to contaminate the patient’sbody and cause sickness. An emetic mightbe administered as part of treatment so thatthe patient would vomit out the intruder.
Modern medicine is coming to realize thatthe mental emotional state of the patienthas much more effect on their physicalcondition than was originally allowed forin the scientific model of disease. Egyptianmedicine never neglected these aspects. Itis like that many of the rites described inthe magico-medical papyri would have hada beneficial psychological effect on thepatient the visualization of the disease waspart of the treatment in itself and may havehelped to mobilize the body’s naturaldefense systems.
One spell in papyrus offers protection fromhead to foot. Each part of the body isassigned to a deity who will be itsprotector. The deities chosen many evokeparticular mythical events or images,transforming the patient’s body into a kindof cosmic map.
The patient’s right eye is identified withthe solar eye of Re-Atum and his left eyewith the lunar eye of Horus. His back isGeb and his belly is Nut. His penis is thebaboon god Baba, his thighs are Isis andNephthys, and his feet are those of Shu.The text ends by promising that there isn’ta single part of the body which has notbeen sealed by a deity. The rubric revealsthat all this protection was against sicknessinflicted by hostile ghosts, particularlyfemale ones.
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Plague and other epidemics may havebecome more common by the mid secondmillennium BC due to the constant contactbetween Egypt and its client states.
This was a health problem on a nationalscale and efforts to prevent plague seem tohave been made by the state as well as byindividuals.
The honored place given to medicine inEgyptian temples demonstrates that theeffort to preserve health and life was partof the moral order, part of the statesresponsibility to its citizens as defined inreligious thoughts. If many scholars havebeen dismissive of Egyptian medicine, thismay be in response to the grandiose claimsmade for it by followers of the occult.
To contradict this optimistic view, one hasonly to look at modern autopsy results onthe surviving mummies of pharaohs andhigh priests of the late second and earlyfirst millennium BC. These rulers wouldhave had access to the best Egyptiandoctors and priests. They were served bymen who were conversant with all thesecrets of the house of life, yet theysuffered from painful conditions such asscoliosis of the spine, hernias and toothabscesses. Some came to a premature end,like Ramses V who died young ofsmallpox. Those who did live to old agecould expect to end their days like RamsesII, crippled by rheumatoid arthritis and inconstant pain from ulcerated gums. Thecorpses of two still born children sufferingfrom Spina , found in the tomb ofTutankhamen, are an even more poignantreminder that death was an ever presentreality for Egyptians.
Therapeutic Value ofMagic “Heka”:
a)Response expectancy
The deities were such an acceptedpart of daily life that invoking their helpwould have been the first rather than thelast option considered. Because of the ruleof the divine king, people expected theirgods to be present in their temples. Thothwas of central significance to Egyptianmedicine, because of his role as the god ofwriting, wisdom and balance. Because aperson expected to be healed, his or herown immune system was reinforced,which rebalanced the internal disorder. Ascontemporary studies have shown, thisauto-immune reaction can be verypowerful.
b) Suggestion
The "power of suggestion" isunmistaken, and subliminal influence onthe mind has been attested in marketingand publicity. The key to suggestion is atriadic sequence:(a) Original intention (conscious). (b)Ritual procedures to repress the intentionin the unconscious. (c)Automatic projection of the intended goalsby the unconscious (either as a state ofmind, or as an intended effect likeinstantaneous healing or spontaneousremission).
c) Placebo effect:
A placebo is a biomedical inertsubstance given in such a manner as toproduce relief. The resulting patient effectis the placebo effect, a response to the actof being treated. The patient's state ofmind is the critical variable here. However,not the patient's faith in the curativepowers of the substance is important, buthis or her confidence that the healer isconvinced of the efficacy of theintervention. This effect is not confined tosubstances, for the attention of the priest ormagician to the curative spells and ritualactions may also increase the expectation
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of a cure (hand in hand with theadministration of drugs).
d) Hypnosis:
The physical effects of hysteria andthe subsequent cure by depth-psychological investigations of the psychictrauma through hypnosis (and later freeassociation) was one of the stepping-stonesto Freud's system. The effects of hypnosiscan be quite spectacular (like walking onburning coal and the like). The long-termeffects of implanting suggestions are oneof the reasons why public hypnosis showshave been prohibited. Repetitious ritualactivity induces a hypnotic state, allowingfor the healing suggestion to penetrate intothe unconscious.
d) Homeopathic effect:
Selecting a herbal remedy from aparticular plant or mineral because of itsresemblance to the organ requiringtreatment or to the precise nature of thedisease, is the "sympathetic" link neededin the "similia similibus" principle (like iscured by like) ;
e) Paranormal healing effects:
Lastly, through action-at-a-distance, i.e.telekinesis, healing power can betransferred from healer to patient. This isthe most controversial approach, involvinga violation of the known laws of energyconservation and transmission. Althoughsome evidence exists, there is (as yet) noconsensus in the scientific community asto the real existence of Psi events.
In Ancient Egyptian medicine, thesephenomena (incorporated in generalhealing spells and incantations) could becoupled with practical treatments, such as
bandaging, fumigations, potions, rubs,poultrices, enemas, douches andsuppositories. Spells were said over a cakewhich had to been swallowed or during thedrinking of a medicine. All medicine was akind of "magic" that drove away harmfulsubstances and demons from the body. Thefight between Horus and Seth was ofteninvoked in the context of fighting themorbid spirits that had entered the bodyand the ultimate restoration of the Eye, thereturn of "wellness", "Wedjat". Thothpresided over all these activities. But evenSeth was invoked to counter powerfuldemons that possessed the body.
In general, healing rituals followed thepattern of magical rituals, which, whenapproached from an operational angle, totwo fundamental processes (defining thetwo classes of magic: lower and highermagic):
1. Evocation: the calling forth of aspirit lower than the spiritual levelof man.
2. Invocation: the calling in of a spirithigher than the spiritual level ofman.
The first layer, plane or "sheet" (cf. theSanskrit "kosha") was the "ka" ("kA") or"double", causing the physical body to bevital. Related to breath (cf. "prânâ" and theGreek "pneuma"), the intake of food andsunlight, it regulated health. The Egyptiansdid not offer to idols, but to the doublesand souls of the deities that dwelled inthem (inhabited them). This waspleasurable to the gods, whose spiritslooked down from the sky. Pharaoh wasthe only "god on Earth", i.e. a god who'sspirit had not (yet) risen to the sky.
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Medical Amulets
The words amulets is derived froman Arabic word which means “carry”, so itis something which was used to be worn orcarried .It is a name given from a class of objectsmade of various substance which wereemployed by the Egyptians and later byother nations to protect the human bodyrather during living or dead from the attackof the visible or invisible things, so we arenot sure whether the amulets was first usedto protect all the living or the dead bodybut it seems that it was originally worn toguard its owner from the wild animals andfrom serpents. . In Other words, theybelieved so strongly in the healing andprotective power of the amulet that theysought its protection not only during life,but also in the afterlife, as it’s evidencedby burials dating back to pre-dynastictimes.
Hidden malevolent forces wereeverywhere in ancient Egypt. They couldtake the form of poisonous snakes,scorpions, disease, floods or almost anynatural disaster, illness, or tangible foe. Tocombat and protect themselves againstthese forces, ancient Egyptians woreamulets, or charms, around their necks,ankles, wrists, or anywhere else on theirbodies
As time went on new religious ideas andbeliefs come up so new amulets wereinvented and the objects which were ableto protect the living were made by an easy
transition in the minds of those who worethem to protect the dead.The dead body became a veritablestorehouse of amulets as it contain a hugenumber of amulets as to protect the bodyfrom being were general amulets that wasused to be placed as to protect the bodygeneral from serpent , worms, mildew ,decay and putrefaction were laid betweenthe bandage. In any case, amulets wereworn from infancy through death.
We have two kinds of amulets:Intact, each member was placed under
the protection of some amulet and theywere divided to;
1- Amulets which are inscribed with amagical formula.
2- Amulets which are not inscribed bya magical formula.
In early time formula or prayerswere recited over the amuletswhich were placed on the dead orworn by living by the priest , sothe earliest name of the formulafound upon amulets is (haku) and itwas so necessary for the deceasedto be provided with these hekau orwords of power.
The earliest Egyptian amuletsknown are pieces of green schist ofvarious shapes animals andotherwise, which were laid uponthe breast of the deceased and itwas widely spread until the end ofthe Neolithic period.
Moreover we have a survivinggreen stone scarab which wasplaced upon the breast of deceasedin the dynastic period also greenschist amulets of the pre-dynastic
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period, and about the hekau or theprayers, we have an inscriptions onthe walls of the corridors andchambers of the pyramid of Unasand words of magical power wasburied with him.
Kinds of amulets:We have different types of amulets
that was used to be placed in differentorgans to insure their protection from theevil spirits and diseases but the ones withthe most important role played in medicineare:
1- The heart amulet or IB sign :
The heart was not only the seatof power of life but also thesource of both good and eviland it was guarded after deathwith special care as the amuletsof the heart was connected bythe protection of the heart fromthe evil spirit.
2- The amulet of the udjat eyesor the eye of Horus:
The eye of Horus is one of thecommonest of all and seems tohave been universal at allperiods, it was made of gold,silver, granite, it has two kindsone facing the left and the otherto the right and together theyrepresent the two eyes of
Horus, when the Egyptianswore the udjat as amulets theyintended it to bring to them theblessing of strength, vigor,protection, safety and goodhealth and it was alsoconsidered to protect woundslike what in themummification.
3- The amulet of the cnh sign :
It symbolizes life, every godcarries it and it seems in theearliest times to be aconventional representation ofsome object which in theremotest period had been usedas an amulets and it is an objectthat bring health.
4- The amulet of the djet
sign:The three of first Egyptian godsoften referred to as theEgyptian trinity were Osiris,Isis, and Horus and the amuletsassociated with them are thedjet , the knot of Isis and thewadjet or the eye of Horus.The djet was used to cure orprotect the wearer againstinjury to the back in generaland to protect the spine.
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5- The amulets of the pillow sign:
Model of a pillow placed underthe neck of the mummy in thecoffin and its object is lift up and toprotect the head of the deceased itis usually made of hematite andinscribed upon it a chapter from thebook of death.
6- The amulet of the
Buckle:Three of the first Egyptiangods, often referred to as theEgyptian trinity, were Osiris,Isis, and Horus, and the amuletsassociated with them are theDjet, the Knot of Isis, and theWedjat, or Eye of Horus,respectively. The Djet was usedto cure or protect the weareragainst injury to the back ingeneral and to protect the spine.When used as a royal funeraryamulet, it guaranteed thatOsiris’ spirit would accompanythe pharaoh’s soul to theunderworld, and he would thenbe reborn with a strong spine
7- The amulets of the Menat :
It was used in Egypt as early as5th dynasty, it was worn or heldor carried with a sistrum by
gods, kings, priests andpriestesses, and its objectivewas to bring joy and health tothe wearer.
8- The amulet of the serpent`s
head:It used to be placed on the deadbody to keep it from beingbitten by the snakes of theunderworld or tombs; it is madeof red stone, red jasper, redpaste and carnelian.
Perhaps one doesn't think thatthis practice could be calledproper medicine. But thesesymbols might well have beenbeneficial because the wearerbelieved that he was protectedand would get well.
With these and other newchanges, the purposes fulfilledby amulets grew, as did thenumber of amulets. No longerwere amulets simply to protectthe deceased and keep theliving safe from illness andaccidents, but new amuletswere created to fulfill almostany wish, even for tangiblegoods.
Amuletic magic and symbolismsheds a good deal of light onthe overall societal beliefs andconcepts of ancient Egyptians
.
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Medical Spells
PRACTICAL EGYPTIAN MAGICALSPELLS USED FOR MEDICALPURPOSES:
The words, spoken or perhaps even morepotent, written down and read out aloud,was considered like Magic Spells forAncient Egyptians, but these spells wasoften accompanied by actions or Rituals,so that the Spoken words could Work andbe efficient as needed and the effect couldbe obvious..On the other hand, actions or rituals onlywithout spoken spells and words still couldnot do the Job by its own..
Examples for spells:
1) Grace before a Meal from Edfu(excerpts)
The dining table is identified withthe creator Atum, and Pharaoh with hiseldest son Shu, created from saliva. Atumproduces food-stuffs; the king offers themback on the altar, and ultimately consumesthem (temple procedure in miniature,known as reversion of offerings).To be spoken by His Majesty whenpartaking of a meal:“ O table god, you have spat forth Shufrom your mouth ... O table god, may hegive to you all that he will have dedicated ,since he has become a god who is anemanation, alert, worshipful and powerful.May he dedicate to you every good thingwhich you will give him, since he hasbecome Heka. May he dedicate to youevery good thing, food-offerings inabundance. May he set them before youand may you be content with them, mayyour spirit be content with them and mayyour heart be content with them
forever....”- [The King of Egypt's Gracebefore Meat," Journal of EgyptianArchaeology, vol. 31 (1945)]
2) Protection against Food Poisoning
Copies at Edfu, Esna, and KomOmboPrinciple of "talion"/retribution; turncurse/poison upon offending enemy.“O Sekhmet of yesterday, Wadjet of today,You have come and replenished this tableof -Your name here-Just as you did for your father Re, whenyou came forth from the cult city of Pe.Protect -Your name here- with thatpapyrus wand of life which is in yourhand, in that name of yours of Wadjet.Shoot your arrow against all the food ofhim who shall speak against –Your namehere- by means of any evil matters. Let aslaughter be made of them like that timewhen you overpowered the enemies of Rein the primordial age in that name of yoursof Sekhmet.Your offerings belong to -Your name here-He is Re from whom you came forth.So long as he exists, you will exist, andvice versa! “- [Retranslated from "Uneformule solennele de purification desoffrandes dans les temples ptolémaïques,"Chronique d'Égypte, vol. 45, no. 90(1970)]
3) Spell for swallowing a fishbonecaught in the throat
“The Unique One (= creator) belongs tome as my servant! The Unique Onebelongs to me! My bread is in town, myportion of meals is in the field - bone getsright! A man should say this spell over acake, to be swallowed by the man in whosethroat is the fishbone.”-[Papiro Ieratico n. 54003, Turin: 1970, p.36 (no. 11, verso, cols. 15-18)].
4) Spell for drinking Beer (prophylaxisfor Hangover)
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“Hail to you Lady of Hetepet (Hathor,goddess of drunkenness)! There is norestraining Seth when he has set his hearton conquering a heart in that name of hisof "Beer," to confuse a heart, to conquerthe heart of an enemy, a fiend, a maleghost, a female ghost, etc.”This spell is said during the drinking ofbeer; to be spat up. Truly effective,(proved) millions of times!- [The MagicalTexts of P. Leiden I 348, Leiden: 1971, p.27 (no. 24)]
5) Remedy for Headache (Patient asHorus; theme of reversal)
"My head, my head," said Horus."The half of my head (= migrane), the halfof my head," said Thoth. "Act for me,mother Isis and aunt Nephthys! Give meyour head in exchange for my head, thehalf of my head!" (Isis speaks): "Just as Ihave seen these people (= humansufferers), so = I have heard these gods(Horus and Thoth) saying to me on behalfof my son Horus: 'Let there be brough tome your head in exchange for my head.'Let threads be brought from the edge of agarment, having been made into sevenknots, placed on the left foot of -Your namehere- born of -Mother's name here. Whatis placed below will cure what is above,for I have elevated what the gods seek.”This spell is to be said over seven threadsof a garment, made into seven knots,placed on the left foot of a man.
6) Spell for Protecting a Book
“As for any man, even of any foreign land,whether of Nubia, Cush, or Syria, whoshall remove this book, carrying it off fromme - their corpse shall not be buried; theyshall not receive cool water; their incenseshall not be inhaled; no son or daughtershall wait upon them to pour waterofferings to them; their name shall not beremembered anywhere on earth; they shallnot see the rays of the solar disk. But, asfor any servant who shall see this book,
when he has caused that my soul and myname be enduring with praises - thereshall be done the like for him after death("mooring") in exchange for what he hasdone for me.”- ["The Bremner-RhindPapyrus - II," Journal of EgyptianArchaeology].
