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Master of Business Administration-MBA Semester 1

MB0038 Management Process and Organization Behavior - 4 Credits

(Book ID: B1127)

Assignment Set- 1 (60 Marks)

Q.1 Write a note on the functions of management.

Management Functions are as follows:

i. Planning

ii. Organising

iii. Commanding

iv. Co-Ordinating

v. Controlling

Planning

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action& deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined

goals. According to KOONTZ, Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how

to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be. A plan is a future course of

actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of

courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways &

means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper

utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it

also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

Organising

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and

developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals.

According to Henry Fayol, To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its

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functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnels. To organize a business involves

determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure.

Organizing as a process involves:

Identification of activities.

Classification of grouping of activities.

Assignment of duties.

Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.

Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

Co-Ordinating

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing

has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in

size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right

man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to

Kootz & ODonell, Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure

through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles

designed un the structure. Staffing involves:

Manpower Planning(estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving

the right place).

Recruitment, selection & placement.

Training & development.

Remuneration.

Performance appraisal.

Promotions & transfer.

Commanding

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work

efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise

which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the

mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management

which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the

achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

Supervision

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Motivation

Leadership

Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of

watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work.

Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of

subordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person

to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

Controlling

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of

deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to

ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control

helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, Controlling

is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives

and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation. According to Koontz & ODonell

Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order

to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being

accomplished. Therefore controlling has following steps:

Establishment of standard performance.

Measurement of actual performance.

Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.

Corrective action.

Q.2 Discuss any two learning theories in detail.

There are three theories of Learning, they are Classical Conditioning, Operant

Conditioning and Social Learning.

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Social Learning

The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of

observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to

Bandura (1977), most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from

observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasionsthis coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human

behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and

environmental influences.

Social learning has four processes:

1. Attention processes People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention

to its critical features. In order to learn, it is required to pay attention. Anything that detracts the

attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the is model interesting or

there is a novel aspect to the situation, it is more likely to dedicate the full attention to learning.

2. Retention processes A models influence will depend on how well the individual

remembers the models action after the it is no longer readily available. The ability to store

information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a

number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational

learning.

3. Motor reproduction processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the

model, the watching must be converted to doing. The ability to store information is also an

important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the

ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

4. Reinforcement processes Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if

positive incentives or rewards are provided. Finally, in order for observational learning to be

successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled.

Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these

motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement

or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to

class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Classical Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov

(1927). This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some

significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the

organism. This is called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate,

often reflexive, response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned

Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two

stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the

Conditioned Response (CR).

Classical conditioning was first experimented by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs

to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. During his research on the physiology of digestion

in dogs, Pavlov used a bell before giving food to his dog. Rather than simply salivating in the

presence of meat (a response to food unconditioned response), after a few repetitions, the dog

started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned

stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US meat).

Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a Conditioned Response.

Q.3 Explain the classification of personality types given by Sheldon

William Sheldon classified personality according to body type. He called this a persons

somatotype.

Sheldons Classification of Personality Types

Sheldon's Somatotype Character Shape

Endomorph [viscerotonic] relaxed, sociable, tolerant,

comfort-loving, peaceful

plump, buxom, developed

visceral structure

Mesomorph [somatotonic] active, assertive, vigorous,

combative

muscular

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic] quiet, fragile, restrained,non-assertive, sensitive

lean, delicate, poor

Somatotypes

In the 1940s, Sheldon proposed a theory about how there are certain body types ("somatotypes")

that are associated with certain personality characteristics. William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an

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American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and

temperaments. He taught and did research at a number of U.S.universities and is best known for

his series of books on the human constitution. He was a keen observer of animals and birds as a

child, and he turned this talent to good effect by becoming an avid people-watcher, and out of his

observations he gradually elaborated his typology.He claimed that there are three such

somatotypes: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy.

Endomorphy focused on the digestive system, particularly the stomach (endoderm); has the

tendency toward plumpness, corresponds to Viscerotonia temperament tolerant, love of comfort

and luxury, extravert.

of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and concluded that they were generally mesomorphs

(Ornstein, 1993).

Mesophorphy focused on musculature and the circulatory system (mesoderm), has the

tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to the Somatotonia temperament courageous,

energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker.

Ectomorphy focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) the tendency towards

slightness, corresponds to Cerebrotonia temperament artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert.

Q.4. What are the factors influencing perception?

