maximizing effectiveness in team sports: the personal audit tool
TRANSCRIPT
Maximizing effectiveness in teamsports: the personal audit tool
Abdullah Promise OputeManagement Consultancy Department, JUamfF Investments Limited,
Salzkotten, Germany
Abstract
Purpose – This conceptual paper aims to offer a theoretical contribution that explicates the “blindspot” cultural diversity and reward diversity team conflict contingencies, and personal audit as amechanism for managing the consequences.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper suggests a framework for analysing and managingdiversity (cultural and reward) driven team conflicts. Given the theoretical foundation, personal auditamong team members is recommended as a tool for managing the consequences of such conflictfactors.
Findings – This paper underlines the team building intervention utility for team effectiveness. Itreinforces theoretical foundation that highlights conflict as a determinant of team effectiveness, andreviews two diversity dimensions of team conflicts. Finally, it suggests and explains an “activelearning” personal audit model for achieving the conceptualised team effectiveness perspective.
Practical implications – The paper highlights critical but usually overlooked team conflictintricacies in football team management. This framework offers practical relevance in enablingunderstanding of “attitudes and behaviours” of team members and human resource management infootball marketing. Managers would benefit from this perspective and improve team effectiveness,performance and organisation’s performance.
Originality/value – The paper offers valuable conceptual insight for development, one that servesthe interest of management of football clubs and academia.
Keywords Cultural diversity, Reward diversity, Procedural justice, Team effectiveness, Team conflict,Personal audit, Team building intervention, Team working, Justice
Paper type Conceptual paper
IntroductionA survey of global Fortune companies and other global organisations (Dunavant andHeiss, 2005) revealed that 100 per cent of surveyed organisations perceived globaldiversity as a very important issue. Developments in world sports marketing lendcredence to this importance.
Football marketing, this paper’s premise, has gained increasing business entityrecognition. According to Srinivas (1995) one of the key strategic survival and growthassets of global organizations would be their global mindsets, which include skills suchas opportunity seeking, long-term perspective, among others. Global footballmarketing mindsets are more driven by the underlined skills.
Across the globe, brand names like Manchester United, FC Arsenal, FC Barcelona,Real Madrid, Internationale Milan, just to name a few, are gaining increasingacceptance. Driven by competition intensity, football clubs are expanding their globaloutreach and image marketing efforts. To optimise the financial gains of such global
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1352-7592.htm
The author wishes to thank the anonymous reviewers, who through constructive commentsenhanced the quality of this paper.
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Team Performance ManagementVol. 18 No. 1/2, 2012pp. 78-101q Emerald Group Publishing Limited1352-7592DOI 10.1108/13527591211207725
strategy, clubs exploit the image benefit of hiring players from strategic “global cashcows”. For example, European football clubs are increasingly identifying China, Japan,South Korea (but not limited to) as strategic market space.
Additional to that strategic image benefit avenue, clubs also exploit strategicindividual image. Image gains through the sale of brand articles exploiting personalitybrands offer clubs important avenue for funds. Sports analysts argue that the transferof David Beckham to Real Madrid and subsequently Los Angeles Galaxy was astrategic individual image investment.
Given above strategic possibilities, recruitment of footballers may not only becontingent on proven or potential talent of footballers, but also on strategic imagepriorities, beyond or within regional boundaries. Football clubs, regardless of underlyingrecruitment motive, must prioritise the need to perform on the pitch, towards achievingattached financial benefits, for corporate success. Tables I and II show the points basedtable (taking into account end of season team position in the 2010/2011 season) forestimating earnings in the German Bundesliga (Premier League). To perform well “onthe pitch”, team-based performance is essential (Sumanski et al., 2007).
Since team performance is a critical emphasis in global sports (Schnytzer andWeinberg, 2008), and team composition influences team performance (Higgs et al.,2005), this paper suggests a framework for enhancing team effectiveness in footballteams.
“Organisational behaviour” knowledge “is essential for effectively managing humanresources” (Doherty, 1998, p. 3) in sport. Given its importance, literature (e.g. Doherty andChelladurai, 1999; Cunningham and Sagas, 2004) is focusing “on how sport organisationsmight manage diversity in the workforce” (Claussen et al, 2008, p. 58). These factsunderline the importance and premise of this paper. “The attitudes and behaviours ofindividuals . . .; their satisfaction, commitment, performance . . . ” (Doherty, 1998, p. 3) areinfluenced by diversity factors. Managing these diversity factors is essential. This paper,combining diversity management, and inter-personal perspectives; offers a lens formanaging conflict, towards enhancing team effectiveness in football.