7) Spell for the spread of diseases in theAir “The deamons of disease, themalignant spirits, and messengers ofSekhmet” which was suggested theywould come on the wind:
“Withdraw, ye disease demons. The windshall not reach me, that those who pass byto work disaster against me. I am Horus,who passes by the diseased ones ofSekhmet, [even] Horus, Horus, healthydespite Sekhmet. I am the unique one, sonof Bastet, I die not through thee.”This spell had to be spoken by a man whocarried a stick of des-wood in his hand ashe circled his house, thus drawing a circleof protection around his abode; the stick,of course was a magic wand, a commontool of Egyptian magicians. Also thesesame words could be uttered whiledrawing circle around a bed to protect asleeper from scorpions and snakes.
8) Spell for Curing Burns:
Create a mixture of milk of a woman whohas borne a male child, gum, and, ram'shair. While administering this mixture say:“Thy son Horus is burnt in the desert. Isthere any water there? There is no water. Ihave water in my mouth and a Nilebetween my thighs. I have come toextinguish the fire.”- [This Recipe is takenfrom the ‘Papyrus Ebers ‘].9) Spell and Cure for Cataracts:
Mix brain-of-tortoise with honey. Place onthe eye and say:“There is a shouting in the southern sky indarkness, there is an uproar in thenorthern sky, The Hall of Pillars falls intothe waters. The crew of the sun god bent
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their oars so that the heads at his side fallinto the water, who leads hither what hefinds? I lead forth what I find. I lead forthyour heads. I lift up your necks. I fastenwhat has been cut from you in its place. Ilead you forth to drive away the god ofFevers and all possible deadly arts”-[This Recipe is taken from the ’PapyrusEbers ‘].
10) "Lost" Oracular Amuletic Papyrus(OIM 25622) for Lady Taibakhori,spoken by the Goddess Nekhbet:
"...I shall keep her healthy in her flesh andher bones. I shall protect her and I shalllook after her. I shall be between her andany sickness. I shall grant her life, health,and a great and goodly old age. I shallcause her eyes to see; I shall cause herears to hear; I shall cause herstrength to flourish. I shallopen her mouth to eat and Ishall open her mouth to drink.I shall cause her to eat inorder to live and I shall causeher to drink in order to behealthy. I shall cause her tobe completely satisfied with ahappy life on earth."-[Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum,vol. IV, London: 1960, p. 107].
Some other spells were said for a manwho has swallowed a fly asserts that hismouth will become as clean as anewborn calf who has never eaten, andthat the fly will pass out of him in hisexcrement without injuring his stomach.The use of a special spell to rid the bodyof a fly suggests that Egyptians realizedflies carry disease. And also there was ageneral spell for cleaning everything, toinsure the protection of diseases and evilspirits and demons.
Magical Wands inAncient Egypt:
A wand made from a hippopotamus tusk.Decorated with carvings of knife-wieldingprotective beings each seated on a baskethieroglyph. The ends are decorated withheads of a jackal and a lion-like creature.These wands were used to ward off eviland harmful forces. So: It's a real magicwand.
In ancient Egypt, what we call demonswere not necessarily evil, nor were thefantastic animals portrayed in their midst.Many demons had protective qualities andby their strange appearance, frightened anykind of malevolent beings. Magic wandswere frequently offered to women, and
particularly to young mothers, in order toprotect them and their children againstother demons bearing sickness. However,those fantastic animals that were founddepicted in tombs probably served asimilar purpose of protecting the ownerduring the afterlife when the he or she hadto cross border zones guarded bydangerous beings.
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Today the practice of heka is opento anyone who wishes to pursue it.Although we do not have the worldview ofthe ancient Egyptians and much of theirmaterial has been lost, we do have somemajor advantages that make heka moreaccessible.For a start literacy and numeracy are thenorm, available for almost all the Socialclasses, rather than being restricted to therich and priestly castes, as was the case inEgypt. Technology has made the power ofthe written and spoken words, so vital toEgyptian magic, available to all of us. Forthis reason you do not need to have auniversity education or have studiedEgyptology or classics to appreciateEgyptian magic. Freedom of information hasbrought truth to the statement that magic isfor all, or rather meant that is accessible toall who have the desire and dedication topursue a magical life.
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ApendixA
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Mummy AnalysisIntroduction:Serious and wide spread interest in the
analysis of mummies began after the
discovery of the two major caches of
Egyptian royal mummies on the west bank
of Luxor a century ago. The recovery of the
bodies of some of the ancient world's
greatest rulers inevitably prompted
speculation. People wanted to know what,
for instance, Ramesses II looked like, how
tall he was, the colour of his eyes and hair,
the state of his teeth and from what diseases
he might have suffered. At first, efforts were
concentrated on these royal mummies. More
recently, many museume have been
examining their non-royal mummies, some
for the first time. Almost three-quarters of
these projects have involved X-ray analysis,
the first step to understanding the ancient
remanis. And some of the most up-to-date
modern technology is helping to reveal
mummies, but when looked at in the broader
context of many analytical results help to
create a clearer picture of ancient Egyptian
life and death.
Mummies: fromcollection to CAT scan:
A number of the European and
American tourists who visited Egypt
following Napoleonic occupation
acquired mummies which they unrolled'
either on the spot or back in their native
countries. After the original owners died,
their heirs often donated the mummies to
local museums. These remains, unwrapped
and without salisfaclory provenance (i.e. no
clear indication of their exact source), form
a large proportion of current museum stocks
of mummies. But there were already a few
mummies in national institutions. When the
royal surgeon sir Hans sloane left his
collection of artifacts from all over the
world to the British nation in 1753 – the
acquisition of which formed the basis of the
British Museum – one mummy was already
in their possession. This was to be followed
thirteen years later, in 1766, by another, said
to be from the great necropolis of saqqara.
In the same year, the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford, obtained the mummy of a small
child, although details of its original source
are unrecorded.
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First steps in analysis:One of the earliest recorded
examinations of a mummy, performed out of
historical and scientific interest rather than
sheer curiosity, was undertaken by the
Champollion brothers early in the nineteenth
century. The elder, jacques-joseph, had had
a lifelong passion for everything Egyptian, a
love whieh he imparled to his brother and
student, Jean-François, the famous
decipherer of hieroglyphs. When the
brothers acquired the mummy, that of a
young man of the Ptolemaic period, is
unknown, but an account of the unwrapping
published by the elder brother in 1814, the
body, which had finger- and toe-caps,
made of gold, was in good condition at the
tink of the examination. When it was
rewrapped the brothers crossed the arms
over the chest, the position the body appear
was not in earlier the strain of this together
with a rather ineffectual attempt , has
resulted in several erosion around the arms
an chest, and the loss of the mummy's feet.
Today, the mummy is in the Museum des
Beaux Arts, Grenoble.
The arrival of the first cache of royal
mummise in the Cairo Museum in 1881
heralded the new era of mummy
examination. It reported that within half an
hour of their arrival, many of the mummies
had been unwrapped. Photographs taken at
the time of the unwrapping of the body of
the pharaoh Ramesses II show that the linen
bandages, most of which were free from
resin (the wrapping was probably done
during the Twentieth Dynasty by the High
priest Herihor when he rewrapped and
moved the mummise of the royal dead to
safety), were simply cut through from head
to foot. There was no attempt to record how
the wrapping had been done. The mummy of
Amenhotep I, a particularly finely wrapped
body with garlands still intact over the
bandages, was left untouched, and today
remains the only pharaoh among the Cairo
royal mummies who is still wrapped as he
was found over a century ago.
In 1889, the mummies were examined
closely by Gaston Maspero director of the
Antiquities Organization; and the results
were published in 1895. Maspero described
the mummies ' external appearance at
length, remarking upon such features as
their heigh and build. In the same year that
his report appeared, Konrad vate Rotgen
discovered X-rays, a technique that would in
time make the examination of mummies
more fruitful.
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X-ray: the newtechnology:
The first mummy to be X-rayed was
one held by the British Museum In the 1890,
flinders petrie, be this time one of the
world's most celebrated Egyptologisls, was
able to take plates only of the feet and legs
because of the size and weight of the
equipment available to him But it was
enough to prove the efficiency of the
method. At the same time in Vienna, a
doctor called Bloch managed to take two
fine plate of an Egyptian mummy for
medical rather than for archaeologiel
purposes, the pictures, published in 1897 in
Lepipzig, were authenticated by the great
German Egyptologist Georg Ebers, an were
significant because they covered the whole
of the body, enable scholar to study internal
bones structure and packing.
Maspero suggested in his first report
on the Cairo royal mummies that X-rays
would prove of immense value in the study
of the bodies and in 1903, Dr Kahayat
performed a single X-ray on the body of the
pharaoh tuthmosis IV in order to try and
establish the cause of death. The analysis of
this X-ray by the pathologist Grafton Elliol
Smith for the first time gave clue as to the
true age of the king at his death. From the
state of the king’s bones, Ellion Smith was
able to determine that Tuthmosis was a
relatively young man at death , far younger
than earlier historical estimates had
suggested.
In the early 1900, Elliot smith and a
team of doctors were given permission to
examine the royal mummies in Cairo in
closer detail – but not with X-ray equipment.
Perhaps it was considered that not enough
was known about the after-effects of such an
analysis – that the mummy might develop
problems in later years as a result of the
bombardment of the bodies with X-rays.
The team found the exercise frustrating,
because the heavy resins that coated the
body were so solid that, apart from the use
of X-rays, only the total destruction of the
remains would have made a thorough study
possible. So, only cursory estimates of the
ages could be formed and, since a small
number of the mummies showed any
external evidence of the cause of death, few
were reached. But publication of Elliot
Smith's results in the Cairo Museum
catalogue of the Royal Mummies, in 1912,
excited great interest.
In the decades that followed,
museums around the world began to study
the mummies in their won collections – but
with X-rays – although their efforts were
often severely hampered by the lack of
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detail about origin and accurate dating of
their specimens. The Belgian Frans
Jonckheere and the British scholar P.H.k.
Gray, both Egyptologists and doctors,
between them published reports of over 200
mummies in Britain, France and Holland,
The Givico Museum di Storia Arte in
Trieste published the report of their study in
1951. Fifteen years later, the X-rays taken of
all the mummies in the collection of the City
Museum in Liverpool showed exelusively
how valuable this method of analysis could
be.
Finally, in 1967, permission was
given to a team of scholars from the
University of Michigan, backed by
Alexandria University and the United States
Health Service, to X-ray the royal mummies
in Cairo. The publication of their findings
aroused great controversy, since the ages of
the bodies frequently proved to be
inconsistent with the number of years the
pharaohs had apparently ruled. Today the
actual identification of several of the royal
mummies is being questioned.
The next steps intechnology:
In the mid-1960, another form of
radiological machine came into wide use.
This was the computed tomography scanner,
known familiarly as the CAT scanner. This
machine into which the mummy was passed
enabled pictures to be taken of slices
through the body. Now, instead of simply
having horizontal views of mummified
bodies, cross-sectional pictures allowed
scholars to see exactly what lay within the
wrappings. CAT scanners reveal differences
in density mush more easily than X-rays, so
that soft organs can be view.
Note: X-rays provide a
method of:
Investigation that not involved
destroying the coffin, mummy or wrappings.
In 1967, Amenhotep I (above), the only one
of the pharaonic mummies to remain fully
wrapped was X-rayed in Cairo. The remains
were those of a healthy man, with protruding
teeth, like those of many of his family.
In 1966, the Egyptian Museum of
Turin X-rayed the mummy of kha (right),
whose intact burial had been found in 1906,
at Deir el Medina, by Ernesto Schiaparelli.
The X-rays revealed hoop earring and a
collar made of a series of gold rings,
possibly the gold of honor, an award
presented by the king himself. An amulet
known as the girdle of Isis' is under the
collar. The long, thin chain supported a heart
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scarab (not shouwn) the dark area in the
middle of kha's forehead is a snake's head
amulet.)
Projects in Philadelphia in 1973, in
Manchester in 1975, and in Boston,
Minneapolis, Lausanne and Lyouns during
the 1980 have all used this technology with
great effectiveness. But these last project
have gone further than the previous ones in
their aims and researches. Instead of simply
recording the findings from the X-rays and
CAT scans, teams from all over the world
have attempted to extract ever more detail.
The use of endoscopes, either metal viwing
tubes or glass fibre rods, has enabled
pathologists to look inside the mummies
while causing minimal damage to the body
itself.
In order to study the structure of cells
under a microscope, tissue must be
rehydrated and cut into thin sections, but the
actual rehydration is often still a very
difficult procedure. Many samples of tissue
have simply collapsed into a sludge-like
mass while undergoing the process. Those
attempts that have succeeded have allowed
slide sections to be taken that have shown
still intact basic cell structures. In
Cambridge in 1983, further tests on
some rehydrated mummy tissue samples
proved that even the DNA structure (the
basic genetic structure within each cell)
could be identified. Sensationalized
speculation in the press at the time mooted
the possibility of cloning from such tissue
samples – but speculation is all it is, for
these cell not truly living or capable of life.
The thought of long- death being
regenerated has also given rise to
speculation that diseases such as smallpox,
could be contracted frome mummies. But
science research has proved that although
bacteria and viruses are a problem, there has
never been a viable smallpox bug found
older 200 years. Exciting though they may
be, such ideas must remain stuff of science
fiction.
Other tests have been carried out on
samples of materials from and around the
mummies – such things as crystalline
deposits, packing materials and wrappings –
by applying spectroscopy more recently,
chromatography. Both methods are based on
weight (i.e. atomic weight or mass) of
elements. Spectroso identifies the elements
because each has a different, specific
chromatography sorts the elements by the
difference in the speed movement. These
methods not only allow the composition of
materials to be identified with great
accuracy, but also, in some area for the
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place of origin to be specified. Some metals,
the volcanicg obsidian, and most clays bear
a chemical 'fingerprint' that made them
unique to one particular area which may,
given sufficient information, tells us more
about where the mummy was prepared
where the material used in the process came
from.
Note: This CAT scan:
Of Ankhpefhor (above) – a male of
the early third Intermediate period, probably
from Luxor and now in Boston's Museum of
fine Arts – shows a slice through the chest
cavity. The outer white perimeter is the line
of the car tonnage coffin. Inside this are the
bones of the arm, seen as two white circles
on either side of the chest. Inside, remains of
the heart can be seen in the middle.
Note: The three-dimensional:
Reconstruction of the head of
Boston’s mummy tabs (above)- a female
from the third Intermediate period – has
been created from CAT scan images. The
head is startlingly clear through the
wrappings, even the hair, which has been
matted because of the resins used in
mummification. Tabs' nose has been pushed
out of shape by being merged against the car
tonnage covering her face.
In 1916 the Minneapolis lnstitute of
Arts acquired the late period mummy of a
woman. Details of the original location of
the body had been lost, but the two
elaborately painted coffins record that
the occupant was the Lady tehat, Lady of the
House, Daughter of the .
Doorkeeper of the Gates of the temple
of Amun, Djehutihotep on stylistic grounds,
the coffins themselves can be identified as
coming from Luxor (ancient thebes).
X-rays taken during the 1920 have
unfortunately been lost, but the mummy was
X-rayed again in 1975. It was plain that the
mummy itself was damaged and that
between its legs lay a second adult skull. It
is not usually to find stray body parts in a
wrapped mummy, but to find such a skull
was indeed a rare occurrence.
Eight years later, the mummy of the
lady teshat was subjected to compute
tomography scanning (known as CT or CAT
scanning).
The scans showed that damage to the
body was extensive, with broken ribs, upper
arm and collar bone. There were also
curious crises on the soles of the feet the
damage had been done after.
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Death, presumably by robbers The
lines on the feet are thought to have
occurred during the embalming or wrapping
of the body. One conclusion reached on the
bases of the scans was that the mummy bad
been rewrapped in antiquity and that the
second skull, also badly damaged had been
inserted at this time. It may well have been
from a nearby burial, perhaps of a relative,
also disturbed by robbers.