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Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of

environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process,

we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our

survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act

within our environment.

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside:

i) In the perceiver.

ii) In the object or target being perceived or

iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is mad

1. Characteristics of the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception.

When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that

Perception

The Target

Novelty

Motion

Sounds

Size

Background

Proximity

The Perceiver

Attitudes

Motives

Interests

Experience

Expectations

The Situation

Time

Work setting

Social setting

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interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The

major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:

a) Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is

interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires

negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that women are not

capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his

perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.

b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think

differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember

information that is consistent with our mood state better than

information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more

positive impressions of others. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others

unfavourably.

c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence

on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a

subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal

insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of

the intention of the subordinates.

d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept.

An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In

contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person.

Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.

e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our

individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from

what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for

coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If

you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class.

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f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects

perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and

appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions.

Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather

than attending to just a few traits.

g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you

expect to see. The research findings of

the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific

characteristics of the perceiver reveal

i. Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.

ii. One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.

iii. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other

people.

iv. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental

situation.

Characteristics of the Target

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical

appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive

individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motion,

sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.The perceiver will notice the

target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender. Perceivers tend to

notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that are intense, or that are

new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colours our entire impression of another person.

Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and attractive candidates are awarded

higher starting salaries.

Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics

they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input.

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Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver

deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an attempt to form

an impression of the target .As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together

objects or events that are unrelated.

For example, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a

department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related when in fact, they

might be totally unrelated. People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be

grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive

them as a group.

Characteristics of the Situation

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place,

has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. E.g. meeting a manager in his or her

office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the impression you would

have formed, had you met the manager in a restaurant. The strength of the situational cues also

affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In

these situations, we assume that ie individual's behaviour can be accounted for by the situation,

and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition. This is the discounting principle in social

perception. For example, you may encounter an automobile salesperson who has a warm and

personable manner, asks you about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in

your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behaviour reflects the salesperson's personality? You

probably cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car,

and in this particular situation, he probably treats all customers in this manner.

Q.5 Mr. Solanki is the VP- HR of a leading Financial services company. He is

having a meeting with Ms. Ramani leading HR consultant. Mr. Solanki is concerned

about creating an environment that helps in increasing the job satisfaction amongst

employees. Assume that you are Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant. What suggestions

you will give to Mr. Solanki, for creating an environment that increases job

satisfaction

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i) Mentally Challenging Work: Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to

use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom and feedback on how well they

are doing. Under conditions of moderate challenge, most employees will experience pleasure and

satisfaction.

ii) Personality-Job Fit: People with personality types congruent with their chosen vocations

should find they have the right talents and abilities to meet the demands of their jobs; and because

of this success, they have a greater probability of achieving high satisfaction from their work. It is

important, therefore to fit personality factors with job profiles.

iii) Equitable Rewards: Employees want pay systems and promotion policies that they perceive

as being just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair based on

job demands, individual skill level, and industry pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result.

Similarly, employees seek fair promotion policies and practices. Promotions provide

opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities and increased social status. Individuals

who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just manner are likely to experience

job satisfaction.

iv) Supportive working conditions: Employees prefer physical conditions that are comfortable

and facilitate doing a good job. Temperature, light, noise and other environmental factors should

not be extreme and provide personal comfort. Further, employees prefer working relatively close

to home, in clean and relatively modern facilities and with adequate tools and equipment.

v) Supportive Colleagues: Employees have need for social interaction. Therefore, having

friendly and supportive co-workers and understanding supervisor's leads to increased job

satisfaction. Most employees want their immediate supervisor to be understanding and friendly,

those who offer praise for good performance, listen to employees' opinions and show a personal

interest in them.

vi) Whistle blowing: Whistle-blowers are employees who inform authorities of wrongdoings of

their companies or co-workers. Whistle blowing is important because committed organizational

members sometimes engage in unethical behaviour in an intense desire to succeed. Organizations

can manage whistle blowing by communicating the conditions that are appropriate for the

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disclosure of wrongdoing. Clearly delineating wrongful behaviour and the appropriate ways to

respond are important organizational actions.

vii) Social Responsibility: Corporate social responsibility is the obligation of an organization to

behave in ethical ways in the social environment in which it operates. Socially responsible actions

are expected of organizations. Current concerns include protecting the environment, promoting

worker safety, supporting social issues, investing in the community, etc. Managers must

encourage both individual ethical behaviour and organizational social responsibility.

viii) Job enrichment

It is a deliberate upgrading of responsibility, scope, and challenge in the work itself. Job

enrichment usually includes increased responsibility, recognition, and opportunities for growth,

learning, and achievement. Large companies that have used job-enrichment programs to increase

employee motivation and job satisfaction include, AT&T, IBM, and General Motors (Daft, 1997).

