mb 0050 research methadology

7/29/2019 MB 0050 Research Methadology

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Master of Business Administration - MBASemester III

MB0050 Research Methodology - 4 Credits

(Book ID: B1206)

Assignment - Set- 1 (60 Marks)

Question 1


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Define Research. What are the features and types of Research?.

Answer

According to Mr. Young, Research can be defined as a scientific undertaking which, by meansof logical and systematic techniques, aims to

Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts,

Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations,

Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and

valid study of human behavior.

Kerlinger defines Research as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among naturalphenomena.

According to the intent, research may be classified as:

Pure Research

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice, eg.,

Einstein theory of relativity, Newtons contributions, Galileos contribution, etc. It is also known as

basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It

is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to eitherdiscovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied

research. It offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a

practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best

solution.

Applied Research

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is

thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g.,

marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase

experience of customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find

solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical

knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or o conceptual clarity. It

can put theory to the test. It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously

existing theories.

Exploratory Research


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It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about

which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on

pre-determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this

Research may be to generate new ideas or to increase the researchers familiarity with the

problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying

concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes twolevels of exploratory studies. At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the

situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables

Descriptive Study

It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It

is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of

a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range

of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the development of a young

science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight

important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information

obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the

research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action program.

Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what

is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes

of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering andtesting whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge

of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate

methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical

analysis and test of significance.

Evaluation Studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic

programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the

development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity

of an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its

success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It

is concerned also with change over time.

Action Research


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It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme

launched for solving a problem for improving an existing situation. It includes six major steps:

diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programme, initiation

of organizational change, implementation of participation and communication process, and post

experimental evaluation.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

Experimental Research

It is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the

other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner

variables are related to each other.

Analytical Study

It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. It may

consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to numerical

data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and

specifying and interpreting relationships.

Historical Research

It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the

origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and discovering the trends

in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference

and logical analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct

observation.

Survey

It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from apopulation or a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information, explain

phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be

useful for making predications.

Question 2


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How is a research problem formulated? What are the sources from which one may be able toidentify research problems?

Answer

The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires

evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria, which may be grouped into:

Internal Criteria

Internal Criteria consists of:

Researchers interest: The problem should interest the researcher and be a challenge

to him. Without interest and curiosity, he may not develop sustained perseverance. Even

a small difficulty may become an excuse for discontinuing the study. Interest in a

problem depends upon the researchers educational background, experience, outlook

and sensitivity.

Researchers competence: A mere interest in a problem will not do. The researcher

must be competent to plan and carry out a study of the problem. He must have the

ability to grasp and deal with int. he must possess adequate knowledge of the subject-

matter, relevant methodology and statistical procedures.

Researchers own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a researcher onhis own, consideration of his own financial resource is pertinent. If it is beyond his

means, he will not be able to complete the work, unless he gets some external financial

support. Time resource is more important than finance. Research is a time-consuming

process; hence it should be properly utilized.

External Criteria

Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e., amendablefor finding answers to the questions involved in it through scientific method. To beresearchable a question must be one for which observation or other data collection inthe real world can provide the answer.

Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but availableresearch efforts are very much limited. Therefore, in selecting problems for research,their relative importance and significance should be considered. An important and urgentproblem should be given priority over an unimportant one.


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Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of wastingones time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others. This does notmean that replication is always needless. In social sciences in some cases, it isappropriate to replicate (repeat) a study in order to verify the validity of its findings to adifferent situation.

Feasibility:A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on it is not

feasible, it cannot be selected. Hence feasibility is a very important consideration.

Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such as well-equipped library facility,suitable and competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc. Hence the availability of thefacilities relevant to the problem must be considered.

Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should makesignificant contribution to the concerned body of knowledge or to the solution of somesignificant practical problem. It should be socially relevant. This consideration isparticularly important in the case of higher level academic research and sponsoredresearch.

Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by research

organizations require the services of investigators and research officers. But in India and

other developing countries, research has not yet become a prospective profession.

Hence talent persons are not attracted to research projects.

Each identified problem must be evaluated in terms of the above internal and external

criteria and the most appropriate one may be selected by a research scholar.