In spite of the damage to her body,
Lady Teshat’s legs were intact, and it was
determined that she had been in her mid- to
late teens when she died.
Despite another scan in 1988, we still
have no proof of how this young wife died,
and no clue to the identity of the owner of
the second skull. Each analysis leaves
unanswered questions.
The mummy of the Lady teshat has
been analyzed with the most moderm
equipment allowing the maximum of details
to be extracted from her remains with no
damage to them at all. In 1975, the mummy,
still in its coffin (far right) was X-rayed In
the 1980, the body was subject of two (Al
scan analyses (above).
For example, how much of the linen
used in the bandaging came from materials
supplied by the family (i.e. from local
sources) and how much was provided from a
centralized, royal store. Analysis may one
day reveal the answer.
Methods for calculatingthe ages of the mummies:
In the case of the royal mummies,
historical sources provide some information
that can serve as a rough guide by which
ages can be estimated. In nearly every case,
it is known almost exactly how long the
kings ruled, and the events they celebrated at
various stages of their reigns. The dates of
such events as their marriages, the birth of
their children. The dates at which they held
major festivals and their military campaigns
fill the long texts on tomb and temple walls,
this historical assessment naturally coloured
the first visual examination of the mummies.
The body of Ramesses II, for example, a
man who is thought to have ruled Egypt for
sixty-seven years and who was capable of
tathering a child in the first year of that
reign, was estimated to be at least ninety
years of age. When the arehaeologists and,
later, the pathologists, examined the body,
therefore, it was always with these dates in
mind.
When scientists come to examine the
bodies of ordinary people, however, such
mile stones in their lives simply do not exist.
In no case is the age at death of any
individual clearly stated, and so other
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methods must be applied to try to assess
this.
Skeletal examination:An individual's age at death can be
estimated by studying their skeleton. This
estimate is much easier and produces a more
accurate age range in children and
adolescences than it does in adults. During
childhood and adolescence, the permanent
teeth develop and erupt, displacing the
deciduous (milk) teeth. This occurs within
reasonably well-defined age ranges
concluding with the eruption of the third
molars (wisdom teeth) usually in the early
twenties. At the same time, under normal
conditions of nutrition, the juvenile skeleton
grows and develops. It is able to do so
because many of the bones have growth
plates, known as epiphyses, at their ends.
Each epiphysis consists of a plate of
cartilage, which is X-ray opaque, whose
purpose is to keep the end of the bone (joint)
apart from, although still connected to, the
main part of the bone. This separation
allows the bone to expand in size during the
growth period and when growth cases , by
the age of about twenty-five, all the
epiphyses have fused and turned to bone.
The epiphyses undergo fusion at different
rates for different bones; there is also a
different rate for the two sexes, which is
why girls stop growing earlier than boys.
Epiphyseal fusion occurs in every case
within a fairly small age range. Fusion itself
varies from joint to joint; those in the hands
and feet are the first to join, the last to join
are in the collar bone. It is important to
understand that whenever attempts are made
to estimate an individual's age at death, only
an age range may be given, and never a
specific age.
In the case of adults over the age of
twenty-five, the estimation of age at death is
much more difficult. Specialists working
with human skeletons from archaeological
contexts use as many age-related changes as
they can in order to build up a picture of the
adult's age . In the past, people ate a much
coarser diet than in case today, at least in the
western world . Creels for flour were ,
literally , stone ground even for the
pharaohs, and this technique inevitably
incorporates small fragments of stone into
the flour. The coarser the diet, the more
attrition (wear) is induced on the grown of
the tooth. Various schemes have been
produced for assigning age ranges to the
wear patterns formed on the molar teeth in
adults. These schemes, however, should not
be applied generaly to age people, since we
can never be sure about the diets affiects the
attrition rates. In order to produce age ranges
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based on tooth attrition. The specialist must
have a large group of skeletons with all ages
represented, from younger to the elder.
Examination of Egyptian mummies has
shown that many pharaoh suffered from
decay and abscesses of the jaw , suggesting
that diet in ancient Egypt was high in sugar
and, possibly, carbobydrates.
Recession of the gams and the
consequent loss of the bone of the jaw and
of the teeth is a condition that increases with
advancing age and the pocketing' (small
gaps that occur around the teeth, into which
food can accumulate and cause infection, as
the gums grow flaccid with age) and failure
of the soft supporting tissue; hence the
phrase' getting long in the tooth' . It can be
seen in the skeleton as a recession of the Jew
line and, when it occurs, suggests an older
person. Equally, an inerease in osteoarthritis,
particularly of the spine and other major
joins, occurs with age, often starting in the
thirties. Age change over the pubic syphilis
where the two sides of the pelvis meet,
although these must be used with caution.
Not only do they give a very wide range
with increasing age (e. g. 34- 86 years for
the oldest phase), but they can only be
applied safely to males. In women,
pregnancy and child birth affect this syphilis
and obscure the patterns.
It can thus be seen that ageing an
individual at death with any accuracy, form
the skeleton, is only possible in the young.
There is no evidence to support the idea that
people reached skeletal or sexual maturity at
a different age in the past. As in the case
today, these maturations occurred within an
age range. Although the pharaohs appear to
have married young, this is not an
exclusively Egyptian phenomenon, as our
own history will confirm. During the Middle
Ages, for instance, it was common for the
nobility to marry as children although the
marriage could not be consummated until
sexual maturity was achieved. This may
well have been the case in ancient Egypt.
The royal mummies:The mummies of many of the kings
and queens of ancient Egypt are held in the
Cairo Museum and come from the two
caches found in the late nineteenth century.
The first, discovered in 1881 at Deir el
Bahri, contained forty royal mummies; the
second cache, from the tomb of Amenhotep
II in the Valley of the Kings, contained
thirteen mummies including an unknown
woman. Many of the rulers are identified
either from inscriptions on their coffins or
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from tags, or dockets, placed around their
neeks.
Although most of the mummies were
undisturbed within their wrappings, a
number of the bodies appear to have been
badly damaged. The body of King
Merenptah, for example, the thirteenth son
and heir of the great Ramesses II, was
covered with the marks of axe cuts. Most of
these were the result of post-mortem
damage. It seems that when the royal tombs
in the valley were first robbed, the mummies
were torn, or hacked, apart to remove
whatever jewelers were on them. A prime
example is the terrible state of the mummy
of Ramesses VI.
Injury and violenceNone of the mummies showed any
clear evidence of long bones fractured
during their lifetime. This is surprising in
view of the fact that historical records
indicate that many of these pharaohs were
great warriors. Although some pictures of
fighting pharaohs, such as those found on
the furniture and burial equipment in
Tutankhamen’s tomb, can be dismissed as
idealizations, other depictions are
considered totaly credible. Some of these
kings must have fought in several series of
campaigns, and the idea that all of them
escaped unscathed demonstrates great ability
– or luck – or the age-old idea of the leaders
of battles directing events from far behind
the line of battle.
Only one king of the Seventeenth
Dynasty, earlier died at violent death. the
skull of his mummy, the least well preserved
of all the royal mummies, bears the marks of
a number of wounds made by axes, clubs
and maces. At least one shows signs of
healing, so the king must have lived for
some time after this blow, which may have
resulted in brain damage leading to the
paralysis that seem indicated in his body.
There are tow theories to account for the rest
of the wounds: the first, that the king was
attacked while asleep, perhaps by several
assassins; the second, that he died in battle.
The latter theory finds some support in the
poor condition of the body. Examination of
the wounds and damage to the skin suggests
strongly that the king may have died while
kneeling, and the body may later have been
attacked by carrion as it lay on the
battlefield.
Among the cache of royal mummies
found in 1881 at Deir el Bahri was the
damaged and poorly embalmed body of
seqenenre , a ruler in Luxor during the
troubled seventeenth Dynasty. One of his
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sons, kamose, is credited with the final
expulsion of the foreign Hyksos rulers;
another, called Ahomse, founded the
Eighteenth Dynasty and became the first
pharaoh of the New kingdom. The Austrian
scholar Manfred Bietak and his colleague
Eugen strouhal studied the wounds in
seqenenre's skull in the 1970 and
demonstrated to their own investigation that
the injuries were infected by bronze
weapons of a purely hyksos design. Did
seqenenre therefore meet his death in battle?
Historical records are helpful, but not
conclusively so. We know that seqenenre
came into open conflict with the hyksos king
Apophis,
seqenenre's wounds must have been
inflicted at two different times-and the
second resulted in his death. One of his arms
was paralyzed, which could well have been
caused by the injury to his head where the
skull showed evidence of healing. But did
seqenenre die at the hands of an assassin, as
some argue, or on the field of battle?
Manfred Bietak's theory holds that the age
of the various wounds confirms that the king
died in battle, on his knees, on doubt
fighting to the last.
From historical evidence, we can
imagine that other kings may have been
forcibly removed from the throne. Ramesses
III, for instance, may well have been
murdered following a well-documented
conspiracy of his wives to pac someone else.
His body shows no sign of violence, but it is
possible that he may have been poisoned.
others, such as Ramesses IV, reigned for
only a short time. Once again, the mummy
of this king may one day suggest more of
the real story of his death .
What do mummies revealabout heredity diseases?
Theory about the pharaohs was that
inheritance passed through the female line
and it was essential that a male heir must
marry the chief royal heiress to ensure his
right to the throne. In other words, kings
married their sisters, and their sons and
daughters married each other, and so on .,
oracle records in recent years have
shadowed more light on this. Many kings
marry their sisters or half-sisters,
presumably for state reasons; and these
queens stood before the goddesses as the
king stood before the gods. We do not know
if all these marriages were actually
consummated or resulted in offspring. What
does seem to be the case is that only a small
number of such unions produce children
who became the next rulers.
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Armed with only superficial
knowledge, it is often mistakenly assumed
that inbreeding, or close genetic
reproduction (i.e. repro- duction between
close blood relatives), would quickly result
in children with deformities. In fact, there is
as much chance of producing 'good' genes as
'bad' ones. The problem is that, because the
gene pool eventually – after generations –
becomes so restricted, genetic defects have
more opportunity of recurring. The so –
called incest taboo is the method that has
evolved of maintaining a good, mixed gene
pool, and greatly reducing the frequeney at
which abnormalities occur.
The Seventeenth Dynasty and early
Eighteenth Dynasties consistent of several
generations of rulers who apparently
interbreed. The family line anded with the
reign of Amenhotep I, who married two of
his four sisters, and died in his early
twenties, apparently leaving no heir. It is a
strong probability that one or both of those
wives may have been sterile as the result of
constant close genetic reproduction –
perhaps nature's way of dealing with a
restricted gene pool.
Some family traits can easily be
observed in the mummies of this royal line.
A prime example are the bodies of the
queens, which appear very similar to each
other. The first of them, Queen tetisheri,
mother of king Seqenenre , was the
grandmother of Queen Ahmose Nefertari
and great-grandmother of Queen Ahmose-
Meritamun. These ladies appear to have
been of a similar build, and all had
pronounced protruding teeth. All three also
had very thin hair, but this does not
necessarily reflect that their hair was like in
life. Ahmose-Nefertari also had scoliosis, a
sideways curvature of the spine, a defect
shared with both her daughter Ahmose –
Meritamun and her son Amenhotep I. One
learns to question artistic depictions of
royalty when Ahmose-Meritamun's
mummy, that of an obviously physically
handicapped woman, is compared with wall
paintings, which show her as tall, slender
and straight.
X-rays of the body of Amosis,
seceond son of Queen tetisheri and the
victor over the Hyksos kings, show that the
young king (he died in his mid twenties)
suffered in his knees and back. His vertebral
column also shows some evidence of
arthritis, surprising considering his youth.
But arthritis is perhaps the commonest
complaint shared by the royal mummies of
several dynasties. Another victim – and
another king renowned as a fighter – was
Ramesses II. He suffered osteoarthritis in
Page | 216
both hips, although in this case it was
probably due to his advanced age.
The bodies of the pharaohs show them
to have varied a great deal in height. Most
were in the region of 5 1/2 feet (1.7m) tall.
A marked exception was the Eighteenth
Dynasty's tuhmosis III. Perhaps the
mightiest ruler Egypt ever knew, his
mummy shows that he was only about 5 feet
(1.5m) tall. His son Amenhotep II was
marked taller than his father, but he appears
to have inherited his father's muscular
frame. The kings of the Nineteenth Dyansty
were also quite tall. Seti I was about 5 1/2
feet (1.7m) tall; his son Ramesses II was
over 6 foot (1.8m) Both men were slender in
build, and must have been remarkable in life
for their hook noses – a strong Ramesside
trail.
The mummy of Ahmosis
The founder of the Eighteenth
Dynasty and the New kingdom shows him
to have been uncircumcised. He suffered
from arthritis and died young. The
embalmers removed his brain not through
the nose, at the base of the skull, a method
occasionally employed during the Old
Kingdom.
Illness among the pharaohs
Several of the royal bodies show
conclusively that they suffered ill health
during life. Tuthmosis II, brother – husband
of Hatshepsut, seems to have been a weakly
individual, and his skin appears covered in
patches, the cause of which remains
unidentified. X-rays of his grandson
Amenhotep II demonstrate some evidence of
the early stages of rheumatoid arthritis. The
neck and trunk of his mummy are covered
with tiny nodules, but it was impossible to
indentify their cause. Amenhotep's son and
successor, tuthmosis IV, was about thirty
when he died, a fact believed by his
appearance, extremely emaciated individual.
His state is not solely attributable to
mummification and, although the cause is
unknown, it is considered likely that the
great wasting and loss of body weight is
somehow tied to his cause of death.
Perhaps the unhealthiest of all
pharaohs is that of the mummy identified as
Amenhotep III – though that designation is
not universally agreed. The body itself was
badly damaged, having been attacked by
robbers in antiquity. But from what remains
it can be determined that this individual
suffered from severe obesity and appalling
teeth, covered in tarlar and ridden with
holes, caused by caries. The caries resulted
in abscesses in his jaws which must not only
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have given him pain but also constant
stomach troubles.
Mummy Projects aroundthe world
1-Museums tend to possess few mummies
with documented history and fewer still are
known by a SPECIFIC name. unlike Cairo’s
Royal mummies therefore analyses these
bodies takes on an entirely different
perspective. museum must first try to
establish even the sex and period of a
mummy to know its age or know the cause
of death.
**mummies lack any indication of their
origin, even the smallest details Such as:
1- The type of weave of linen wrappings.
2- The mode of preservation and position of
limbs within the bandaging can be of vital
importance.
The Discovery of the mummy of
Ramses 2nd
The body of Ramses 2nd was one of the
mummies that discovered in the royal cachet
in Deir el Bahri in 1881 known to the
history as the builder of Abo Simple and the
hypostyle hall at Karnak, victor over the
Hittites , husband to 100 wives , and father
of at least 200 children . Ramesses has
earned the epithet ( the Great )
In 1974 Deterioration had been noticed in
the skin around the King's neck the
appearance of larva was evidence of battle
invasion, a condition that could quickly have
turned Ramsses 2nd mummy to dust. Several
such affected mummies had been
successfully treated at the musee de
l'homme , Pari and the French president
himself now offered the museum's experts to
the Egyptian authorities for the treatment of
the great pharaoh the offer was gratefully
accepted and a team of 20 scientists devoted
their energies and skills to saving the body
of Ramsses 2nd .
The mummy wrapped in layers of plastic
and still in its wooden crate, was placed in a
chamber with a lower temperature. The
scientists then removed the mummy , first
from the crate and then from the plastic .
The examination, isolation and identification
of the invading organism took some time .
Since it was important to have little physical
contact with the body itself so as not to
cause more damage. the treatment proved a
success . the damage of the mummy
repaired. Today the body of Ramesses 2nd
placed in Cairo Museum among the kings
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and queens of pharaonic Egypt . The
mummy of Ramesses 2nd was found in the
coffin in front of ant glory in his youth is
supposed to have spend the rest of his life in
a most hedonistic fashion in the midst of his
sizeable harem . Letters were sent to the
king Tushratta of Babylonia during the later
years of Amenhotep 3rd 's reign , requested
the visit to Egypt of the healing statue of the
goddess Ishtar , and its tempting to think
that this deity was being summons mummy
to try to relieve a king who was suffering
from badly health .