Q.6 Given below is the HR policy glimpse of the VARK-LEARNING a learning

and training solutions company

1. It offers cash rewards for staff members

2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer people

they know may be their friends, ex. Colleagues batch mates, relatives.

3. What all needs do it takes care off according to maslows need hierarchy

4. It recognizes good performances and give fancy titles and jackets to the people who

perform well and also felicitates them in the Annual Day of the company.

What all aspects does it takes care of according to the Maslows Need Hierarchy ?

According to Maslows Need Hierarchy they take care of Esteem, Social, Self-actualization needs

respectively. These needs are explained below.

Esteem needs: Includes internal esteem factors, such as, self-respect, autonomy, and achievement;

and external esteem factors, such as, status, recognition, and attention

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Social needs: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

Self-actualization needs: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth,

achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment.

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Set-2Q.1 Write a note on classical era for evolution of Organization behaviour.

Answer: The Classical Era We see this trend to continue in what is called as the classical era which

covers the period between 1900 to mid 1930s. the first general theories of management began to

evolve and the main contributors during this era were Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol , Max Weber,

Mary parker Follet and Chester Barnard. Frederick Taylors main emphasis was on finding one best

way of doing each job. He stressed on selecting the right people for the job, train them to do it

precisely in one best way. He favoured wage plans to motivate the workers. His scientific principles

of management stressed the following principles:

1. Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager; managersshould do all the thinking relating to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the

task of implementation.

2. Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; assign the workers task

accordingly, specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done.3. Select the best person to perform the job thus designed.

4. Train the worker to do the work efficiently.

5. Monitor worker performances to ensure that appropriate work procedures are followed and that

appropriate results are achieved. Taylor was one of the first to attempt to systematically analyze

human behavior at work. He insisted the use of time-and-motion study as a means of standardizing

work activities. His scientific approach called for detailed observation and measurement of even the

most routine work, to find the optimum mode of performance. The results were dramatic, with

productivity increasing significantly. With passing time, new organizational functions like personnel

and quality control were created. Of course, in breaking down each task to its smallest unit to find

what Taylor called the one best way to do each job, the effect was to remove human variability. Hence he lay the ground for the mass production techniques that dominated management thinking in

the first half of the twentieth century. Henri Fayol, a mining engineer and manager by profession,defined the nature and working patterns of the twentieth-century organization in his book, General

and Industrial Management, published in 1916. In it, he laid down what he called 14 principles ofmanagement. This theory is also called the Administrative Theory. The principles of the theory are:

1. Division of work: tasks should be divided up with employees specializing in a limited set of tasks

so that expertise is developed and productivity increased.

2. Authority and responsibility: authority is the right to give orders and entails enforcing them with

rewards and penalties; authority should be matched with corresponding responsibility.

3. Discipline: this is essential for the smooth running of business and is dependent on good

leadership, clear and fair arguments, and the judicious application of penalties.

4. Unity of command: for any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one

superior only; otherwise authority, discipline, order, and stability are threatened.

5. Unity of direction: a group of activities concerned with a single objective should be co-coordinatedby a single plan under one head.

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: individual or group goals must not be

allowed to override those of the business.

7. Remuneration of personnel: this may be achieved by various methods but it should be fair,encourage effort, and not lead to overpayment.

8. Centralization: the extent to which orders should be issued only from the top of the organization is

a problem which should take into account its characteristics, such as size and the capabilities of the

personnel.

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9. Scalar chain (line of authority): communications should normally flow up and down the line of

authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization, but sideways communication

between those of equivalent rank in different departments can be desirable so long as superiors are

kept informed.

10. Order: both materials and personnel must always be in their proper place; people must be suitedto their posts so there must be careful organization of work and selection of personnel.

11. Equity: personnel must be treated with kindness and justice.12. Stability of tenure of personnel: rapid turnover of personnel should be avoided because of the

time required for the development of expertise.

13. Initiative: all employees should be encouraged to exercise initiative within limits imposed by the

requirements of authority and discipline.