Frequently, an exploratory study is concerned with an area of subject matter in whichexplicit hypothesis have not yet been formulated. The researchers task then is to review theavailable material with an eye on the possibilities of developing hypothesis from it. In someareas of the subject matter, hypothesis may have been stated by previous researchworkers. The researcher has to take stock of these various hypotheses with a view toevaluating their usefulness for further research and to consider whether they suggest anynew hypothesis. Sociological journals, economic reviews, the bulletin of abstracts of currentsocial sciences research, directory of doctoral dissertation accepted by universities etcafford a rich store of valuable clues. In addition to these general sources, some

governmental agencies and voluntary organizations publish listings of summaries ofresearch in their special fields of service. Professional organizations, research groups andvoluntary organizations are a constant source of information about unpublished works intheir special fields.


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Question 3

What are the types of Observations? What is the utility of Observation in Business Research?

Answer

Observations may be classified in different ways. With reference to investigators role, it may be

classified into

Participant observation

Non-Participant observation.

In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into

Direct observation.

With reference to the rigor of the system adopted. Observation is classified into

Controlled observation

Uncontrolled observation

Participant Observation

In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he

acts as both an observer and a participant. For example, a study of tribal customs by an

anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities like folk dance. The persons who are observed

should not be aware of the researchers purpose. Then only their behavior will be natural. The

concealment of research objective and researchers identity is justified on the ground that it

makes it possible to study certain aspects of the groups culture which are not revealed to

outsiders.

AdvantagesThe advantages of participant observation are:

The observer can understand the emotional reactions of the observed group, and get adeeper insight of their experiences.


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The observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the observedbehavior and heard statements.

Disadvantages

Participant observation suffers from some demerits.

The participant observer narrows his range of observation. For example, if there is ahierarchy of power in the group/community under study, he comes to occupy oneposition within in, and thus other avenues of information are closed to him.

To the extent that the participant observer participates emotionally, the objectivity is lost.

Another limitation of this method is the dual demand made on the observer. Recordingcan interfere with participation, and participation can interfere with observation.Recording on the spot is not possible and it has to be postponed until the observer isalone. Such time lag results in some inaccuracy in recording

Non-participant observations

In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon

observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer. This method

calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner.

Direct observation

This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes place. This

method is flexible and allows the observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and

behavior as they occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation. A

limitation of this method is that the observers perception circuit may not be able to cover all

relevant events when the latter move quickly, resulting in the incompleteness of the observation.

Indirect observation

This does not involve the physical presence of the observer, and the recording is done bymechanical, photographic or electronic devices, e.g. recording customer and employee

movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in a department of a large store. This

method is less flexible than direct observations, but it is less biasing and less erratic in recording

accuracy. It is also provides a permanent record for an analysis of different aspects of the event.

Controlled observation


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This involves standardization of observational techniques and exercises of maximum control

over extrinsic and intrinsic variables by adopting experimental design and systematically

recording observations. Controlled observation is carried out either in the laboratory or in the

field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how and when to observe.

Uncontrolled observation

This does not involve control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primary used for

descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one.

Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. It may be used for studying

The behavior of human beings in purchasing goods and services.: life style, customs,

and manner, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, crowd behavior, leadership styles,

managerial style, other behaviors and actions.

The behavior of other living creatures like birds, animals etc.

Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories, residences etc.

Flow of traffic and parking problems.

Movement of materials and products through a plant.


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Question 4

What is Research Design? What are the different types of Research Designs?

Answer

The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head. Even if he

could, he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-related. Therefore, he

records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts. Such asymbolic construction may be called the research design or model. A research design is a

logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies the objectives of

the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It

constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan,

structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions.

The plan is the overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that

guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations. It

provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow elltiz, Jahoda and Destsch

and Cook describe, A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and

analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose witheconomy in procedure.

The different types of Research Designs are:

There are a number of crucial research choices, various writers advance different classificationschemes, some of which are:

Experimental, historical and inferential designs (American Marketing Association).

Exploratory, descriptive and causal designs (Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch and Cook).

Experimental, and expost fact (Kerlinger)

Historical method, and case and clinical studies (Goode and Scates)

Sample surveys, field studies, experiments in field settings, and laboratory experiments

(Festinger and Katz)

Exploratory, descriptive and experimental studies (Body and Westfall)

Exploratory, descriptive and casual (Green and Tull)

Experimental, quasi-experimental designs (Nachmias and Nachmias)


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True experimental, quasi-experimental and non-experimental designs (Smith).

Experimental, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental designs and Survey Research

(Kidder and Judd).