Set ptah possibly a descendant of Ramssese
2nd ruled at the end of 19 dynasty , taking
the throne after seti 2nd . when he become a
pharaoh he ruled only 7 years dying in his
early twenties , a fact demonstrated by the
excellent condition of his teeth . but its
condition of his legs which stimulates most
interest in his mummy .
X – ray analysis was pointed out that when
taking in context with the sever shortening
of the right leg and atrophy of the soft
tissues , the presence of a neuron – muscular
disease. Such as polio, was a strong
possibility .
How long did the pharaoh live?
Although the ages of the royal mummies
have been hard to establish , few of the
pharaoh seemed to have survived much
beyond the age of fifty.
X-ray analyses of these mummies show no
clear reason for death, and evidence of
disease suggests that several of them
probably died as result of illness.
The mummy of Ramesses bears such a
strong physical resemblance to the body of
his father Seti1 , and grandfather
Ramesses1, and his son merenptah, that his
identity. His body is that of an elderly man,
his skin is light in colour, his eyes is closed
as if sleeping ,and his fine white hair, tinged
slightly yellow during the mummification
process, billows behind his neck. His mouth
is slightly open, revealing healthy while
teeth at the front of his mouth .
The analyses of the X-rays showed him to
have badly eroded teeth , abscesses in his
jaws, severe arthritis in his hips and
widespread arteriosclerosis in the lower
extremities, a condition that might have
given rise to circulatory problems and
rendered movement difficult.
MERENPTAH was born in the seventh year
of Ramesses's reign and was his father's
thirteenth son, making him between fifty
and sixty years of age when he finally
succeeded to the throne, he ruled for ten
years . his mummy is that of an old man ,
balding and obese, like his father , with bad
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teeth and gum disease . severe degenerative
arthritis is obvious in the vertebrae in his
neck, and the soft tissues of his upper leg
indicate the possibility of arterioscleroses .
his thigh bones show evidence of fracture.
Two things about the mummy of merenptah
are especially notable the scrotum was
missing , evidently removed during the
embalms process. second, when the body
was initially seen , observers remarked on
the great incrustations.
THE PENNSYL VANIA Project
During 1970, a large-scale mummy analysis
took place in north America .several of the
mummies were from the university museum
, Philadelphia, among them two know as
pum 3rd and pum 4th. Both mummies were
unidentified, their origins un known, and
they had no coffins they both illustrate the
type of poor Egyptian.
Pum3rd , the head of this mummy was
already unwrapped and separated from its
body, damage perhaps done during an
earlier recorded examination after being X-
rayed, pum3rd was carefully unwrapped.
they were also heavily stained with materials
used in the mummification process. the
mummy was in a fragile state, and tissue
broke away from the bones with the least
touch. The team determined the remains to a
women in her mid or late 30.who had lived
in Egypt during the late period. Carbon
dating of the wrapping at the Smithsonian
institution Washington DC, gave a date of
835BC.
There was no embalming incision and many
of pum3rd 's internal organs were still
present. The abdomen ,however , it was
empty and stuffed with linen soaked in
resin- except for the liver, most abdominal
organs could not be identified, the bladder
and uterus had been removed, evidently via
the anus, through which the linen packing
had then been pushed.
The analysis team determined that pum 3rd
had been 5feet 6inches tall and weighed
about 91 pounds(41kg). she had a healed rib
fracture and poor teeth. A small tumor was
found in her left breast , but this does not
seem to have caused her death , since it
proved to be benign.
THE VIEW OF the mummy of pum3rd
show how the head had become detached
from the body . the hole is the trachea , or
windpipe. The hasty and haphazard
wrapping of the body is also apparent,
bandages around the body enclose one arm,
but not the other. The stains on the bandages
are from the fluids used in the embalming
process.
Page | 220
Pum4th when the analysis team X-rayed this
mummy , which dated to the first or second
century , they judged it to be that of the boy
,aged about eight . the skull was fractured in
several places ,but this probably occurred
after death.
Material used for bandaging was warn and
the mummy was wrapped . the body packing
was sawdust, mixed with some sort of oily
substance. The body itself was tied to a
board. The boy was dressed in an outer
decorated tunic , which he may be have
worn during life , but under this were three
full-length gowns, perhaps made specifically
for the burial . the boy was about 3feet
6inches (106cm)tall. his skin was dark and
badly preserved.
It was a mass of holes, and covered with
beetles and insect larvae. The hair was dark
and matted. like pum2nd, internal organs
appear to have been removed via the
anus.the body cavities were filled with a
granular material . both halves of the brain
were still within the cranial cavity.
The team wasn't found any evidence about
the cause of death.
THE UPPER BODY of pum4th contains the
remains of granular packing material, and
show holes in the skin. the mummy was
covered and preserved with larvae from
insects.
The mummy of pum2nd , was first X-rayed ,
at which time it was noted that the brain had
been removed and four packages were
present in the abdomen . when the mummy
was examined prior to unwrapping , it was
discovered that the lavish application of
molten resins throughout the bandaging
process had caused the whole mass to
become so hard to proved to be totally
useless. the mummy was wrapped in 12
layers of linen. The death date bake to
170bc.
About the wrapping the linen bandages of
the mummies some times more interesting
than the mummy. In the cause of pum2nd ,
A small ball of cotton was found within the
wrappings. The only cotton previously
found in Egypt had originally come from the
Indus valley, and had been brought into
Egypt in roman times, from 400years after
pum2nd , the cotton was rare and valuable
that it might , have been introduced as assort
if amulet.
IN1940, AT THE METROPOLITION
MUSEUM OF ART, a mummy was
unwrapped the body of a man called WAH,
discovered in an intact tomb in Luxor in
1920. It was found around 1010 square
yards of linen had been used a wrapping this
included at least one piece of linen,
complete with fringed edge.
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THE MANCHESTER MAIDEN the details
of how mummy 1770 came to the
Manchester museum, and where exactly it
was found in Egypt, it was believed to be of
Greek or roman date and perhaps from the
cemetery at hawara in the faiyum. One of
this mummy NAKHT, died in his teens and
the cause of death can`t determined but we
could know something from the parasites in
his body. The examination of liver showed
that he suffering from early stage of
cirrhosis.
IN MANCHESTER PROJECT, IN 197 the
stomach and intestine of a female mummy
called (ASRU) the (chanters of amun).
Were tested and showed that she was
suffering from a worm which enter through
the skin it’s, it travels to lungs, matures,
goes on to the pharynx from where it enters
the stomach. A lot of mummy which found
in Manchester project suffering from
infestation strong lodes.
The mummy of Queen HatshepsutThe mummy known as KV60-A (Fig.10) isthat of a woman about 159 cm tall, who diedaround the age of 50. She was obese in life,to the extent that her body had to beEviscerated for embalming through thepelvic floor rather than through the normalAbdominal incision. Her brain, like those ofthe other mummies we examined as part ofthis study, was not extracted but left insidethe skull. The mummy’s teeth were in
Extremely poor condition, showing varyingdegrees of rarefaction and desorption aroundtheir roots. Most of the teeth containedcaries, and some had broken crowns Theright upper 7th tooth was absent, althoughthe root was still embedded in the jaw. Thepoor condition of the mummy’s mouth,along with its obesity, raises the possibilityof diabetes mellitus. The thorax was in goodcondition, and the heart could be visualized.A soft tissue mass in the pelvis, which arosefrom the left iliac bone and was eroding bothof its surfaces, indicates that the womansuffered from metastatic disease, furtherevidence of which may be seen in therarefaction of the bones of the spine. A largeper neural cyst was also on the left side ofthe spine.The next step was to scan the mummiesthought to belong to Hatshepsut’s closerelatives, in order to identify physicalfeatures common to the members of thefamily, and to perform DNA analysis to findgenetic similarities among them (Fig.11).We began with the mummy thought to bethat of Thutmose I, Hatshepsut’s father. Theidentification of this mummy has been inquestion for some time. We know that it wasfound in DB320, inside a set of two nestedcoffins. It is widely accepted that thesecoffins were made during the 18th Dynastyand reused for Panudjem I, whoseinscriptions can be seen in spite of thedamage the coffins suffered when the goldwhich covered their surfaces was removedwith an adze. In 1909, Daressy noted thecartouche of Thutmose I on the outer coffin,in the center of the lid. Winlock repeatedthis observation in 1929, and added thatbased on measurements of the two coffinshe felt that they had been made as a set ,both coffins were made for Thutmose I andreused by Panudjem, but also states that “intheir finished state, the original ownershipwas wholly undetectable.” It is importantthat we re-examine these coffins.
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The presence of the cartouche, along withthe style of mummification (which dated themummy to the 18th Dynasty), led to thesuggestion that the mummy was that ofthutmoseMaspero felt that the mummy’s facialfeatures were similar to those ofThutmose II and Thutmose III. However(Fig.2,3), its arms are by its sides and notcrossed over its chest, the normal positionfor royal mummies after Amenhotep I.Previous examinations suggested that themummy was as young as 18 or 19, whileThutmose I is thought, based on inscriptionsto have died around the age of 50. Our CT-scans confirmed that the mummy is not thatof Thutmose I. We learned that themummy’s owner had in fact died betweenthe ages of 25 and 35. In addition the scanshowed a dense triangular object, whichproved to be a metal arrowhead about 2 cmin length.The arrowhead is embedded in themummy’s right hemi thorax. Thesurrounding portion of the chest cavityappears denser than on the left-hand side,the probable result of hematoma caused bythe arrow wound.A few other small dense, metallic objectscan be seen in the mummy’s torso We haveno historical records indicating thatThutmose I died in battle, yet anotherindication that this mummy is not that ofHatshepsut’s father.The identifications of the mummies ofThutmose II (Fig.3), Hatshepsut’s half-brother and husband, and Thutmose III(Fig.4), her nephew and stepson, are moresecure Our CT-scan of Thutmose II (Fig.12)revealed that he stood about 168 cm tall, anddied around the age of 40 his teeth weregood, but he apparently suffered from anenlarged heart, which may have been thecause of his death.The scan of the mummy of Thutmose III(Fig.13) showed that he lived to the age of
about 50 his nasal turbinate were very small,an indication that he suffered from acondition known as atrophic rhinitis.we should study the features of KV60-A(Fig.14) in comparison with thoseof each of the mummies thought to belong toHatshepsut’s male relatives. Theradiologists placed frontal and profile viewsof the heads of all four mummies side- byside, and measured the following features ofeach:1. Zygomatic bone2. Zygomatico frontal bony ridge3. Cheek bones4. Mandibular ramus5. Mandibular angle6. Chin7. Nasal bridge8. Overbite9. ForeheadComparison of the measurements revealedthat the mummies of Thutmose II andThutmose III bore a striking resemblance toone another, sharing a mild overbite(Thutmosis family characteristic), aprominent zygomaticofrontal ridge, narrowcheekbones, thin mandibular rami, obtusemandibular angles, shallow nasal bridges,and narrow forehead .The mummy previously identified as
Thutmosis I differed from the other twomale mummies, having no overbite; widecheekbones, forehead, and chin; a smoothzygomaticofrontal ridge; broad mandibularramus; and a more vertical mandibularangle. the mummy of Thutmose I thought todiffers from those of Thutmose II andThutmose III in many features, like theteeth,cheekbones, jaw, and forehead. KV60-Awas similar to the mummy of “Thutmose I”in some features, but in others she resembledthose of Thutmose II and Thutmose IIImuch more closely like the father andstepson of Hatshepsut, KV60-A had a mildoverbite and prominent zygomaticofrontal
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ridge. Her cheekbones, chin, and forehead,however, were wider by comparison, andher nasal bridge was wider than that of anyof the three male mummies. It is verydifficult on the basis of this side-by-sidecomparison of the four faces confidently toconfirm or rule out family relationshipsbetween KV60-A and the male mummies.
While we were performing the CT-scans ofthe mummies, it would be interestedto place some of the objects associated withHatshepsut on the machine to seeif anything not visible to the naked eye,might appear started by an alabaster vesselof uncertain provenance, inscribed for thequeen. It is empty, and nothing of interestappeared on the scan. Then a wooden box inthe museum `s collection was brought(Fig.15). this box is inscribed with thethrone and birth names of Hatshepsutfound in DB320, it contains a bundle lyingfreely within it had been thoughtfor some time that this bundle might containthe queen’s embalmed liver. TheCT-scan (Fig.16) showed the bundle as asmooth, oval-shaped object. In the absenceof comparable scans of known embalmedviscera, and without some previous idea ofwhat the bundle might have contained
The scan revealed a big surprise embeddedin the resin which surrounded the bundle:a small, dense object which, when examinedmore closely, proved to be a single molartooth. Smaller dense fragments in the resincould be the root missing from the toothwhich was the 7th right upper tooth .(Fig.17) Moreover, the density of the loosetooth corresponded with the density of theremaining molars seemed that the missingtooth from KV60-A found its way into thebox located in DB320.
The results of the search for the mummy ofQueen Hatshepsut can be summarized asfollows:· The mummy of Queen Hatshepsut wasidentified as KV60-A (Fig.8) by thetooth found in the box bearing the queen’snames. The tooth, and the rootattached to it, perfectly fit a socket and rootin the mouth of KV60-A. Thematch is supported by the comparison ofmitochondrial DNA with themummy of Ahmose-Nefertari.· The Queen was not murdered, and we cancompletely disregard the theorythat Thutmose III destroyed her monumentsupon his accession. The theorythat the destruction took place at the end hisreign and the beginning of thereign of his son, Amenhotep II, seems evenmore plausible than before, nowthat we know that the queen’s mummy wasnot damaged, but left in goodcondition.· We are now sure that the mummy in theEgyptian Museum thought to be thatof Thutmose I is not, in fact, the mummy ofthe King.1. The position of the arms beside the bodyis not that of a royal mummy.2. The mummy’s facial features do notmatch those of the Thutmosis family.3. We found an arrowhead in the chest of themummy, which shows that thisman was killed in battle.4. The mummy’s owner died around the ageof 30.5. The mummy was discovered inside thetwo coffins which, as we discussedPreviously may or may not have belonged toThutmose I.we believe that the CT-scan machine and
the DNA laboratory willOpen up a new era in the study andidentification of Egyptian mummies.
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Fig. 1: The mummy of Queen Ahmose-Nefertari.
Fig. 2: The mummy of King Thutmose I
8
Fig. 2: The mummy of King Thutmose I
Fig. 3: The mummy of King Thutmose II.
Fig. 4: The mummy of King Thutmose III.
Fig. 5: The so-called “Screaming Mummy”
Page | 225
Fig. 6: “Unknown Woman D” from KV 35.
Fig. 7: The mummy of Hatshepsut’s wet-nurse.
Fig. 8: The mummy of Queen Hatshepsut.
Fig. 9: The mummy of Queen Hatshepsut in KV60.
Page | 226
Fig. 10: CT-scanning Queen Hatshepsut’smummy.
Fig. 11: Examining Hatshepsut’s mummybefore taking DNA samples.
Fig. 12: 3D photo of Thutmose II skull, asshown by the CT- scan machine.
Fig. 13: Thutmose III.
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Fig.14: Hatshepsut.
Fig. 15: The wooden box of Queen Hatshepsut.
Fig. 16: CT images of the wooden box (bottomright)
and the molar found inside.
Fig. 17: The jaws of Queen Hatshepsut’smummy,
with the missing molar indicated.
Page | 228
ApendixB
Page | 229
MedicalPapyri inAncientEgyptIntroduction
Medicine in ancient Egypt was derivedfrom the human remains or the bodiesdiseases and from reference to diseasesfrom a non medical papyri and stelae ,but the most important source of ourknowledge are the medical papyri , sothere are many types of papyri havingpharaonic manuscripts , such as theEbres , Hearst , Berlin and ChesterBeatty mainly all related to remedies andfew specific account to diseasesthemselves such as Ebres papyrus whichaccompany a major part of eyes diseasesalso Kahun papyrus which concentratedwith women diseases.