14. Esprit de corps: efforts must be made to promote harmony within the organization and prevent

dissension and divisiveness. The management functions, that Fayol stated, consisted of planning,

organizing, commanding, co-coordinating and controlling. Many practicing managers, even today,

list these functions as the core of their activities. Fayol was also one of the first people to characterize

a commercial organization s activities into its basic components.

Q.2 . Write a note on different types of groups. Explain.

Groups can be either formal or informal.

1. Formal Groups:

A designated work group defined by the organizations structure. A formal group is set up by theorganization to carry out work in support of the organizations goals. In formal groups, the

behaviours that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals.

Examples include a book-keeping department, an executive committee, and a product development

team. Formal groups may be command groups or task groups.

Command Group: A command group consists of a manager and the employees who report to him or

her. Thus, it is defined in terms of the organizations hierarchy. Membership in the group arises from

each employees position on the organizational chart.

Task Group: A task group is made up of employees who work together to complete a particular taskor project. A task groups boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can

cross command relationships. An employees membership in the group arises from the

responsibilities delegated to the employee that is, the employees responsibility to carry out

particular activities. Task group may be temporary with an established life span, or they may be open

ended.

Committee: A group of people officially delegated to perform a function, such as investigation,considering, reporting, or acting on a matter. Committee, one or more persons appointed or elected to

consider report on, or take action on a particular matter. It investigates analyses and debates the

problem and makes recommendation. Committee usually has their own Committee member

comprising of advisory authority, secretary and others. Recommendation is sent to the authority thatis responsible for implementing them.

2. Informal Groups:An organizations informal groups are the groups that evolve to meet social of affiliation needs by

bringing people together based on shared interests or friendship. Thus, informal groups are alliances

that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. These groups are natural

formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. Many

factors explain why people are attracted to one another every day, they are likely to form friendships.

That likelihood is even greater when people also share similar attitudes, personalities, or economic

status.

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Friendship Groups: Groups often developed because the individual members have one or more

common characteristics. We call these formations Friendship groups. Social alliances, which

frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age, same political view,

attended the same college, etc.

Interest Groups: people who may or may not be aligned into common command or task groups mayaffiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an interest group.

Reference Groups: Sometimes, people use a group as a basis for comparison in making decisions orforming opinions. When a group is used in this way. It is a reference group. Employees have

reference group inside or outside the organization where they work. For most people, the family is

the most important reference groups. Other important reference groups typically include co-workers,

friends, and members of the persons religious organization. The employee need not admire a group

for it to serve as a reference group. Some reference groups serve as a negative reference; the

employee tries to be unlike members of these groups.

3. Stages of Group Development: In interpreting behaviour of a particular group, it is important to

recognize not only a broad pattern of development but also the unique characteristics of the particular

group and the circumstances that contribute to (or detract from) its development. The way in which a

particular group develops, depends in part on such variables as the frequency with which group

members interact and personal characteristics of group members. However, it is generally believed

that groups pass through a standard sequence of five stages.

Q.3 Explain the approaches of conflict management.

Approach Description When to use

Problem -Solving

The problem-solving approach involves supporting the individualsinvolved in the conflict to help them consider all the options and findthe best solution. Sometimes refered to as the Confrontation approach.

This approach should be employed in situations where there isnot a clear concise agreed to solution, and there is time to allowthe parties to collaborate and innovate. For this approach towork, it is also important that the conflicting parties both bringideas and creativity to the problem.

Comprise Comprise involves working out a middle ground that satisfies all partiesto some degree. The compromising approach requires each of theconflicting members to accede in order to achieve a resolution.

This approach should be employed in situations when bothparties have a valid but different approach to resolve theproblem or complete the task hand, or when there is not a bestpractice to be followed. By assuring everyone's perspective is

considered and represented, this approach will allow a win-winsituation to occur.

Smoothing Smoothing de-emphasizes the differences between points of view andfocuses on commonalities. The smoothing approach involvesminimizing the importance of the problem at the heart of the conflict inan effort to make the conflict seem pointless.

This approach is particularly useful for minor or unimportantissues, or issues that are not critical to project success.

Forcing The forcing approach requires others to yield to the point of view ofone side or another. It is also called the win-lose approach and canincrease conflict. The forcing approach involves you, as projectmanager, using your influence and power within the project team tosimply resolve the issue yourself, making a decision about the way tomove forward.