Contemporary intra-group study (Opute, 2009) illuminates the connectedness ofcultural diversity, monetary reward, and management tool (cross-functional bridge) toteam harmony. Transporting these backgrounds unto the sport context, this paperproposes that the management (conceptualised here as team manager and sportspsychologist) of football clubs would optimise team effectiveness by managingdiversity driven conflict.
To effectively do this, a well-aligned process is required, one that is sustainedthrough committed management support. Critical to this team effectiveness goal,management efforts must address cultural diversities (Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999;Brenner, 2004) and prioritise balanced reward (Chimhanzi, 2004; Opute, 2009) amongteam players. To identify core satisfaction, commitment and performance features ofthis dual diversity, of each team member, and manage them, towards teameffectiveness, a personal audit is suggested.
Utilizing insights from Scherr and Losch (2004), Personal Audit (PA) isconceptualised in this study as assessment and implementation process thatanalyzes teamwork climate, exposes dangers and initiates actions for adaptability,towards enhancing performance.
Effective management of these dual diversity features, using this tool, wouldenhance the financial performance (both from on the pitch and image marketingavenues) of football organisations. Football team members who do not experience these
Maximizingeffectiveness in
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Table I.The teams’ position at theend of the 2010/2011Bundesliga (on the left),and marketing earningsper team from the DFLbased on the five-yearsaccumulation plan (on theright)
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diversity problems (negative culture differences and pay inequity) would show ahigher inclusiveness feeling, commitment to the team, and performance. In such ateam, there will also be better interaction, role performance and goal congruity,relational characteristics critical for corporate success.
This paper is advanced as follows: First, the author conceptualises teameffectiveness, flagging the conflict factor and antecedents. Second, the proposition isdefined; explaining how the personal audit mechanism can enhance team effectivenessthrough managing conflict antecedents.
Team effectivenessUtilising empirical facts, team effectiveness conceptualisation in this paper isgrounded on the foundation that relationship between football team members thriveson good social interrelation and positive feedback (Chelladurai and Saleh, 1980). Inrelationship literature, interdependence is a key feature of sports (Chelladurai andSaleh, 1978) and non-sport (Le Meunier-FitzHugh and Piercy, 2007) teams. Optimisinginterdependence relationship benefits requires that members’ behaviour reflect the“we” culture (McManus, 2000).
Cross-functional relationships literature notes: maximising “strategic linking”(Plakoyiannaki and Tzokas, 2002) depends on effective “symbiotic interrelation”(Souder and Chakrabarti, 1978). These contentions are also valid for footballmarketing. Effective cohesion among team members is essential. Cohesion (Bollen andHoyle, 1990), is the degree of attraction members feel toward one another and the team;“it is a feeling of deep loyalty, of esprit de corps, the degree to which each individual hasmade the team’s goal his or her own, a sense of belonging, and a feeling of morale”(Beebe and Masterson, 2000, p. 122).
While supporting the above cohesion views, Friedley and Manchester (2005) alsoflag the need for effective communication in creating, shaping, and strengthening those
Marketing earnings Analyses
The teams positioned 1 to 5 (Part 1) get someposition-based allocations from the UEFA for therespective European competition participationBased on the accumulated points (Part 2) eachteam receives TV and other marketing earningsfrom the DFL
For the one less goal analysis, the teams position 4and 5 (Part 1) – H96 (60pts.) and FSV Mainz(58pts)In the first half of the 2010/11 season, FSV Mainzlost 0:1 to H96 (see Figure A2, row 12, column 8). IfMainz had scored at least one 1 goal in that matchthey would have finished with 59 or 61 points,therefore 1 position higher than H96. Thus, theywould have finished in position 4, a result thatwould have meant: (1) more money from UEFA,(2) higher domestic marketing earnings for 2010/2011 season, (3) higher points accumulation for2011/12, and multiplier factor enhanced points forsubsequent years. Inspecting Figures A1 and A2,other pairs of such scenarios with financialimplications exist (e.g. Schalke 04 and VfL Wolfs
Note: Using the statistics from the German Bundesliga was ideal, as it provided interesting factsrelevant to the argument in this paper
Table II.Explantation and
analyses
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feelings. Their communication viewpoint aligns with Ting-Toomey’s (1988) analysisconcerning everyday intercultural conflict.
