MEDIA

A Linkage Institution

Party Press

Parties created and subsidized newspapers.

Circulation was small, newspapers expensive, and advertisers few.

Newspapers circulated between political and commercial elites.

Popular Press--the growth of mass readership

High speed pressTelegraphAssociated Press in 1848--objective reporting.Urbanization=growth of newspapersGovernment Printing Office; end of subsidies in 1860

“Yellow journalism” attracts readers.

Hearst foments war against Spain.

Media-created partisan bias.

Opinion Magazines

Middle class favors new, progressive periodicals.Nation, Atlantic, and Harpers in the 1850’s and 60’sMcClure’s, Scribner’s and Cosmopolitan later on.

Individual writers gain national followings through investigative reporting.Sensationalism declines as “muckraking” increases.Today, few national political magazines are popular in the mainstream.

Electronic Journalism

Radio arrives in 1920’s; television in the 1940’s.

Fewer politicians are covered.

Use of “bold tactics”--be controversial.

Rise of “Talk Show” JournalismThe “Big Three” dominated access and required candidates to speak in “sound bites”, though viewership has waned in recent years.Rise of Cable Broadcasting and the Internet.

National Press Roles

Gatekeeper: What is news? How long? Agenda setting.

Auto Safety

Water Pollution

Prescription Drugs

Crime Rates

Scorekeeper: Who is winning? Losing?Attention to Iowa and New Hampshire.

Unknown Jimmy Carter in 1976 and his “mentions” in NY Times, Washington Post, etc.

“Horse Race” Journalism: Political journalism of elections that focuses on polling data and public perception, not candidate policy. Reporting on candidate differences rather than similarities, just like you compare horses to other horses.

Watchdog: Investigate personalities and expose scandals.

Gary Hart and Donna Rice relationship in 1987, Ted Kennedy and Chappaquiddick revival in 1980, and Bill Clinton in 1992.

Watergate (Woodward and Bernstein and Investigative Journalism)

John Edwards, Eliot Spitzer, Herman Cain?, etc., etc., etc.

Will Cain be the next to drop out because of these charges?

Rules Governing Media

Newspapers are basically unregulated.Prosecutions after the fact and limited: libel, obscenity, defamation, and incitement.“Prior Restraint”—Gov’t action (injunction) to prevent communications from the public. First amendment protection from censorship. Near v Minnesota (1931); Pentagon Papers.Radio and TV licensed and regulated (FCC).

Supreme Court and the First Amendment: No Prior Restraint

Confidentiality of Sources

Reporters desire confidentiality.Federal and state governments do not agree--makes court cases necessary.Supreme Court allows that reporters must divulge if a crime is involved.Myron Farber case: Reporter jailed for contempt.Police search of newspaper office upheld. Congress than passed a law requiring a subpoena.

Broadcasting Regulations

FCC licensing

Deregulation

Telecommunications Act of 1996--Large companies control radio (Clear Channel).

Equal Time/Right of Reply/Political Editorializing Rules

Fairness Doctrine abolished in 1987. Of course, that gave us this…

Landmark Cases

Near v. Minnesota (1931): Freedom of the press applies to state governments, so that they cannot impose prior restraint on newspapers.

New York Times v. Sullivan (1964): Public officials may not win a libel suit unless they can prove that the statement was made knowing it to be false or with reckless disregard for the truth.

Miami Herald v. Tornillo (1974): A newspaper cannot be required to give someone a right to reply to one of its stories.

Campaigning

Debates used to have to include all the candidates.Reagan-Carter sponsored by League of Women Voters as news event.Now, stations and networks can sponsor.More Senate than House candidates buy TV time.

Bias

Liberal and secular: Perception meets reality.Conservative Talk Shows and Fox NewsObjectivity in newspapers (Great Britain/France follow party lines).Routine, Feature, Insider storiesNews Leaks--infamous “Deep Throat” of Watergate ScandalIn determining bias, point of view is everything:http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2009/11/04/the_double_standard_about_journalists_bias__99003.html

Media Influence

Selective attentionTrial balloons: News leaks to get public reaction.Loaded LanguageSpin vs. SpunMedia Exposure (Estes Kefauver and the Mafia, and Howard Dean--check out Jib Jab) http://sendables.jibjab.com/originals/this_landEndorsementsIssues (environment and foreign policy vs. high gas prices)TV influences the popularity of Presidents

Government and the News

Teddy Roosevelt builds the West Wing in 1902.

FDR elevates the role of the Press Secretary, which Hoover had created a few years before.

Robert Gibbs, the current Press Secretary, manages a large staff and performs many functions, such as briefing the President.

White House press corps is main focus.

Spokesperson for the White House.

Congress Coverage

Never equal to that of the President.House quite restrictive--no cameras on floor until 1978. Gavel to gavel proceedings since 1979 with C-SPAN.Senate more open--committee hearings have frequently been televised and an incubator of presidential ambition.

News Leaks

Constitution: decentralization of power, 3 branches of government compete, and not illegal to print most secrets.

Adversarial Press: Suspicious of gov’t officials and hope for a Pulitzer has led to attack journalism.

“Feeding Frenzy”--Clinton and Monica and Whitewater/Cheney and Quailgate

http://www.centerforpolitics.org/crystalball/articles/ljs2006022201/

Watergate and Irangate

Public Cynicism

People dislike attack journalism.People believe media slant coverage.A cause of lower voter turnout.Public distrust of big business and media is now big business.Drive for market share leads media to focus on corruption and negativity in politics.

Sensationalism

Pre-1980’s sex and politics not covered.Since the 80’s, everything is fair game. The Big Three were not the only game in town anymore--CNN, et al.

Impact of 9/11: Greater confidence and viewership in news organizations as we fight terrorism.Journalists who show emotion or wear flag pins get some criticism from media analysts.Did the media go too far in helping Bush’s rush to war?

Miscellaneous

“Pack” Journalism (groupthink by reporters)“On/Off the record”Background/Deep Background“Above” or “Below the fold” storiesShield Law (36 states and DC have it)Freedom of Information Act (1966) and the related Privacy Act (1974)Student Journalism--Hazlewood v. Kuhlmeier (1988)

Lastly, is the Media too soft on Obama?—Not anymore.