This approach should be used when time is a critical factor. It isimperative that the project manager provides the desiredresolution to the conflict. This approach doesn't solve theconflict, but it does ensure that things get done.

Withdrawal Withdrawal involves avoiding or retreating from the conflict or potentialconflict and allowing the involved parties to work out the conflict ontheir own. The withdrawing approach involves giving in to the conflictby simply refusing to acknowledge that there is a problem and

declining to discuss it.

Because this approach involves avoiding the problem, it shouldnot be used very often. It can be a temporary solution to dealwith heated and emotional conflicts, or it can be used if the issueisn't relevant to the work of the project team.

Q.5 Given below are certain instances observed by the summer trainee R it u, wh il e m ak ing an ob se rv at ion al st udy at G l o b a l G r e e n c o n s u l t a n t s .

An organization deal ing with recycling of plastic products waste etc. She

makes the following observation about two key pe ople in the organization.

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1. Mr. Patnayak He is a very friendly person and encourages his team members by giving those recommendations and appreciations. This helps HR

to decide about giving a bonus or promotion to employees.

2. Mr. Dutta - He is an aggressive person. He frequently loses his temper. Ritu

observes that he frequently punishes the non-performers and also give them

warnings regarding suspension etc. Now ex plain what base of power does

Mr. Patnayak and Mr. Dutta belongs to.E x plain the type of powerthey use often

ANS:

Ten Types of Power

1. Position. Some measure of power is conferred on the basis of ones formal position in

an organization. For example, a marketing manager can influence the decisions that affect

the marketing department. However, the marketing manager has little power to influence

the decisions that affect the finance department.

2. Knowledge or expertise. People who have knowledge or expertise can wield tremendous

power. Of course, knowledge in itself is not powerful. It is the use of knowledge and

expertise that confers power. Thus, you could be an incredibly bright person and still be

powerless.3. Character or ethics. The more trustworthy individuals are, the more power they have in

negotiations. The big issue here is whether they do what they say they are going to

doeven when they no longer feel like doing it.

4. Rewards. People who are able to bestow rewards or perceived rewards hold power.Supervisors, with their ability to give raises, hold power over employees. Money can have

power. But money, like anything else, holds very little power if i t is not distributed.

5. Punishment. Those who have the ability to create a negative outcome for a counterpart

have the power of punishment. Managers who have the authority to reprimand and fire

employees hold this type of power. State troopers and highway patrol officers who have

the ability to give out speeding tickets also have this power.

6. Gender. Dealing with someone of the opposite sex can confer power. We have

videotaped many negotiation case studies in which the turning point came when a womancasually touched a mans hand or arm to make her point.

7. Powerlessness. In some instances, giving up all power can be very powerful. If a

kidnapper threatens a hostage with death enough times, the hostage may just challenge the

kidnapper to go ahead and kill him. At the point that the hostage gives up power, or

control over his own death, the kidnapper actually loses power.

8. Charisma or personal power. When we ask participants in our seminars for examples of

leaders who have had charisma or personal power, invariably the names of Mother Teresa,

John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan come up. When we ask, What do all three of these

leaders have in common? participants usually respond, Passion and confidence in what

they believe in.

9. Lack of interest or desire. In negotiations, as in many other areas of life, the side withthe least interest in what is being negotiated holds the most power. If you are buying a

house and you really do not care if you purchase the house you are currently negotiating

for or the one down the street, you will most likely hold more power in the

negotiationunless, of course, the sellers could care less if they sell the house today or live

in it for another ten years!

10. Craziness. This may sound funny, but bizarre or irrational behavior can confer a

tremendous amount of power. Every organization has someone who blows up or behaves

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irrationally when confronted with problems. Those who have been exposed to this type of

behavior tend to avoid such individuals. As a result, these individuals are not given many

tasks to accomplish because others are afraid to ask them.

Leadership style influence level of motivation. However, throughout a lifetime, mans

motivation is influenced by changing ambitions and/or leadership style he works under orsocializes with. Command-and-control leadership drains off ambition while worker

responsibility increases ambition. Leadership Style versus Motivation Leadership StyleMotivation Type Motivation is Based on: Personality Type Efficiency Limited supervision

Worker with decision making responsibility Self motivated Creativity Leader of ideas or

people. Independent Achiever Thrives on change High Team motivated Mixed styles Goal

motivated Opportunity Personality type and efficiency depends on leader's skill and/or the

work environment he's created. Reward motivated Materialism Recognition motivated

Social status High level of supervision Command-and-control Peer motivated To be like

others Status quo Dependency Resist change Low Authority motivated Follows policy

Threat, fear motivated Reacts to force

Self-motivated or visionaries will not accept authority controlled environments. They

will find a way to escape if trapped.