Combining above team-work insights, the team effectiveness lens in this papersensitizes “interaction” and “esprit de corps”. The proposition thus is: to achieve thebest symphony orchestra, team effectiveness measures should reflect interaction andesprit de corps behaviour.
Team conflict influences interaction and esprit de corps behaviour in teams. Next,this paper highlights conflict (and antecedents) in team relationships.
Conflict as a core feature in team workingWhile it is important to embrace team-working for corporate success, achieving teameffectiveness is an arduous task. Thomas T. Stallkamp (President, ChryslerCorporation) notes:
Today, both the business press and academic journals are filled with articles about teams,empowerment and cross-functionalism. The inherent appeal of working in unified teamsinvokes sports and military analogies . . . But implementing and leading effective teams ismuch more difficult than it might appear (Stallkamp, 1998, p. 7).
Achieving team effectiveness hinges on a number of factors, one of which is conflict.Organisational science literature defines conflict as the “collision of actors” (Katz andKahn, 1978 cited in Chimhanzi, 2004) and tension between two or more social entities –individuals, groups or larger organisations – which arises from incompatibility of actualor desired responses (Gaski, 1984 cited in Chimhanzi, 2004). More recent literature(Ting-Toomey et al., 2000, p.48) supports these contributors. One essential element,therefore, of a conflict process is perceived substantive disagreements (Hammer, 2005).
Intragroup conflict is inevitable (Simmel, 1955) and likely to lead to badconsequences (Robey and Farrow, 1989) in group relationships. Examining conflictpatterns and tendencies in ingroup relationships is pertinent (Ting-Toomey andKurogi, 1998), hence the focus in this paper.
Recognising and managing team conflict elements are “critical for sustainingorganisational efficiency and effectiveness” (McCann and Galbraith, 1981, in Tinsley, 2001,p. 583), a fact supported by recent insights that underline the need to explore conflicts inorganisations (Leung, 2008). This increasing attention is justified (Leung, 2008) givenestablished detrimental effects of conflicts on employees and team performance.
Interpersonal conflicts, the most commonly cited problems in the workplace(Friedman et al., 2000; Ting-Toomey and Takai, 2006) are prevalent in the footballindustry, especially given globalised marketing orientation (see Introduction).
Antecedents of team conflictsRifts are often reported among players, at Real Madrid, Man U, Chelsea, Barcelona,among others. While a number of factors might culminate in such behaviours, ego(Simmel, 1955) and wage differentials are the most defining factors.
Ineffective team interrelating, driven by monetary factors or otherwise, affect thefinancial performance of teams, both in the short and long terms. Such relationalconflicts could have huge financial consequences for the club; one less goal scored in aseason could spell relegation, failure to qualify for Inter-Toto, UEFA, and ChampionsLeague, becoming the League champions or winning the Champion’s League. Thefinancial implications of any of these options in today’s rich football business areobvious (see for example Table I, and Appendix, Figures A1 and A2. The long-term
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repercussion thereof, is that the £20m or £30m or £50m gap caused by the “one-lessgoal” limits the competing power of the club (manpower, structural infrastructures,image marketing), a scenario that, given the multiplier effect theory, manifests itsspill-over effect yearly (see Tables I and II and supporting analysis, and AppendixFigures A1 and A2.
One consequence of global marketing is increasing diversity and multi-culturalenvironment (Toossi, 2002 cited in Pesch and Kemp, 2008). The way a team performs isthe product of its diversity (Milliken and Martins, 1996). Diversity in groups reducesperformance by negatively affecting cohesion (Zenger and Lawrence, 1989) andmember commitment to the group (O’Reilly et al., 1989). Further literature (Lichtensteinet al., 1997; Northcraft et al., 1996, cited in Driver, 2003) supports these diversityconnections.
Additional to making communication more difficult (Zenger and Lawrence, 1989),diversity adversely affects group members’ ability to predict each other’s behaviourand thereby increases group conflict (Lincoln and Miller, 1979). Diversity is thus acritical obstacle to effective group performance (Driver, 2003), and increased diversitycauses increased conflict ( Jehn et al., 1999).