The most important medical papyri werediscovered in the 19th and 20th century,and all were related to diseases,remedies, structure of the body as wellas magic, spells used as treatment inmany cases.
Some of them came from the tombs ofdoctors but most of them were destroyedduring tomb robbing, number of themwas used to prepare magic.
Not only medical papyrus but alsomedical ostraca, which mentioned lots ofremedies from the Amarna period of 18th
dynasty till time Roman occupation.
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Brooklyn papyrusThe Brooklyn is exclusively with asnake bites , which date to the 13th orto the early petolomic period , butwas written in the middle Egyptianera , the beginning and the end of thispapyrus are missing but the middlepart is in good conditions .
1st section comprises a systematicaldescription of snakes and there bites ,
38 snakes and their bites of which firstthe 13 are lost .
2nd section many remedies and a fewspells for those bitten by a snakes .
In chapter 6 the most strikingevidence closely parallel roles of thephysicians ( swnw) and the variouspriest concerned with healing .
Anatomy , physiology and pathology
The first physicians was (Djer) whowrote anatomical book.
Manetho mention that there was nosystematical egyptien work onanatomy has survived at the beginningof the 3rd millennium and no climatewas existed , although the earlymedical papyrus (Edwin smith)support that there is a quite anatomystudy on some parts of body at anearly date .
They don`t have opportunity toobserve the human skeleton , butthere was a rich egyptien vocabularyof internal parts of body like bonesexcept for the skull, although aserious accident help them a lot tounderstand this.
The relation betweenembalmers and doctorsThe embalmers were ableto understood the details ofthe internal anatomy asthey could remove some of
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orgains though a smallincision and put them intothe canopic jars , the moreremarkable achievementswas the removal of thebrain though out the nose.
The canopic jars with theircontents and protection :
liver imsety human isis
stomach hapy babon nephthys
intestines duamutef jackel neith
lungs qebhsenuef hawk seqet
In chapter 2 the egyptien reached to thestructure of the body which the externaland internal parts of the body they know,
The vassals or the metu or what`scalled the blood vessals , whichwere ducts togther and they werethin and long but they don`tknow the nerve system , and theythought that but actually itcontain blood not air.
The Edwin papyrus mentionedthat they reached that there weretwo metu beneath the collarbones one on left other on rightof throat which lead to the lung,it also mentioned that the number
of metu is 856and in berlin 163metu.
Also it mentioned the hieroglyphicexpressions of the anatomy of the bodylike:
Skull …………….sny Forehead ….......... dhnt Eyebrow …………… inh Eyes ……………..irt Nose ………….. fnd Mouth ………….r Lips …………. Spt Ears …………. Msdr Throat …………… htyt Shoulder …………… rnm Cheek bones …………..
mndt Eye lash ………….. sa n irty Pupil ……………. Dfd White of eyes …………..
kddw
Two lungs …………. Sma Heart ……………. Ib / haty Rectum ……………..
kabmac Small
231ieroglyp……………..kab
The Ebres papyrus
Introduction
It came from a tomb on the westbank and may be from the sametomb of the Edwin papyrus , it getsits name from George Ebres who
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purchased it in 1872 , and it is nowhoused in the university library inLeipzig .
The papyrus is 110pages and dateback to 1534 B C. to the reign ofAmenhotep 1st , it deal with remediesof the skin , belly and other parts ofthe body and deal with surgicalprocedures , ulcers and tumors .
The contentDeities play an important role inhealing power , just like sekhmetwhom she was goddess of healing ,curses and threats with the help ofsome materials used to expel the evilspirit like prayers and various kind ofmagic and amulets.There were many kinds of healerslike priest (wcb) and physicians,whom they discover the nature of theparticular entity possessing theperson , were magic used to helpthem in there prescriptions likerituals , spells and amulets.There were many kinds of physicalmedicine , like herbal and magic , asherbs were exactly to assuage thepain only while magic effected thecure, charms and invocations used toencourage healing as some spellsrecited before taking a herbal remedy, the word of these spells is oftenfollowed by a recommendationwords such as “ Truly excellent ,Millions of times”.We don`t know where physiciansacquired there medical knowledgebut it has been suggested that the
house of life was associated withsekhmet were teaching centers forphysicians.Also in old kingdom , not only manbut also woman held a medicalknowledge as well as a scribalhierarchy , as a female physician inold kingdom name peseshet left astela recorded in it her position as anoverseer of funerary priestesses andoverseer of funerary physician.
Our medical knowledgeWe also got our medical knowledgefrom anther papyrus like the Edwinpapyrus which mentioned 8 textconcerning head wounds and 19treatment for the wound of the face……………. Etc .Also they understood how to dealwith the injures of brain withoutkilling the patients and its realfunction instead of heart, also theyknow how to extract the brain thoughout the nostril , they know the heartand its pulse but they can`tunderstand the circulation system ,the dissection of the body during themummification seems to add a lot totheir knowledge of the inner workingof the human body .The ancient Egyptian could alsosome kinds of diseases like thestomach upset , bowel trouble andhow it was treated , for example ,they used to treat the stomach upsetby using cow`s milk , grains , honey ,and mash then cooked them andtake it for four partions .
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They could also reach to somediseases like the common cold , itsremedies and symptoms , some ofthe diseases of the king that leadthem to death like bilharziasiswhom Ramses 2nd and Nitocris diedwith , also they could reach to someendemic diseases just like small box, elephantiasis , malaria , trachoma ,bubon , tuberculosis , leprosy , eyesinfections and prescriptions for itsremedy which they used in alldiseases of the eye ,” they broughtthe human brain with its two halves ,mix one half with honey and smear iton the eyes in the evening , then drythe second half and put a mash on itthen smear it on the eye in themorning”.They also reach to the cause of thedeath of the infants and the defectiveof the offspring , which may beenvironmental , nutritional or social ,also the inbreeding is not infrequentamong the royal and not rare amongthe common people as finding 6fingers in mummies interpreted bysome as result of inbreeding .Deities deficiencies , time came weremalnutrition was widespread , asduring the prehistoric the health waspoor and improved with theincreasing adoption of agricultureeven during historic period , whenfood was supply , the growth ofpopulation was stunted as grown ofmales `s height was 1.60m andfemale 10 cm less during the earlymiddle kingdom, which may be outof vitamins and other deficiencies.
Herbal medicine play a major part inthe Egyptian medicine , as it found ina burial sites like tomb ofTutankhamon and temple of bull atSaqqara , Onion and Garlic , wereused in asthmatics and bronchial ,there were anther herbal likecoriander , cumin , leaves from manyplants like willow , sycamore ,acacia also ym –tree used in treatingpoultices, tannic acid derived fromacacia seeds commonly helped forcooling the vessels caster oil wasused as laxatives, also snakes biteswere dealt by pomegranate root inwater which were strained and drank, malachite were used as eye lineralso had therapy value , minerals andanimals production were used also ,honey and grease formed many partsof the wounds , fresh meat laid onopen wound and mother`s milk givenagainst diseases like the commoncold.Also they reach to the plastic surgery, and also there is a related evidencefor making manicure in tomb atSaqqara , also they reach to thecircumcision and evidence for maleand scene for equipments that wasused.Dentistry were very poor as forgrinding the corn , as Horemoheb`ssecond wife and sister of Nefertitywhich they lost all her teeth, the firstdentist was Hesi ra who was the firstdoctor of tooth.
The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus
The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, datingfrom the seventeenth century B.C., is one of
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the oldest of all known medical papyri. Itsdiffers fundamentally from the others in thefollowing ways:
The seventeen columns on the rectocomprise part of a surgical treatise,the first thus far discovered in theancient Orient, whether in Egypt orAsia. It is therefore the oldest knownsurgical treatise.
This surgical treatise consistsexclusively of cases, not recipes. Thetreatise is systematically organized inan arrangement of cases, whichbegin with injuries of the head andproceed downward through the body,like a modern treatise on anatomy.
The treatment of these injuries is rationaland chiefly surgical; there is resort tomagic in only one case out of theforty-eight cases preserved.
Each case is classified by one of threedifferent verdicts: (1) favorable, (2)uncertain, or (3) unfavorable. Thethird verdict, expressed in the words,‘an ailment not to be treated,’ isfound in no other Egyptian medicaltreatise.
This unfavorable verdict occurringfourteen times in the Edwin SmithPapyrus marks a group of cases(besides one more case) which thesurgeon cannot cure and which he isled to discuss by his scientificinterest in the phenomena disclosedby his examination.”
According to Breasted, the Edwin SmithPapyrus is a copy of an ancient composite
manuscript which contained, in addition tothe original author’s text (3000-2500 B.C.),a commentary added a few hundred yearslater in the form of 69 explanatory notes(glosses). It contains 48 systematicallyarranged case histories, beginning withinjuries of the head and proceedingdownward to the thorax and spine, where thedocument unfortunately breaks off. Thesecases are typical rather than individual, andeach presentation of a case is divided intotitle, examination, diagnosis, and treatment.There is a definite differentiation betweenrational surgical treatments and the muchless employed medico-magical measures.Significantly, trepanation is not mentioned.
Of the 48 cases described in the EdwinSmith Papyrus, 27 concern head trauma and6 deal with spine trauma.3 Of the 27 headinjuries, 4 are deep scalp wounds exposingthe skull, and 11 are skull fractures.
“The latter, according to our present dayterminology would be classified as follows:two compound linear fractures; fourcompound depressed fractures; fourcompound comminuted fractures; and onecomminuted fracture without externalwound. The symptoms and signs of headinjury are given in considerable detail.Feeble pulse and fever are associated withhopeless injuries and deafness as well asaphasia are recognized in fractures of thetemporal region.”
Treatment Examination CASE
shouldst bind it with freshmeat the first day (and)
treat afterwards withgrease, honey (and) lint
a man1 having a wound in his head, whilehis wound does not have two lips,
penetrating to the bone of his skull , (but)not having a gash, thou shouldst palpate his
1. A wound in hishead penetrating tothe bone of his skull
CASE 1
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every day until herecovers.
wound (or, thou shouldst lay thy hand uponit); shouldst thou find his skull uninjured,
not having a perforation; a split, or a smashin it.
shouldst bind [fresh meatupon it the first day; thou
shouldst apply for himtwo strips of linen, and
treat afterward withgrease, honey, (and) lin]t
every day until herecovers.
A man having a [gaping] wound [in] his[head], penetrating to the bone, thou
shouldst lay thy hand upon it (and) [thoushouldst] pal[pate hi]s [wound]. If thou
findest his skull [uninjured, not hav]ing aperforation in it…
2. A gaping wound inhis head, penetrating
to the bone
CASE 2
shouldst lay] fresh [meat]upon his wound the firstday. Thou shouldst not
bind it. Moor (him) [at hismooring stakes until the
period of his injury passesby]. Thou shouldst [tre]atit afterward with grease,
honey, and lint every day,until he recovers…
a man having a gaping wound in] his[head], penetrating to the bone, (and)
perforating his skull; thou shouldst palpatehis wound; [shouldst thou find him unable
to look at his two shoulders] and his[br]east, (and) suffering with stiffness in
his neck
3. A gaping wound inhis head penetrating
to the bone (and)perforating his skull
CASE 3
when thou findest that theskull of that man is split,thou shouldst not bind
him, (but) moor (him) athis mooring stakes untilthe period of his injury
passes by. His treatmentis sitting. Make for himtwo supports of brick,
until thou knowest he hasreached a decisive point.
Thou shouldst applygrease to his head, (and)soften his neck therewithand both his shoulders.
Thou shouldst do likewise
a man having a gaping wound in his head,penetrating to the bone, (and) splitting his
skull, thou shouldst palpate his wound.Shouldst thou find something disturbing
therein under thy fingers, (and) he shuddersexceedingly, while the swelling which is
over it protrudes, he discharges blood fromboth his nostrils (and) from both his ears,
he suffers with stiffness in his neck, so thathe is unable to look at his two shoulders
and his breast…
4. A gaping wound inhis head penetrating
to the bone (and)splitting his skull
CASE 4
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for every man whom thoufindest having a split
skull…
shalt not bind him (but)moor (him) at his mooringstakes, until the period of
his injury passes by…
a man having a gaping wound in his head,penetrating to the bone, (and) smashing his
skull; thou shouldst palpate his wound.Shouldst thou find that smash which is in
his skull deep (and) sunken under thyfingers, while the swelling which is over itprotrudes, he discharges blood from bothhis nostrils (and) both his ears, (and) he
suffers with stiffness in his neck, so that heis unable to look at his two shoulders and
his breast…
5. A gaping wound inhis head ,smashing
his skull
CASE 5
anoint that wound withgrease. Thou shalt notbind it; thou shalt not
apply two strips upon it:until thou knowest that he
has reached a decisivepoint.
A man having a gaping wound in his head,penetrating to the bone, smashing his skull,
(and) rending open the brain of his skull,thou shouldst palpate his wound. Shouldstthou find that smash which is in his skull[like] those corrugations which form inmolten copper, (and) something therein
throbbing (and) fluttering under thy fingers,like the weak place of an infant’s crown
before it becomes whole-when it hashappened there is no throbbing (and)
fluttering under thy fingers until the brainof his (the patient’s) skull is rent open-(and) he discharges blood from both hisnostrils, (and) he suffers with stiffness in
his neck…
6. A gaping wound inhis head penetrating
the bone of his skull ,(and) rending open
the brain of his skull
CASE 6
First treatment: Now assoon as thou findest thatthe cord of that man’smandible, his jaw, is
contracted thou shouldsthave made for him
something hot until he iscomfortable, so that his
A man having a gaping wound in his head,penetrating to the bone, (and) perforating
the sutures of his skull, thou shouldstpalpate his wound, (although) he shuddersexceedingly. Thou shouldst cause him to
lift ; if it is painful for him to open hismouth, (and) his heart beats feebly ; if thouobserve his spittle hanging at his two lips
7. A gaping wound inhis head penetrating
to the bone (and)perforating the
CASE 7
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mouth opens. Thoushouldst bind it with
grease, honey, (and) lint,until thou knowest that he
has reached a decisivepoint.
Second Treatment
An ailment not to betreated.
Third treatment: Thoushouldst have made for
him a wooden brace withlinen and put into hismouth. Thou shouldsthave made for him a
draught of w’h-fruit. Histreatment is sitting, placedbetween two supports ofbrick, until thou knowesthe has reached a decisive
point.
and not falling off, while he dischargesblood from both his nostrils (and) from
both his ears; he suffers with stiffness in hisneck, (and) is unable to look at his two
shoulders and his breast .Second examination: If then, thou findestthat the flesh of that man has developed
fever from wound which is in the sutures ofhis skull, while that man has developed ty’from that wound, thou shouldst lay hand
upon him . Shouldst find his countenance isclammy with sweat , the ligaments his neckare tense, his face ruddy , his teeth and hisback, the odor of the chest of his head is
like the bkn (urine) of sheep, his mouth isbound , (and) both his eyebrows are drawn
, while his face is as if he wept.Third examination: If, however, thou
findest that that man has become pale andhas already shown exhaustion .
His treatment is sitting,until he [gains color],
(and) until thou knowesthe has reached thedecisive point….
a man having a smash of his skull, underthe skin of his head, while there is nothing
at all upon it, thou shouldst palpate hiswound. Shouldst thou find that there is a
swelling protruding on the out side of thatsmash which is in his skull, while his eye is
askew because of it, on the side of himhaving that injury which is in his skull;
(and) he walks shuffling with his sole, onthe side of him having that injury which is
in his skull…
8. A smash in hisskull under the skin
of his head
CASE 8
prepare for him the egg ofan ostrich , triturated withgrease (and) placed in themouth of his wound. Nowafterwards thou shouldst
prepare for him the egg of
A man having a wound in his forehead,smashing the shell of his head.
9. A wound in hisforehead , smashingthe shell of his skull
CASE 9
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an ostrich , triturated andmade into poultices fordrying up that wound.