In a team-motivated environment, dependency types will become inspired and strive to

be acceptable with independent thinking coworkers. Associates influence the level of individual motivation. Reaction to Change Command-

and-control leadership is the primary style in our society. It is accepted because efficiency

is created by repetitive action, teaching people to resist change. Once acquiring a skill,

they do not want to learn another. The worker adapts to level three with an occasional tripto level two Worker responsibility is just the opposite, it motivates people to thrive on

change by seeking challenges, finding ways to achieve goals. Level one is the leader of

changing technology, finding ways to create efficiency. Reaction to Efficiency The

efficiency of advancing technology is forcing change. It is up to the individual or business

to decide which side of change they want to be on, the leading edge or trailing edge. The

leading edge is exciting while the trailing edge is a drag. Playing catch-up drains

motivation while leaders of change inspire motivation. With todays changing technology,

an individual must be willing to abandoned old skills and learn new ones. The ability toadapt is achieved through self-development programs. Because level one thrives on

change, they adapt to whatever methods gets things done with the least amount of effort.

This brings us to work habits.

In level one, management and front line workers, together, are searching for ways to solve

and prevent problems. Decisions are made on the front line where alternative methods are

analyzed. Being able to prevent problems is a motivating force. In level three managementmakes all decision, as a result, management must find ways to solve all problems and find

alternative methods. Front line employees may be aware conflicts, but they dont have the

authority to take action and have learned not to be concerned. Supervisors are only

concerned with elements that management thinksare important. Under command-and-control leadership, management considers the

opinions or concerns of people on the front line to be trivial. As a result, managementtakes action only when problems become too big to ignore. If workers have conflicts with

their supervisors, they will find ways to increase the magnitude of problems, creating a

combative environment. A downward spiral of management implementing more control

and workers resisting control develop. Under worker responsibility,

management and workers unite to prevent or solve problems.

Team Motivated

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Elementary problems are prevented or solved at the source. Getting the job done is the

primary goal of management and workers. Dependency of Authority Elementary are dealt

with by management when large enough to be recognized. Abused Workers

Lack of leadership skills and the desire for power creates elementary problems. Managers

focus on worker control. Getting the job done is down the list. Workers goal is to findways to do little as possible. Command and Control Leadership - Problems are always out

of control. Reaction to Learning Habits In level two, young workers are establishing workhabits, developing attitudes and learning a professional skill. Out of training and on the

job, motivation level will depend on the leadership style they work under. Under

command-and-control leadership, ambitions will be associated with

maintaining the status quo. Under worker responsibility, ambitions will be associated with

opportunity. They will continually expand their skills as the need or as opportunity arises.

Reaction to Goals Self-motivated people are goal motivated. Once they conquer one goal,

they establish another. Every goal is a learning process that requires all the elements in

level one. Companies that attract and keep this type of person stay on the leading edge of

technology. The CEO is a visionary in customer service and employee leadership. The

employees' goals are the same as the CEOs.

If the CEO desires control, then he will lead in such a way that trains subordinates to lead

by control. As a result, the employees ' goals are quitting time and payday.Reaction to Recognition

Recognition is important; it builds positive self-esteem. By itself, its benefits are short

lived. Long-term benefits are achieved when the employee feels the job could not have

been done without them. This means they were faced with a challenge, which means, theyhad the responsibility and authority to take action. This environment is found in level one.

Self-motivated projects' is the ability to start and finish what one has started. Most people,

working alone, do not finish what they start. The ability to finish challenging projects is

the secret to being a winner. First requirement is interest, then asking questions which

inspires' the learning process. W ith information, a challenge is

Presented and a goal set. W hen action is taken, the barriers of persistence, risk, fear and

failure become a challenge by itself. Self-motivated projects are difficult because no one

cares if they succeed, which is another barrier. This is why most people quit before theyget a good start. People, who find ways to overcome barriers and hang in there, are the

winners. They develop skills and confidence, which are required steps to larger projects.

Team Motivated Projects

Everyone can be inspired to achievement in a team-motivated environment. With a

common goal, team members support each other until success is achieved. In this

environment, others do care and team members are needed for achieving the goal. For thisreason, team motivation is extremely powerful. The exchange of ideas, information and

testing the results, adds to the motivating force. As a result, each member seeks to be a

leader of quality input.