These different categorizations exist, because research design is a complex concept. In fact, there are different perspectives from which any given study can be viewed. They are:

The degree of formulation of the problem (the study may be exploratory or formalized)

The topical scope-breadth and depth-of the study(a case or a statistical study)

The research environment: field setting or laboratory (survey, laboratory experiment)

The time dimension(one-time or longitudinal)

The mode of data collection (observational or survey)

The manipulation of the variables under study (experimental or expost facto)

The nature of the relationship among variables (descriptive or causal)

Question 5

Explain the Sampling Process and briefly describe the methods of Sampling?

Answer

Decision process of sampling is complicated one. The researcher has to first identify the limitingfactor or factors and must judiciously balance the conflicting factors. The various criteriagoverning the choice of the sampling technique:

1. Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to generalizethe findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an appropriateprobability sampling method must be selected. The choice of a particular type ofprobability sampling depends on the geographical area of the survey and the size andthe nature of the population under study.

2. Measurability: The application of statistical inference theory requires computation of thesampling error from the sample itself. Probability samples only allow such computation.Hence, where the research objective requires statistical inference, the sample should bedrawn by applying simple random sampling method or stratified random samplingmethod, depending on whether the population is homogenous or heterogeneous.

3. Degree of Precision: Should the results of the survey be very precise, or even roughresults could serve the purpose? The desired level of precision as one of the criteria ofsampling method selection. Where a high degree of precision of results is desired,probability sampling should be used. Where even crude results would serve the purpose(E.g., marketing surveys, readership surveys etc) any convenient non-random samplinglike quota sampling would be enough.


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4. Information about Population: How much information is available about the populationto be studied? Where no list of population and no information about its nature areavailable, it is difficult to apply a probability sampling method. Then exploratory studywith non-probability sampling may be made to gain a better idea of population. Aftergaining sufficient knowledge about the population through the exploratory study,appropriate probability sampling design may be adopted.

5. The Nature of the Population: In terms of the variables to be studied, is the populationhomogenous or heterogeneous? In the case of a homogenous population, even a simplerandom sampling will give a representative sample. If the population is heterogeneous,stratified random sampling is appropriate.

6. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population: If the area coveredby a survey is very large and the size of the population is quite large, multi-stage clustersampling would be appropriate. But if the area and the size of the population are small,single stage probability sampling methods could be used.

7.Financial resources: If the available finance is limited, it may become necessary tochoose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling or even quotasampling as a compromise. However, if the objectives of the study and the desired levelof precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget, there is no alternative thanto give up the proposed survey. Where the finance is not a constraint, a researcher canchoose the most appropriate method of sampling that fits the research objective and thenature of population.

8. Time Limitation: The time limit within which the research project should be completedrestricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a compromise, it may becomenecessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple random sampling insteadof stratified sampling/sampling with probability proportional to size; multi-stage cluster

sampling instead of single-stage sampling of elements. Of course, the precision has tobe sacrificed to some extent.

9. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method. It meansachieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. A sample is economical if theprecision per unit cost is high or the cost per unit of variance is low.

The above criteria frequently conflict and the researcher must balance and blend them to obtainto obtain a good sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the samplingtheory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise betweenidealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate

and complicated techniques.

Sampling techniques or methods may be classified into two generic types:

Probability or Random Sampling

Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as random sampling.It provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each population element. It is used whengeneralization is the objective of study, and a greater degree of accuracy of estimation of


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population parameters is required. The cost and time required is high hence the benefit derivedfrom it should justify the costs.

The following are the types of probability sampling:

Simple Random Sampling

This sampling technique gives each element an equal and independent chance ofbeing selected. An equal chance means equal probability of selection. Anindependent chance means that the draw of one element will not affect thechances of other elements being selected. The procedure of drawing a simplerandom sample consists of enumeration of all elements in the population.

Preparation of a List of all elements, giving them numbers in serial order 1, 2,B, and so on,

Drawing sample numbers by using (i) lottery method, (ii) a table of randomnumbers or (iii) a computer.

Suitability

This type of sampling is suited for a small homogeneous population.

Advantages

The advantage of this is that it is one of the easiest methods, all the elements inthe population have an equal chance of being selected, simple to understand, doesnot require prior knowledge of the true composition of the population.

Disadvantages

It is often impractical because of non-availability of population list or of difficulty inenumerating the population, does not ensure proportionate representation and itmay be expensive in time and money. The amount of sampling error associatedwith any sample drawn can easily be computed. But it is greater than that in otherprobability samples of the same size, because it is less precise than othermethods.