Thou shouldst apply to ita covering for physician’s
use; thou shouldstuncover it the third day,
(and) find it knittingtogether the shell, the
color being like the egg ofan ostrich.
That which is to be said asa charm over this recipe:
Repelled is the enemy thatis in the wound!
Cast out is the evil that isin the blood,
The adversary of Horus,on every side of the
mouth of Isis.This temple does not fall
down;There is no enemy of the
vessel therein .I am under the protection
of Isis;My rescue is the son of
Osiris.
Now afterwards shouldstcool it for him with a
compress of figs, grease,and honey, cooked and
cooled, and applied to it.
after thou hast stitched it,thou shouldst bind fresh
meat upon it the first day .If thou findest that the
stitching of this wound is
A man having a wound above his eyebrow,penetrating to the bone, shouldst palpate
his wound, (and) draw together for him thegash with stitching..
10. A wound abovehis eyebrow
CASE 10
Page | 239
loose, thou shouldst draw(it) together for him with
two strips (of plaster), andthou shouldst treat it withgrease and honey everyday until he recovers.
cleanse (it) for him withtwo plugs of linen. Thou
shouldst place two (other)plugs of linen saturated
with grease inside his twonostrils. Thou shouldstput him at his mooring
stakes until the swelling isreduced (lit. drawn out).Thou shouldst apply stiffrolls of linen by which his
nose is held fast. Thoushouldst treat him
afterward with grease,honey, (and) lint, everyday until he recovers.
A man having a break of the column of hisnose, his nose being disfigured, and a
depression being in it, while the swellingthat is on it protrudes, (and) he has
discharged blood from both his nostrils.
11. A break of thecolumn of his nose
CASE 11
force it to fall in, so that itlies in its place, (and)
clean out the interior ofboth his nostrils with twoswabs of linen until every
worm of blood whichcoagulates inside his twonostrils comes forth. Nowafterwards thou shouldsttake two plugs of linen
saturated with grease andput them into his two
nostrils. Thou shouldstplace two stiff rolls oflinen, bound on. Thou
shouldst treat himafterwards with grease,
A man having a break in the chamber of hisnose, (and) thou findest his nose bent,while his face is disfigured, (and) the
swelling which is over it is protruding.
12. A break in thechamber of his nose
CASE 12
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honey, (and) lint everyday until he recovers.
An ailment not to betreated.”
A man having a smash in his nostril, thoushouldst place thy hand upon his nose at
the point of this smash. Should it crepitateunder thy fingers, while at the same time he
discharges blood from his nostril (and)from his ear on the side of him having that
smash; it is painful when he opens hismouth because of it; (and) he is
speechless.
13. A smash in thenostril
CASE 13
make for him two swabsof linen, (and) thou
shouldst clean out everyworm of blood which hascoagulated on the inside
of his nostril. Thoushouldst bind (it) with
fresh meat, the first day.When its stitching
loosens, thou shouldsttake off of him the freshmeat. (and) thou shouldstbind it with grease, honey(and) lint every day until
he recovers.
A man having a wound in his nostrilpiercing through, shouldst thou find the
two lips of that wound separated from eachother, thou shouldst draw together that
wound with stitching.
14. A wound in hisnostril
CASE 14
bind it with ymrw andtreat it afterward with
grease (and) honey everyday until he recovers.
A man having a perforation in his cheek,shouldst thou find there is a swelling,
protruding and black, (and) diseased tissueupon his cheek.
15. A perforation inhis cheek
CASE 15
bind it with fresh meat thefirst day. His treatment issitting until its swelling isreduced (lit. drawn out).
Thou shalt treat itafterward with grease,honey, (and) lint every
A man having a split in his cheek, shouldstthou find that there is a swelling,
protruding and red, on the outside of thatsplit.
16. A split in hischeek
CASE 16
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day until he recovers.
bind with fresh meat thefirst day. His relief is
sitting until its swelling isreduced (lit. drawn out).
Thou shalt treat itafterwards with grease,honey, (and) lint everyday until he recovers.
A man having a smash in his cheek, thoushouldst place thy hand on his cheek at the
point of that smash. Should it crepitateunder thy fingers, while he discharges
blood from his nostril, (and) from his earon the side of him having that injury; (and)at the same time he discharges blood from
his mouth, while it is painful when heopens his mouth because of it.
17. A smash in hischeek
CASE 17
bind it with fresh meat thefirst day, (and) thou
shouldst treat afterwardwith grease, (and) honey
every day until herecovers.
A man having a wound in his temple, it nothaving a gash while that wound penetratesto the bone, thou shouldst palpate his woun
. Shouldst thou find his temporal boneuninjured, there being no split, (or)
perforation, (or) smash in it.
18. A wound in histemple
CASE 18
put him at his mooringstakes until the period of
his injury passes by, (and)thou shouldst treat withgrease, honey, (and) lint
every day until herecovers
a man having a perforation (thm) in histemple, a wound being upon it, thou
shouldst inspect his wound, saying to him:“Look at thy two shoulders.” Should his
doing so be painful (even though) his neckturns around (only) a little for him, while
his eye in the side of him having that injuryis blood-shot.
19. A perforation inhis temple
CASE 19
when thou findest thatman speechless, his
[relief] shall be sitting;soften his head with
grease, (and) pour [milk]into both his ears
a man having a wound in his temple,penetrating to the bone, (and) perforatinghis temporal bone, while his two eyes areblood shot, he discharges blood from both
his nostrils, and a little drops; if thouputtest thy fingers on the mouth of thatwound (and) he shudder exceedingly; if
thou ask of him concerning his malady andhe speak not to thee; while copious tearsfall from both his eyes, so that he thrusts
his hand often to his face that he may wipeboth his eyes with the back of his hand as achild does, and knows not that he does so
20. A perforation inhis temple,
penetrating to thebone, (and)
perforating histemporal bone
CASE 20
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put him at his mooringstakes until thou knowesthe has reached a decisive
point.
A man having a split in his temple,shouldst thou find a swelling protruding onthe outside of that split, while he dischargesblood from his nostril and from his one earhaving that split, (and) it is painful when he
hears speech, because of it.
21. A split in histemple
CASE 21
Cleanse (it) for him with aswab of linen until thouseest its fragments (of
bone) in the interior of hisear. If thou callest to him
(and) he is speechless(and) cannot speak…
a man having a smash in his temple, placethy thumb upon his chin (and) thy finger
upon the end of his ramus, so that the bloodwill flow front his two nostrils (and) fromthe interior of his ear having that smash
22. A smash in histemple
CASE 22
If thou findest, thestitching of that woundloosen (and) stick in thetwo lips of his wound,thou shouldst make forhim stiff rolls of linen
(and) pad the back of hisear therewith . Thou
shouldst treat itafterwards with grease,honey, (and) lint everyday until he recovers.
A man having a wound in his ear, cuttingthrough its flesh, the injury being in the
lower part of his ear, (and) confined to theflesh, thou shouldst draw (it) together for
him with stitching behind the hollow of hisear.
23. A wound in hisear
CASE 23
An ailment not to betreated.”
A man having a fracture in his mandible,thou shouldst place thy hand upon it,
Shouldst thou find that fracture crepitatingunder thy fingers.
24. A fracture in hismandible
CASE 24
bind it with ymrw, (and)honey every day until he
recovers
a man having a dislocation in his mandible,shouldst thou find this mouth open (and)
his mouth cannot close for him, thoushouldst put thy thumb(s) upon the ends ofthe two rami of the mandible in the inside
of his mouth, (and) thy two claws (meaningtwo groups of fingers) under his chin, (and)
thou shouldst cause them to fall back so
25. A dislocation inhis mandible
CASE 25
Page | 243
that they rest in their places.
after thou hast stitched itthou shouldst bind it withfresh meat the first day.Thou shouldst treat it
afterwards with grease(and) honey every day
until he recovers.
A man having a wound in his lip, piercingthrough to the inside of his mouth, thou
shouldst examine his wound as far as thecolumn, of his nose. Thou shouldst draw
together that wound with stitching.
26. A wound in hislip
CASE 26
apply for him two stripson that gash. Thou
shouldst bind it with freshmeat the first day, (and)
thou shouldst treat itafterwards with grease,
honey (and) lint every dayuntil he recovers.
A man having a gaping wound in his chin,penetrating to the bone, thou shouldst
palpate his wound. If thou shouldst find hisbone uninjured, not having a split, (or)
perforation in it.
27. A gaping woundin his chin
CASE 27
First treatment: Thoushouldst bind it with freshmeat the first day. Thou
shouldst treat itafterwards with grease,honey, (and) lint everyday, until he recovers.
Second treatment: Thoushouldst apply dry lint inthe mouth of his wound,(and) moor (him) at hismooring stakes until he
recovers.
A man having a gaping wound in hispiercing through to his gullet; if he drinkswater he chokes (and) it come out of the
mouth of his wound; it is greatly inflamed,so that he develops fever from it; thou
shouldst draw together that wound withstitching.
Second examination: If, however, thoufindst him continuing to have fever from
that wound.
28. A wound in histhroat
CASE 28
bind it with fresh meat thefirst day. Now afterward
moor (him) at his mooringstakes until the period of
his injury passes by.
A man having a gaping wound in a vertebraof his neck, penetrating to the bone, (and)perforating a vertebra of his neck; if thou243ierogly that wound, (and) he shuddersexceedingly, (and) he is unable to look at
his two shoulders and his breast…
29. A gaping woundin a vertebra of his
neck
CASE 29
bind it with fresh meat thefirst day. Now afterward
A man having a sprain in a vertebra of hisneck, thou shouldst say to him: “look at thy
30. A vertebra of his CASE 30
Page | 244
thou shouldst treat [with]ywrw (and) honey every
day until he recovers.
two shoulders and thy breast.” When hedoes so, the seeing possible to him is
painful.
neck
An ailment not to betreated.”
A man having a dislocation in a vertebra ofhis neck, shouldst thou find him
unconscious of his two arms (and) his twolegs on account of it, while his phallus iserected on account of it, (and) urine dropsfrom his member without his knowing it;his flesh has received wind; his two eyes
are bloodshot; it is a dislocation of avertebra of his neck extending to his
backbone which causes him to beunconscious of his two arms (and) his two
legs. If, however, the middle vertebra of hisneck is dislocated, it is an 244ierogly
seminis which befalls his phallus.
31. A dislocation in avertebra of his neck
CASE 31
bind it with fresh meat thefirst day. Thou shouldstloose his bandages andapply grease to his headas far as his neck, (and)
thou shouldst bind it withymrw . Thou shouldsttreat it afterwards withhoney every day, (and)
his relief is sitting until herecovers.
A man having a displacement in a vertebraof his neck, whose face is fixed, whose
neck cannot turn for him, (and) thoushouldst say to him: “Look at thy breast
(and) thy two shoulders,” (and) he is unableto turn his face that he may look at his
breast (and) his two shoulders.
32. A displacement ina vertebra of his neck
CASE 32
An ailment not to betreated.”…
a man having a crushed vertebra in his neck(and) thou findest that one vertebra has
fallen into the next one, while he isvoiceless and cannot speak; his falling head
downward has caused that one verte bracrush into the next one; (and) shouldst thoufind that he is unconscious of his two arms
and his two legs because of it…
33. A crushedvertebra of his neck
CASE 33
rest in their places . Thoushouldst bind it with stiff
First examination: If thou 244ierogly a manhaving a dislocation in his two collar-
34. A dislocation in CASE 34
Page | 245
rolls of linen; thoushouldst treat it afterwardwith grease (and) honey
every day, until herecovers.
bones, shouldst thou find his two shouldersturned over (and) the head(s) of his two
collar-bones turned toward his face.Second examination: If, however, thou
shouldst find his two collarbones having arupture (or the tissue) over it, penetrating to
the interior.
his two collar-bones
place him prostrate onback, with something
folded between his twoshoulder-blades; thou
shouldst spread out withhis two shoulders in orderto stretch apart his collar-bone until that break falls
into its place. Thoushouldst make for him
two splints of linen, (and)thou shouldst apply one ofthem both on the inside of
his upper arm. Thoushouldst bind it withymrw, (and) treat it
afterward with honeyevery day, until he
recovers.
A man having a break in his collar-bone(and) thou shouldst find his collar-bone
short and separated from its fellow.
35. A break in hiscollar-bone
CASE 35
place him prostrate on hisback, with something
folded between his twoshoulder-blades; thou
shouldst spread out hisshoulders, in order tostretch apart his upper
arm until that break fallsinto its place. Thou
shouldst make for himtwo splints of linen, (and)thou shouldst apply one ofthem to the inside of his
a man having a break in his upper arm,(and) thou findest his upper arm hanging
down, separated from its fellow.
36. A break in hisupper arm
CASE 36
Page | 246
arm, (and) the other ofthem to the underside ofhis arm. Thou shouldst
bind it with ymrw, (and)treat afterward with honey
every day until herecovers
First treatment: Thoushouldst make him two
splints of linen; thoushouldst bind it with
ymrw; (and) thou shouldsttreat it afterwards with
grease, honey, (and) lintevery day until thouknowest that he has
reached a decisive point.Second treatment :An
ailment not to betreated.”
A man having a break in his upper arm, onwhich a wound has been inflicted, (and)
thou findest that break crepitates under thyfingers.
Second examination: If , however, thoufindest that wound which is over the break,
with blood issuing from it, and piercingthrough to the interior of his injury.
37. A break in hisupper arm, with a
wound on it
CASE 37
bind it with ymrw; thoushouldst treat it
afterwards with honey,every day until he
recovers.
A man having a split in his upper arm,(and) thou shouldst find the swelling
protruding, on the outside of that split,which is in his upper arm.
38. A split in hisupper arm
CASE 38
burn him over his breast(and) over those tumorswhich are on his breast.Thou shouldst treat himwith wound treatment ,
Thou shouldst not preventits opening of itself, that
there may be no mnh-w inhis wound (sore?). Everywound (sore?) that arisesin his breast dries up as
soon as it opens of itself.
a man having a tumour with prominenthead in his breast, (and) thou findest that
the swellings have spread with pus over hisbreast, (and) have produced redness, while
it is very hot therein, when thy handtouches him.
39. Tumors withprominent head in his
breast
CASE 39
Page | 247
bind it with fresh meat thefirst day; thou shouldsttreat it afterward with
grease, honey, (and) lintevery day, until he
recovers.
a man having a wound in his breast,penetrating to the bone, perforation the
manubrium of his sternum, thou shouldstpress the manubrium of his sternum with
thy fingers, (although) he shuddersexceedingly.
40. A wound in hisbreast
CASE 40
shalt make for him coolapplications for drawing
out the inflammation fromthe mouth of the wound:
48. Leaves of willow,nbs’-tree ksnty.
Apply to it.b. Leaves of ym’-tree, dung. Hny-t’,ksnty, Apply to it.
Thou shalt make for himapplications for drying upthe wound: a. Powder of
green pigment wsb-t,thn.t, grease. Triturate
bind upon it.b. Northern salt, ibexgrease. Triturate; bind
upon it:
Thou shalt make for himpoultices: Red spnn,garden tongue, d’r.t,
sycamore leaves. Bindupon it. If the like befallsin any member thou shalt
treat him according tothese instructions.
a man having a diseased wound in hisbreast, while that wound is inflamed and awhirl of inflammation continually issues
from the mouth of that wound at thy touch;the two lips of that wound are ruddy, whilethat man continues to be feverish from it;his flesh cannot receive a bandage, thatwound cannot take a margin of skin; thegranulation which is in the mouth of thatwound is watery, their surface is not and
secretions drop therefrom in an oily state.
41. A diseased woundin his breast
CASE 41
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bind it with ymrw; thoushouldst treat it
afterwards with honeyevery day until he
recovers.
a man having a sprain in the ribs of hisbreast, (and) he suffers in the ribs of his
breast, not having a dislocation, (and) it isnot broken while that man continues to
suffer with it and shudders exceedingly.