Q.6 Fashion4Now is a famous and old magazine. The top management decidesto start the e- edit ion of the magazine. They also decide the redefine the

policies and culture of window to truth To start implementing, this change,

they frequently call meetings of employees. They have also formed groups at

different levels to clarify doubts and ex plain the perspective of change.

Analyze the situation in the context of organizational change and elaborate

why the top management i s fol lowing the discussed pract ices and what

approach is most evident in the co ntext.

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Answer: Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide

change, as opposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program,

etc. Examples of organization-wide change might include a change in mission,

restructuring operations (e.g., restructuring to self-managed teams, layoffs, etc.), new

technologies, mergers, major collaborations, "rightsizing", new programs such as TotalQuality Management, re-engineering, etc. Some experts refer to organizational

transformation. Often this term designates a fundamental and radicalreorientation in the way the organization operates. The levels of organizational change

Perhaps the most difficult decision to make is at what "level" to start. There are four levels

of organizational change: First let's describe these levels, and then under what

circumstances a business should use them.

Level 1- shaping and anticipating the future

At this level, organizations start out with few assumptions about the business itself, what

it is "good" at, and what the future will be like. Management generates alternate

"scenarios" of the future, defines opportunities based on these possible futures, assesses its

strengths and weaknesses in these scenarios changes its mission, Measurement system etc.

More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 2 - defining what business(es) to be in and their "Core Competencies Many attempts

at strategic planning start at this level, either assuming that 1) the future will be like thepast or at least predictable; 2) the future is embodied in the CEO's "vision for the future";

or 3) management doesn't know where else to start; 4) management is too afraid to start at

level 1 because of the changes needed to really meet future requirements; or 5) the only

mandate they have is to refine what mission already exists.After a mission has been defined and a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and

threats) analysis is completed, an organization can then define its measures, goals,

strategies, etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to

your Strategy."

Level 3 - Reengineering (Structurally Changing) Your Processes Either as an aftermath or

consequence of level one or two work or as an independent action, level three work

focuses on fundamentally changing how work is accomplished. Rather than focus on

modest improvements, reengineering focuses on making major structural changes toeveryday with the goal of substantially improving productivity, efficiency, quality or

customer satisfaction. To read more about level 3 organizational changes, please see "A

Tale of Three Villages."

Level 4 - Incrementally Changing your Processes

Level 4 organizational changes are focusing in making many small changes to existing

work processes. Oftentimes organizations put in considerable effort into getting everyemployee focused on making these small changes, often with considerable effect.

Unfortunately, making improvements on how a buggy whip for horse-drawn carriages is

made will rarely come up with the idea that buggy whips are no longer necessary because

cars have been invented. To read more about level 4 organizational changes and how itcompares to level 3, please see "A Tale of Three Villages." Some General Guidelines to

Organization-Wide Change1. Consider using a consultant. Ensure the consultant is highly experienced in

organization-wide change. Ask to see references and check the references.

2. W idely communicate the potential need for change. Communicate what you're doing

about it. Communicate what was done and how it worked out.

3. Get as much feedback as practical from employees, including what they think are the

problems and what should be done to resolve them. If possible, work with a team of

employees to manage the change.

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4. Don't get wrapped up in doing change for the sake of change. Know why you're making

the change. What goal(s) do you hope to accomplish?

6. Plan the change. How do you plan to reach the goals, what will you need to reach the

goals, how long might it take and how will you know when you've reached your goals or

not? Focus on the coordination of the departments/programs in your organization, not oneach part by itself. Have someone in charge of the plan.

7. End up having every employee ultimately reporting to one person, if possible, and theyshould know who that person is. Job descriptions are often complained about, but they are

useful in specifying who reports to whom.

8. Delegate decisions to employees as much as possible. This includes granting them the

authority and responsibility to get the job done. As much as possible, let them decide how

to do the project.

9. The process won't be an "aha!" It will take longer than you think.

10. Keep perspective. Keep focused on meeting the needs of your customer or clients.

11. Take care of yourself first. Organization-wide change can be highly stressful.

12. Don't seek to control change, but rather to expect it, understand it and manage it.

13. Include closure in the plan. Acknowledge and celebrate your accomplishments.

14. Read some resources about organizational change, including new forms and structures.