Stratified Random Sampling

This is an improved type of random or probability sampling. In this method, thepopulation is sub-divided into homogenous groups or strata, and from eachstratum, random sample is drawn. E.g., university students may be divided on thebasis of discipline, and each discipline group may again be divided into juniors andseniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a samples statistical efficiency,providing adequate data for analyzing the various sub-populations and applyingdifferent methods to different strata. The stratified random sampling is appropriatefor a large heterogeneous population. Stratification process involves three major


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decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number of strata and stratasample sizes.

Stratified random sampling may be classified into:

Proportionate stratified sampling

This sampling involves drawing a sample from each stratum in proportion to the

latters share in the total population. It gives proper representation to each stratum

and its statistical efficiency is generally higher. This method is therefore very

popular. E.g., if the Management Faculty of a University consists of the following

specialization groups:

Specialization

stream

No. of students Proportion of

each streamProductionFinanceMarketingRuraldevelopment

40203010

0.40.20.30.1

100

1.0

The research wants to draw an overall sample of 30. Then the strata sample sizes

would be:

Strata Sample size

ProductionFinanceMarketingRuraldevelopment

30 x 0.430 x 0.230 x 0.330 x 0.1

12693

30

Advantages


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Stratified random sampling enhances the representativeness to each sample,

gives higher statistical efficiency, easy to carry out, and gives a self-weighing

sample.

Disadvantages

A prior knowledge of the composition of the population and the distribution of the

population, it is very expensive in time and money and identification of the strata

may lead to classification of errors.

Disproportionate stratified random sampling

This method does not give proportionate representation to strata. It necessarily

involves giving over-representation to some strata and under-representation to

others. The desirability of disproportionate sampling is usually determined by three

factors, viz, (a) the sizes of strata, (b) internal variances among strata, and (c)

sampling costs.

Suitability

This method is used when the population contains some small but importantsubgroups, when certain groups are quite heterogeneous, while others arehomogeneous and when it is expected that there will be appreciable differences inthe response rates of the subgroups in the population.

Advantages

The advantages of this type is it is less time consuming and facilitates givingappropriate weighing to particular groups which are small but more important.

Disadvantages

The disadvantage is that it does not give each stratum proportionate

representation, requires prior knowledge of composition of the population, is

subject to classification errors and its practical feasibility is doubtful.


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Systematic Random Sampling

This method of sampling is an alternative to random selection. It consists of taking

kth item in the population after a random start with an item form 1 to k. It is alsoknown as fixed interval method. E.g., 1st, 11th, 21st Strictly speaking, thismethod of sampling is not a probability sampling. It possesses characteristics ofrandomness and some non-probability traits.

Suitability

Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as students in aclass, houses in a street, telephone directory etc.

Advantages

The advantages are it is simpler than random sampling, easy to use, easy toinstruct, requires less time, its cheaper, easier to check, sample is spread evenlyover the population, and it is statistically more efficient.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages are it ignores all elements between two kth elements selected,

each element does not have equal chance of being selected, and this method

sometimes gives a biased sample.

Cluster Sampling

It means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements. Each suchsampling unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit, asample of population elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified randomselection. Where the population elements are scattered over a wide area and a list of populationelements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified random sampling method wouldbe too expensive and time-consuming. In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted. Thecluster sampling process involves: identify clusters, examine the nature of clusters, anddetermine the number of stages.

Suitability

The application of cluster sampling is extensive in farm management surveys, socio-economicsurveys, rural credit surveys, demographic studies, ecological studies, public opinion polls,and large scale surveys of political and social behavior, attitude surveys and so on.

Advantages


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The advantages of this method is it is easier and more convenient, cost of this is much less,promotes the convenience of field work as it could be done in compact places, it does notrequire more time, units of study can be readily substituted for other units and it is more flexible.

Disadvantages

The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting sample.

The sampling error in this method of sampling is greater and the adjacent units of study tend to

have more similar characteristics than do units distantly apart.

Area sampling

This is an important form of cluster sampling. In larger field surveys cluster consisting of specific

geographical areas like districts, talluks, villages or blocks in a city are randomly drawn. As the

geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases, their sampling is called area

sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster sampling.

Multi-stage and sub-sampling

In multi-stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is

regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so forth. That is, at each

stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage. First, a sample

of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the selected first stage sampling

unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is drawn. The procedure continues down tothe final sampling units or population elements. Appropriate random sampling method is

adopted at each stage. It is appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider

geographical area and no frame or list is available for sampling. It is also useful when a survey

has to be made within a limited time and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the

procedure of estimating sampling error and cost advantage is complicated.

Sub-sampling is a part of multi-stage sampling process. In a multi-stage sampling, the sampling

in second and subsequent stage frames is called sub-sampling. Sub-sampling balances the two

conflicting effects of clustering i.e., cost and sampling errors.