42. A sprain in theribs of his breast
CASE 42
bind it with ymrw; thoushouldst treat it
afterwards with honeyevery day, until he
recovers.
a man having a dislocation of the ribs of hisbreast, (and) thou findest that the ribs of his
breast are projecting and their heads areruddy, while that man suffers continually
with swellings in his two sides.
43. A dislocation ofthe ribs of his breast
CASE 43
An ailment not to betreated.”
A man having a break in the ribs of hisbreast, over which a wound has been
inflicted; (and) thou findest that the ribs ofbreast crepitate under thy fingers.
44. A break in theribs of his breast
CASE 44
There is no treatment. Ifthou findest tumors in any
member of a man, thoushalt treat him according
to these directions.
a man having tumors on his breast, (and)thou findest that swelling have spread overhis breast; if thou puttest thy hand upon his
breast upon these tumors, (and) thoufindest them very cool, there being no feverat all therein when thy hand touches him;they have no granulation, they form nofluid, they do not generate secretions offluid, and they are bulging to thy hand.
45. Bulging tumorson his breast
CASE 45
48. Sh,t-fruit, ntr.t,ksnty, Triturate,
bind upon it.b. Fruit of ss,
ksnty, mason’smortar, water
a man having an abscess with prominenthead in his breast: (and) thou findest a very
large swelling protruding on his breast,oily, like fluid under thy hand, while theyproduce some clamminess of the surface,
(and) their faces have no ruddiness.
46. An abscess withprominent head in his
breast
CASE 46
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Triturate, bindupon it.
If there is resistance tothese cooling
applications, thoushouldst avoid those
remedies until all fluidwhich is in the abscess
with a head exudes. Thoushouldst treat him withwound-treatment, with
applications for drawingout the inflammation from
the mouth of the wound(sore?) in his breast:
Leaves of acacia,sycamore, juice of ym’-leaves, ox dung, hny-t’,
Bind upon it.
Thou shouldst make forhim astringents, in his
breast:
48. powder of greenpigment, drt of
cedar, ointementfat, northern salt,ibex grease, Bind
upon it.
Thou shouldst make forhim poultices: Red spnn,
sycamore. Triturate, applyto it.
First treatment: Thoushouldst bind it with fresh
A man having a gaping wound in hisshoulder its flesh being laid back and its
47. A gaping woundin his shoulder
CASE 47
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meat the first day.Second treatment:
thou shouldst drawtogether for him its gashwith two strips of linen
over that gash; thoushouldst treat it
afterwards with grease,honey, (and) lint every
day until he recovers. Ifthou findest a wound, itsflesh laid back, it sides
separated, in any memberof a man, thou shouldst
treat it according to thesedirections.
Third diagnosis: “Onehaving a wound in his
shoulder, it beinginflamed, and he
continues to have feverfrom it. An ailment withwhich I will contend.”Fourth treatment: Thoushalt not bind it; thou
shalt moor (him) at hismooring stakes, until the
period of his injury passesby.
Fifth treatment: Thoushouldst treat him
afterward with grease,honey, (and) lint everyday, until he recovers.
sides separated, while he suffers withswelling (in) his shoulder blade, thou
shouldst palpate his wound, shouldst thoufind its gash separated from its sides in hiswound, as a roll of linen is unrolled, (and)
it is painful when he raises his arm onaccount of it, thou shouldst draw together
for him his gash with stitching.Second examination: If thou findest that
wound open and its stitching loose
Third examination: If however, thou findestthat his flesh has developed inflammationform that wound which is in his shoulder,
while that wound is inflamed, open, and itsstitching loose, thou shouldst lay thy handupon it. Shouldst thou find inflammation
issuing from the mouth of his wound at thytouch, and secretions discharging therefrom
are cool like wenesh-juice.Fourth examination: If then thou findestthat man continuing to have fever, while
that wound is inflamed.Fifth examination: If however, his fever
abates and the inflammation in the mouthof his wound dissipates entirely.
place him prostrate on hisback; thou shouldst make
for him….
a man having] a sprain in a vertebra of hisspinal column, thou shouldst say to him:“Extend now thy two legs (and) contract
48. A sprain in avertebra of his spinal
column
CASE 48
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them both (again).” When he extends themboth he contracts them both immediately
because of the pain he causes in thevertebra of his spinal column in which he
suffers.
Kahun papyrusIntroduction
it was found in April 1889 by flinder petrie attown known as Lahun in fayum , it is now in theuniversity collage in London , it date back to year29 in the reign of Amenemhat 3rd , it is in a verybad condition , it is written in hieratic and wastranslated into English , it was just like Edwinsmith papyrus beginning by instructions thensymptoms .
The papyrus deal with the gynecological diseasesof woman , child birth and cows and otherdiseases connected to woman like :
Case 1 : a woman whose eyes are aching till shecan`t see .
Treatment: by fumigating her with incense andfresh oil with goose leg fat.
Case 2: a woman who is ill from her wombwandering .
Treatment : by fumigating her with whatever shesmells as roast .
Case 3 : a woman aching in her rear , her frontand the calves of her tight .
Treatment : by a measure of carob fruit , measureof pellets , 1 hin of cow milk boil mix togetherdrink on 4 morning .
Case 4 : a woman aching in her legs and hercalves after walking .
Treatment : putting legs and calves in mud untilshe is well .
Hearst PapyrusTHE HEARST PAPYRUS , also called the hearstmedical papyrus .
THE papyrus contains 18 pages of medicalprescriptions written in hieratic 251ierogly writing, concentrating on treatments for problems dealingwith the urinary system , blood , hair , and bites. Itis dated to the fierst half of the 2nd millennium bc
The papyrus has been dated to the 18th dynasty ofEgypt around the time of pharaoh tuthmosis 3rd
Text is believed that have been composed earlier,during the Middle kingdom around 2000 BC Thecontents of the papyrus have been studiedextensively from the published plates, but theoriginal papyrus had never been carefully
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examined. As its curator explained in 2003, “thepapyrus is in surprisingly good condition.
The hearst papyruswhich were used to recordremedial methods for problems such as headachesand 252ieroglyp problems Most papyri alsoincluded a section on Incantations and magicspells that would be performed on the patientbefore, during, and after treatment.
The Hearst Papyrus contains 260 paragraphs on18 columns of medical prescriptions The topicsrange from “a tooth which falls out” to “remedyfor treatment of the lung but concentrates ontreatment for problems dealing with bites (byhuman beings , pigs , and hippopotamuses).
Ramesseum Papyrus
The Ramesseum medical papyri constitute acollection of ancient Egyptian medical documentdating back to the early 18th century found in thetemple of the Ramesseum
This document mainly dealt with ailments,diseases, structure of the body, and supposedremedies used to heal these afflictions namelyophthalmologic ailments ,gynaecology,muscles,tendons, and diseasesof children .
Most of the text written in the known manuscriptsof this collection are in parts III, IV, and V, andwritten in vertical columnsPapyrus IV deals with issues similar to the kahungynological papyrus such as labor the protectionof the newborn, ways to predict the likelihood ofits survival and ways to predict which gender thenew born will be .
Papyrus V contains numerous prescriptionsdealing with the contains numerous prescriptionsdealing with the, relaxation of limbs written in252ieroglyphic script , rather than hieratic script .
Papyrus III of this collection, in addition to othermedical papyri of its time period, may provideinformation about the eruption of santorini and themedical problems it caused, as well as possiblesupport for the ninth biblical plague of darkness
Treatments for burns caused by particulate anddissolved acids are documented in the LondonMedical Papyrus as well as in the Ebers Papyrus,and are compatible with ash fallout and ash inrain, respectively. Furthermore, both instances ofash correlate to the first eight biblical plagues.Moreover, the latter text also presents a series ofailments coherent with serious inhalation of toxicsubstances in aerosol form. This scenario isconfirmed by the hearst medical papyrus. TheRamesseum Papyrus III, and fits a volcanicplume, which is also coherent with the ninthbiblical plague .
Chester beatty papyrus
Sir Alfred Chester Beatty was amillionaire industrialist and was a greatcollector of books, manuscripts and art andgave 19 papyri to the British Museum.These were found at Deir el-Medina (theworkers village) in 1928 and are part of awider collection now dispersed between anumber of museums, the Ashmolean, theFrench Institute in Cairo and the ChesterBeatty Library in Dublin. This started offas a private collection by the scribe Qen-her-khepeshef in the 19th Dynasty andpassed on down through his family untilthere were placed in a tomb. They haveundergone extensive reconstruction and
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translated into English by Gardiner in1935. The content comprises of manymagical incantations against headache.There is much space given over to rectalailments with various remedies andincantations but there is some doubt as tothe exact ailments these refer to.
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AppendixC
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Farmed and DomesticatedAnimalsAncient Egyptian domesticated animals.OK: Old KingdomMK: Middle KingdomNK: New Kingdom
LP: Late PeriodSheep [1], goats, cattle, pigs [2] and geese wereraised from earliest times and supplied repectivelymilk, wool, meat, eggs, leather, skins, horn andfat. Even the dung had its uses [7]. There is littleevidence that mutton was consumed, whiledomesticated pigs were eaten at least since thebeginning of the 4th millennium BCE [8], but porkhad no place in religious ceremonies. Goat meaton the other hand was acceptable even to upperclass Egyptians. Goat skins served as watercontainers and floating devices. The Egyptianfarmers, in their early experimental phase, alsotried to domesticate other animals such as hyenas,gazelles and cranes, but abandoned these attemptsafter the Old Kingdom.
The domestic chicken didn't make itsappearance until the New Kingdom, and then onlyin isolated places. It became more common in the
Late Period. By then the Egyptians seem to havemastered artificial incubation. Diodorus Siculus(1st century BCE) reports in his Historic Library
Apart from the generally known fashion forbreeding these animals, they have an artificialmeans for raising incredible numbers of chicks.They don't let the chickens incubate their eggsthemselves, but through an especially ingeniouscontrivance, which is just as effective as the forcesof nature.Diodor's von Sicilien Historische Bibliothek Vol1, Chapter 74after a translation by Julius Friedrich Wurm
Fattening
Force feeding a gooseSaqqara, 1st Intermediate PeriodSource: W.S.Smith, Country Life in Ancient Egypt,Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
There are many depictions of animals being force-fed, among them cranes, hyaenas and geese.Cattle and oryx antelopes [19] destined for sacrifice
are also known to have beenfattened. The Harris Papyrusmentions fattening-housescontaining fat geese, and onewonders whether the ancientEgyptians knew how to preparepâté de foie gras.
CattleCattle crossing a body of waterTomb of KagemniCourtesy Jon BodsworthThe Egyptians grew a number of cattlevarieties. Oxen [3] of a horned African breedwere fattened to immense proportions and,adorned with ostrich feathers, displayed in
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processions before slaughter, as shown indepictions at Abydos and Medinet Habu. Theyalso had a smaller breed, generally hornless, andwild longhorned cattle which resisted fattening.Zebu were introduced from the Levant during theNew Kingdom [15] and spread subsequentlythroughout much of eastern Africa.The Egyptians developed a number of techniquesfor rendering these big animals more amenable.Unwanted horn growth was controlled by burningor scraping off budding horns. The story Lion inSearch of Man also speaks of nose-piercing:... an ox and a cow, whose horns were clipped,whose noses were pierced, and whose heads wereroped.M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature,Volume III, p.158Sometimes the cattle were branded with red hotirons [14], above all on the great estates belongingto the pharaohs and the temples.Bronze branding iron, New KingdomUC63717 Petrie MuseumSource: Petrie Museum wbsite
Cowherds tended their animals, sleeping at nightnear-by in order to prevent theft. When crossingriver arms grown over with reeds, they had to beon the look-out for crocodiles and use the rightincantations to make the crocodiles blind to thepassing herd [17]. If a calving cow was indifficulty, they helped deliver the calf. Thisherdsman's song was found in a tomb:You have goaded the oxen on all the roads.You have walked over the sand.
Now you are trampling on the grass.You are eating the rich plants.Now you are sated. May it become your bodieswell.
In the tomb of Petosiris, the cowherd calls hischarges by name: the "golden one", the "shiningone" and "beautiful", which were attributes givento the goddess Hathor.
In and near dwellings remains of clover havebeen found, indicating that the farmers kept theircattle penned upfeeding them cut fodderduring part of the year,probably during theseason of inundationwhen few grazing areaswere accessible [16.Cattle pen made of branchesOpen Air Museum, Karnak
Sheep and goats
Egypt was cattle country, like other African landsto its south and unlike the near-by, arid Asiaticregions where small cattle were preponderant [18].The two breeds of sheep found in Egypt,the older (left, a depiction of Khnum)and the one introduced during the MiddleKingdom from Nubia (right, representing Amen)The keeping of sheep and goats, was of secondaryeconomic importance [13], but provided the
westerncivilisation with
one of its mostbeloved symbols,that of the goodshepherd caring forhis flock. A Karnak
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inscription says of Amenhotep III... the good shepherd, vigilant for all people,whom the maker thereof has placed under hisauthority
J.H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part II, §900
HorsesThe first evidence of horses in Egypt dates fromthe 13th dynasty. But they were introduced on asignificant scale only from the SecondIntermediate Period onwards. The first picturesof horses were made during the 18th dynasty.
Horses were luxury animals, and only thevery wealthy could afford to keep them and treatthem according to their worth. They were neverused for ploughing and only rarely ridden duringthe second millennium BCE. For war and huntalike they were harnessed to chariots.
Tutankhamen seems to have enjoyed not onlydriving his chariot, but also mounting on
horseback. This has been inferred from a ridingcrop [23] found in his tomb bearing the inscriptionthat he came on his horse like the shining Re.According to a few rare depictions, such as arelief in Horemheb's tomb, horses were riddenbareback and without stirrups. At times the ridersat on the horse's rump in the fashion donkeys arestill mounted today, which would have limited thehorses pace to a slow trot.
Ramses II built a complex of six rows of stablesfor 460 horses at Per-Ramses on the southernedge of the Delta, covering 1,700 square metres.They had sloping floors and troughs at the lowerend for keeping the floor as dry as possible andcatching the horses' urine. The stables containedstone water basins and stone tethers.
Pharaohs often supervised personally thetreatment their horses were getting. Ramses IIIfrequented his stables and Piye, having conquered
the MiddleEgyptian townof Shamumuafter a lengthysiege, accusedthe defeatedprince Namlotof not feedinghis horses properlyAs I have lived and loved Re and breath is in mynostrils, thus my heart grows heavy seeing howthese horses have been starved, which is worsethan anything you have done from the evil in yourheart.The Piankhi Stela, 23rd dynasty
We do not know how theEgyptians trained theirhorses, though a teacher'scomparison of schoolboyswith horses suggests thattheir approach was ratherhands-on:Horses brought from thefield, they forget their mothers. Yoked they go upand down on all his majesty's errands. Theybecome like those that bore them, that stand in thestable. They do their utmost for fear of a beating.Papyrus LansingM. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.2,p.169
Egyptian horses became famous throughout theeastern Mediterranean. The Assyrian conquerors,when extracting tribute, made sure to get as manyof them as possible.
Beasts of burdenDonkeys were used for transportation, though
sometimes manpower was preferred. They werequite often depicted on tomb walls.Tomb of Menna, ThebesExcerpt. Courtesy Jon Bodsworth
Mules, offsprings offemale horses andmale donkeys, werebred in Egypt sincethe New Kingdom.
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Apart from their inability to breed they combinedsome of their parents best qualities, being tallerand stronger than donkeys, yet hardier andcheaper to feed than horses. They probablybecame more common in Graeco-Roman times, ashorses became cheaper and were occasionallyeven used for transporting burdens.
Mules were at times handled by professionalmuleteers:Apollonios to Zenon, greeting. I have sent Midas,the muleteer, to you. Make use of him, therefore,in connection with the mules and order him totake over the care of them. Give him the fixedwages and food allowance punctually. For he has
obtained his clothing allowance from me and hasreceived his wages up to the month Dios.Good-by.Year 30, Dios 11, Hathyr 1.[Verso:] Year 30, Dios 23, Hathyr 23.[Scribe's notation:] Regarding Midas. On wagesof Midas, muleteer. To Zenon.Letter from 25th December, 256 BCEAPIS record: columbia.apis.p31
Camels on the other hand, domesticated duringthe third or second millennium in western Asiaand Arabia, were barely known in Egypt until thePersian conquest.
FishPonds, natural or artificial, were stocked with
fish. Even gardens often had little pools with fishand water fowl in them.Its west side is a pond for snaring geese of allkinds, a resort of hunters from the very beginning.One of its ponds has more fish than a lake.....Fish abound in their basins: bulti-fish, Sna-fish,
Dss-fish. The fish are more plentiful than thesands on the shore; one cannot reach the end ofthemPapyrus LansingM. Lichtheim Ancient Egyptian Literature,Volume 2, p.173
Sacrificial animalsThere were special farms for the fattening of
oxen and Oryx bulls, destined for slaughter.Animals grazed during the day and were drivenback to the sheds in the evenings and fed withpellets of corn [5] mash. In the New Kingdom thekeeping of Oryx antelopes was abandoned.Fattened bull being led to the sacrifice, AbydosCourtesy Jon Bodsworth
The fact that beef was part of the diet suggeststhat some grazing land was available during thetimes when the Nile receded. While the land wasinundated, cattle were brought to the higher levels
of thefloodplainarea andwereoften fedgrainharvested the previous year. Apart from the cattleconsumed, much livestock was sacrificed to thegods. Under Ramses III 16,000 cattle and 22,000geese were sacrificed per year on the altars ofAmen alone.
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Smaller animals and pets
The ferret was domesticated and used to keep granaries free from rats and mice. Vervet monkeyswere kept as pets, as were dogs, cats, ducks and geese. The Nile goose [6] had often the run of thehouse and the garden in spite of its sometimes vile temper. Some people grew hoopoes, doves andfalcons.
Royalty had royal pastimes and royal pets. Ramses II had a tame lion [9], and Sudanese cheetahssometimes took the place of the house cat in the king's household.
Cats
Cats seem to have been domesticated during theMiddle Kingdom from the wild cats in the Deltaor the Western Desert. They spread all over theNear East in spite of a ban on their export. Apartfrom their usefulness in combatting mice, theywere, perhaps more than any other animal exceptdogs, kept as pets. The first known cat name,Nedjem, dates to the reign of Thutmose III,Amenhotep I's pet Buhaki, is depicted sittingbetween the king's feet, and Prince Thutmose, sonof Amenhotep III, buried Ta-miut in its ownsarcophagus [21].
Apart from being popular cats were alsoconsidered divine more than many otherdomesticated animal. Herodotus describes howthe Egyptians mourned the death of a cat andDiodorus Siculus writes of the wrath of thepopulace when a cat was killed
If its is a cat or an ibis he (i.e. the killer of theanimal) has to die in any case, whether he killedthe animal on purpose or bymistake; a crowd assemblesand maltreats the perpetratorin the most cruel way, andthis happens without anydecision by a judge.Diodorus Siculus,HistorischeBibliothek, Vol. 1,§ 83, translated byJulius FriedrichWurmMy translationfrom the German
DogsBut however much Egyptians loved their cats,
it was their dogs they felt closer to, if Herodotus isto be believedAnd in whatever houses a cat has died by anatural death, all those who dwell in this houseshave their eyebrows only, but those in which adog has died shave their whole body and alsotheir head.Herodotus, Histories II, 66
Dogs, while often depicted as huntingcompanions or as watch dogs, are never shownmerely as pets. They had individual names [12] andwere often buried with their masters, such as Neb,whose stela dating to the first dynasty bears hisname and effigy. At Abydos part of the cemeterywas set aside for dogs near the graves of women,archers and dwarfs.
At Gizeh the dog Abuwtiyuw, a greyhound-liketchesem (Tzm), received a fine burial:The dog which was the guard of His Majesty.Abuwtiyuw is his name. His Majesty ordered thathe be buried, that he be given a coffin from theroyal treasury, fine linen in great quantity,incense. His Majesty gave perfumed ointment and[ordered] that a tomb be built for him by the gangof masons. His Majesty did this for him in orderthat he might be honored.Inscription dating to the 5th or 6th dynastyG.A. Reisner The Dog Which was Honored by theKing of Upper and Lower EgyptBMFA 34, No. 206, December 1936, pp. 96-99
Various breeds enjoyed popularity duringEgypt's history. A sloughi look-alike with atrumpet-shaped tail was widespread during the
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Old Kingdom. Short legged dogs were all the rageduring the Middle Kingdom while New Kingdom
Egyptians preferred the fleet harrier or the smallketket (ktkt-Srj).
Veterinary medicineLittle is known about animal medicine, but theirtreatment was similar to that of human beings andapparently the same healers, the swnw, who dealtwith people also treated animals [22]. Among theKahun papyri there were some about veterinarymedicine and a number of treatments havesurvived at least in part:[Treatment for the eyes (?) of a dog with (?)] thenest of a worm
............... if when it courses (?) scenting (?) theground, it falls down, it should be said"mysterious prostration as to it." When theincantations have been said I should thrust myhand within its hemu, a henu of water at my side.When the hand of a man reaches to wash the boneof its back, the man should wash his hand in thishenu of water each time that the hand becomesgummed (?) until thou hast drawn forth the heat-dried blood, or anything else or the hesa (?). Thouwilt know that he is cured on the coming of thehesa. Also keep thy fingers .............
Treatment for the eyes (?) of a bull with the wind(cold ?)
If I see [a bull with] wind, he is with his eyesrunning, his forehead ? uden (wrinkled ?) theroots (gums ?) of his teeth red, his neck swollen
(or raised ?): repeat the incantation for him. Lethim be laid on his side, let him be sprinkled withcold water, let his eyes and his hoofs (?) and allhis body be rubbed with gourds (?) or melons, lethim be fumigated with gourds ......... waitherdsman ................ be soaked .............. that itdraws in soaking ........... until it dissolves intowater: let him be rubbed with gourds ofcucumbers. Thou shalt gash (?) him upon his noseand his tail, thou shalt say as to it, "he that has acut either dies with it or lives with it." If he doesnot recover and he is wrinkled (?) under thyfingers, and blinks (?) his eyes, thou shaltbandage his eyes with linen lighted with fire tostop the running.
Treatment for the eyes (?) of a bull with ushauin winter
If I see a bull with [ushau] in winter, and he isblinded (?) his two eyes are thick; gash thou asabove. If I see a bull with ushau in winter fromcold, since its arrival in (?) summer, his templesare wrinkled (?), his eyes running, his stomachgroaning (?), he does not walk (?) .......................thou all its body with ........... as is done to onewith a bruise (?).Kahun Veterinary PapyrusGriffith, F.Ll. ed. ; 1898 , Hieratic Papyri fromKahun and Gurob, pp. 13f
[ ] The photos of the horse and chariot, of the cat, and of the mummy of the New Kingdom dog courtesyJon Bodsworth[1] Neither the milk nor the flesh of sheep were apparently sacrificed to the gods (no mention of sheepsacrifices in Egyptian sources), though Herodotus claimed that there were exceptionsNow all who have a temple set up to the Theban Zeus or who are of the district of Thebes, these, I say, allsacrifice goats and abstain from sheep: for not all the Egyptians equally reverence the same gods, exceptonly Isis and Osiris (who they say is Dionysos), these they all reverence alike: but they who have a temple ofMendes or belong to the Mendesian district, these abstain from goats and sacrifice sheep.Herodotus, Histories Volume IIWhile goats are not infrequently mentioned in the Harris papyrus, sheep are not among the offerings listed.[2] Pigs had been eaten since times immemorial and were farmed on a large scale since the New Kingdom,
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although they were at times considered to be ritually unclean. During the early New Kingdom Reneni, sonof Sobekhotep, witnessed a counting of domestic animals to be taxed at el Kab:Supervising the counting of due animals by the rpa.t, the count (HA.tj-a), the supervisor of prophets, scribeReneni, resurrected: cattle 122, sheep 100, goats 1200, pigs 1500.After K. Sethe, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie, Band I, p.39[3] It is not certain that castration of bulls was practised in ancient Egypt.[4] Domesticated from the Nubian wild ass, equus asinus africanus about 6000 years ago.[5] The corn of ancient Egypt was wheat of course.[6] Alopochen aegyptiacus[8] Prehistoric pig bones were found both in the Delta (e.g. at Tell el-Farkha) and in Upper Egypt (e.g. atAbadiya 2)[9] As did other kings. In the tomb of Maia, wetnurse of Tutankhamen, a (possibly naturally) mummifiedlion was found.[10][11]
[12] Inyotef II (11 dynasty) immortalized five of his dogs by setting up a stela in their honour, referred to,obviously, as the Dog Stela. The dogs had been given Libyan names, and in a number of cases an Egyptiantranslation was furnished: Behekay (bHkAi) - Egyptian "Gazelle", Abaqer (AbAqr) which was not translated,there was a "Blacky" - Libyan Pehetez (phtz), a Tekenru (tknrw) and a Teqeru (tqrw).[13] Cattle were critical as power sources. Ancient Egyptians consumed only little meat; but as food, goatsand possibly sheep as well, were at least in some places and at certain times more important than beef.During temple excavations at Tell Ibrahim Awad in the Eastern Delta one fifth of the identified bones werefrom pigs, 4 percent from sheep and goats and only one percent were cattle bones. (Salima Ikram, AmericanUniversity, Cairo)According to the Bible (not to be used as an unsupported source for 2nd millennium historical facts, butquite good at describing social conditions) the Egyptians were not very fond of shepherds, though thisdislike may have stemmed from the fact that many shepherds were nomads roaming the often badly policedsemi-deserted border regions, who occasionally endulged in a bit of raiding and robbery:33 And it shall come to pass, when Pharaoh shall call you, and shall say, What is your occupation?34 That ye shall say, Thy servants' trade hath been about cattle from our youth even until now, both we, andalso our fathers: that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination unto theEgyptians.Genesis, 46[18] A list in J. Kraus: Demographie des alten Ägypten, p.160, suggests a ratio of three to four heads ofsmall cattle per cow in Old Kingdom Egypt, while tributes from Retjenu (Canaan) during the New Kingdomyielded between six and sixteen sheep and goats for every head of cattle. These ratiosare based on a small handfull of sources and are indicative rather than statisticallysignificant.But bone fragments found at Giza lead Richard Redding, an archaeozoologist fromthe University of Michigan, to suggest that the ratio of sheep and goats to individualcattle eaten by the workers building the pyramids was about 5 to 1 [20].[19] The depiction of the antelope buck on the right shows clearly the deformation ofthe animal's hooves, due to its being kept penned up.Oryx buckTomb of Ty, SaqqaraM. A. Murray, Saqqara Mastabas, Egyptian Research Account XI, Plate V[22] According to A. H. Gordon and C. W. Schwabe, The Quick And The Dead: Biomedical Theory inAncient Egypt, Brill 2004, p.5, there was no difference between human and veterinary medicine untilPtolemaic times.[23] Depictions of riders brandishing riding crops are known, e.g. J. E. Quibell et al. 2nd Memoire of the
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Egyptian Research Account: The Ramesseum - The Tomb of Ptahhotep, 1896, plate XXVII, which shows aSyrian goddess, possibly Asit, on horseback (19th to 22nd dynasty).[24] Pierre Anus, "Un domaine thébain d'époque 'amarnienne'. Sur quelques blocs de remploi trouvés àKarnak", BIFAO 69 (1971), pp.69-88
...........................
The Tale of a HerdsmanBehold, I descended to the swamp, near this (i.e.
previously mentioned) low-lying pasture ground. Isaw a (nubile) woman there (i.e. in the swamp);she did not have the shape(?) of a human being.My hairs stood on edge when I saw her hair andthe smoothness of her skin. I shall never do whatshe told me. The awe of her penetrated all mylimbs.
I'd like to tell you: "Bulls, let us go on land(?) !Ferry the calves across, while the small cattle willspend the night at the edge of the meadow and theherdsmen look after them. (As to) going ashore(from) our transporter, the bulls together with thecows(?) are in the stern." This fragment of thetext, pBerlin 3024, has been dated to the 12thdynasty.
hair: sr.w female or animal hair, possibly wig.skin: jwn lit. colour.
Herd fording riverSource: Jon Bodsworth The learned among theherdsmen recite a water spell with this content:"My kas are rejoicing, O herdsmen, O men! Icannot be chased from this meadow in the year of
the great Hapi, who even gives orders to thebacks of the land and the lake is not distinguishedfrom river.(Be safe and sound.) Betake yourself in safety intothe interior of your house. (For) the cows remainin their places. (You god of the inundation) whohas come(?) ! The fear of you has dissipated andthe respect for you vanished, until the anger of theMighty One and the terror of (the goddess named)Lady of Both Lands will have disappeared(?)."water spell: against accidents on the water and forprotection against crocodiles.ka: cf. Body and Soulgreat Hapi: high inundationbacks of the land: elevated land surrounded by thewaters of the inundationlake: probably the irrigation basins which werefilled by the rising Nile waters.yourself: i.e. the god of inundationthe Mighty One: Wosret (wsr.t) Barely had theday broken over the land when it happened as hehad said: this goddess came to meet him.As was his wont, he turned towards the lake, andshe appeared, having taken off her clothes andtousled her hair.....................
Animals divine, wild, domestic and imaginary
In ancient times North Africa was less arid and much less populated than it is today. A number of animalsused to live in the waters of the Nile, the marshes of the Delta and the desert regions of the country but havedisappeared since. Hippos and crocodiles, ostriches and gazelles, lions and panthers were found and hunted.Even the quail, which landed in huge numbers in northern Egypt after crossing the Mediterranean Sea, haveall but disappeared.
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The ancient Egyptians lived close to many animals, some of them dangerous likecrocodiles, hippopotamuses, scorpions, and cobras. They hunted the wild beasts andtried to domesticate many of them. They painted their images, carved them in stone,and even drew animal cartoons, with wolves herding sheep and lions playing gamesagainst antelopes, and they gave most of their gods animal or partially animal forms.
Their knowledge of the fauna was practical, but whenever they did not have ananswer based on experience and observation, they relied on mythology to fill in thevoid, e.g. seeing the migratory birds fly over their country they connected thisbehaviour with what they knew about the sun: it crossed the sky during the day andreturned through the underworld to rise again in the morning. At the extreme limits oftheir world there was a passage between the sky and the underworld, a passage usedby the migrants.Concentrated darkness, the cool water region of the gods,The place from which the birds come.These are at her (Nut's, i.e. the sky) north-western side to her north-eastern sideWhich open to the underworld, which is at her northern side.......The faces of these birds are like those of human beings,But their form is that of birds.They speak with each other in the tongue of humans.But when they come to eat herbs and feed in Egypt,They settle under the rays of the sky and adopt their avian form.After Jan Assmann Ägypten - Theologie und Frömmigkeit einer frühenHochkultur, pp.77f
Without necessarily being incarnations of mortals, they were described as ba-birds.They were also thought to raise their young in these far-off northern regions which thesun did not reach, having builtNests, which are in the cool water region.
In most temples the resident god was represented by a statue, but in many he wasalso incarnated by a live animal. A temple may have kept a herd of animals, butapparently only one individual among them was a holy animal, though his offspringenjoyed a special status and was not sacrificed, but permitted to die a natural death. AtCrocodilopolis in the Fayum Sobek was a crocodile, in the Serapeum at Saqqara theApis bulls were embalmed and buried. The death of an Apis bull was announced withthe cry There is no god. After the entombment of a holy animal it was replaced by acarefully chosen young one.
Animal offerings were pleasing to the gods. It was mostly cattle that wasslaughtered and presented on the altars, but many other species were also used.Animals to be offered had to be acceptable to the gods and were inspected bySekhmet priests and Serqet magicians.
In the Late Period large numbers of animals were kept by appropriate temples (catsin the Bastet temples, ibises in those of Thoth etc, where they were referred to asgods, nTr.w), were killed and mummified in the name of paying believers and storedin caches.
Source of the picture: British Museum website