Random Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size

The procedure of selecting clusters with probability Proportional to size (PPS) is widely used. If

one primary cluster has twice as large a population as another, it is give twice the chance of

being selected. If the same number of persons is then selected from each of the selected


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clusters, the overall probability of any person will be the same. Thus PPS is a better method for

securing a representative sample of population elements in multi-stage cluster sampling.

Advantages

The advantages are clusters of various sizes get proportionate representation, PPS leads to

greater precision than would a simple random sample of clusters and a constant samplingfraction at the second stage, equal-sized samples from each selected primary cluster areconvenient for field work.

Disadvantages

PPS cannot be used if the sizes of the primary sampling clusters are not known.

Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling

Double sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger samplethat provided information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is extended tomore than two phases of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling. This is also known assequential sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in phases. Double samplingor multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a dilemma posed by undesirable extremes.The statistics based on the sample of n can be improved by using ancillary information from awide base: but this is too costly to obtain from the entire population of N elements. Instead,information is obtained from a larger preliminary sample nL which includes the final sample n.

Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling

It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a

population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and eachis a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated sampling can be usedwith any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified, single or multi-stage or single ormultiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error. It is practical.The replicated samples can throw light on variable non-sampling errors. But disadvantage isthat it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed.

Non-probability or Non Random Sampling

Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. Thissampling does not provide a chance of selection to each population element.

Advantages

The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and low cost.

Disadvantages

The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each population unit. The selectionprobability sample may not be a representative one. The selection probability is unknown. Itsuffers from sampling bias which will distort results.


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The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative due tonon-availability of a list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing the findingsto the population, when the costs required for probability sampling may be too large, whenprobability sampling required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit forcompleting the study do not permit it. It may be classified into:

Convenience or Accidental Sampling

It means selecting sample units in a just hit and miss fashion E.g., interviewing people whomwe happen to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units areconveniently available, e.g., a teacher may select students in his class. This method is alsoknown as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meetsaccidentally are included in the sample.

Suitability

Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for simple purposes such as testingideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of interest.

Advantage

It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of population and it does not require anystatistical expertise.Disadvantage

The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of researchers subjectivity, it is the leastreliable sampling method and the findings cannot be generalized.

Purposive (or judgment) sampling

This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determinedcriteria. This is also known as judgment sampling. This involves selection of cases which we

judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgement of theresearcher or some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. Thechance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the subjective judgementof the researcher.

Suitability

This is used when what is important is the typicality and specific relevance of the sampling unitsto the study and not their overall representativeness to the population.

Advantage


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It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in thesample.

Disadvantage

It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the representativeness, requires more prior

extensive information and does not lend itself for using inferential statistics.

Quota sampling

This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible samplingunits by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a method of stratified sampling in whichthe selection within strata is non-random. It is this Non-random element that constitutes itsgreatest weakness.

Suitability

It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and readership surveys which do notaim at precision, but to get quickly some crude results.

Advantage

It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of population, and field work can easily beorganized.

Disadvantage

It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if field work is difficult, and subject to ahigher degree of classification.

Snow-ball sampling

This is the colourful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of a specialpopulation by using an initial set of its members as informants. This sampling technique mayalso be used in socio-metric studies.Suitability

It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a formal organization, and diffusionof information among professional of various kinds.

Advantage

It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available.

Disadvantage


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The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of probability statistical methods. It is difficultto apply when the population is large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements in thelist.

Question 6

What is a Research Report? What are the contents of Research Report?

Answer

Research report is a means for communicating research experience to others. A research reportis a formal statement of the research process and it results. It narrates the problem studied,

methods used for studying it and the findings and conclusions of the study.

Contents of the Research Report

The outline of a research report is given below:

Prefatory Items

Title page

Declaration

Certificates

Preface/acknowledgements

Table of contents

List of tables

List of graphs/figures/charts

Abstract or synopsis

Body of the Report

Introduction

Theoretical background of the topic

Statement of the problem

Review of literature

The scope of the study

The objectives of the study


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Hypothesis to be tested

Definition of the concepts

Models if any

Design of the study

Methodology

Method of data collection

Sources of data

Sampling plan

Data collection instruments

Field work

Data processing and analysis plan

Overview of the report

Limitation of the study

Results: findings and discussions

Summary, conclusions and recommendations

Reference Material

Bibliography

Appendix

Copies of data collection instruments

Technical details on sampling plan

Complex tables

Glossary of new terms used.

mb 0050 research methadology

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