Diversity is a critical concern in organisations (Harrison et al, 2003). This paper thusespouses the view that “diversity management” (Ozbilgin and Tatli, 2008) is critical toachieving team effectiveness. This paper advances that to financially justify recruitmentand image marketing effort; “on the pitch” success is a sine-qua-non for footballorganisations. For that success, they must manage diverse conflict contingencies.
According to Driver (2003), studies on diversity should shift from the “traditionalsurface-level” characteristics definition of diversity to the less visible, deep-levelcharacteristics such as attitudes, beliefs and values (see also Harrison et al., 1998). Inliterature (Ozbilgin and Tatli, 2008, p. 441), “diversity management may be defined as aset of management interventions which seek to recognize and value individual and . . .differences among individual workers . . . and the other stakeholders of an organization”.Drawing on the two foundations, this paper sensitizes cultural diversity and rewarddiversity as conflict factors, and its management in football teams.
Cultural diversity as antecedent of team conflict. Individuals from diversebackgrounds work together in organisations (Tinsley, 2001, p. 583). It is thereforeimportant to consider cultural diversity in sport organisations (Doherty andChelladurai, 1999; Claussen et al., 2008; Cunningham, 2007). Examiningcross-cultural relationship success factors, Kanter and Corn (1994, p. 5), in theirJournal of Management Development publication reported a Canadian executive’scomments describing his experiences in a joint venture in Turkey:
I think Turks are Turks, and they are very different from Canadians, or North Americans orBrits or whatever. But when I went to Turkey, I was dealing with some Turks who had beendealing with Canadians for 10-15 years; they understood us and had adapted to our ways.Yes, they were still Turks, but they knew what Canadians expected. And they knewCanadians very well, so they forgave us when we made faux pas, they understood that welike Christmas Day off. They were patient and gave us a year to understand them.
This comment underlines a critical point about diversely cultured teams (Leung, 2008),either as members of one organisation, or separate inter-dependent entities. Significantcultural differences exist between various countries (Hofstede, 1980, cited in Suß andKleiner, 2007; House et al, 1999), and this “country” culture proxy (e.g. Xie et al., 2003;Kotler et al., 2006) is the premise in this paper.
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Organisations with culturally diverse staff composition must ensure successfulcultural adaptability (Engler and Michalcak, 2007, p. 11). Teams with country baseddiversities place special demands on managers (Brett et al., 2006, p. 1). The introductionto this paper has underlined a strong culture diversity presence in today’s footballmarketing. Managing such diversity elements is critical for the “on the pitch” and “offthe pitch” financial gains.
Culture is “the collective programming of the mind” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 9) andcultural values shape our meanings and punctuation points of salient facets of socialself, self facets that expectedly influence one’s resolve to optimally perform roles(Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998; Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999). Extending thisbackground, Ting-Toomey and Oetzel (2001, p. 17) define intercultural conflict as the“experience of emotional frustration in conjunction with perceived incompatibility ofvalues, norms, face orientations, goals . . . . and/or outcomes between a minimum of twocultural parties from two different cultural communities in an interactive situation”.This definition analysed, lack of interaction between members, triggered by suchcultural conflict measures would contribute to non-esprit de corps behaviour.
“Cultural miscommunication, lack of understanding, or ignorance“ (Ting-Toomeyand Oetzel, 2001) are typical cultural diversity conflict factors. Such factors fuelinterpersonal conflicts and can cause both task and relationship conflict(Ting-Toomey, 1994a, b, cited in Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998; Kankanhalli et al.,2007). Empirically, cultural differences affect communication (interaction in this study)between team members (Brett et al., 2006). Underlining this fact, these authors note:“communication in Western cultures is typically direct and explicit. In many othercultures, meaning is embedded in the way the message is presented. The differencescan cause serious damage to team relationships.” (Brett et al., 2006, p. 3).
Further literature on the cultural diversity and communication association(Ting-Toomey, 1994a, b, cited in Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998; Ting-Toomey, 1997)suggest that intercultural conflict often involves miscommunication between diverselycultured members that reflects incompatible identity, relational, process, andsubstantive conflict issues. Other context studies support these views: culturaldiversity is a core relational factor (Opute, 2009), and language and assumption proxiesof cultural diversity are barriers to mutual understanding (Schein, 1996).
Over time (Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998), the initial miscommunication betweencultural parties can escalate into an intensive, polarized conflict situation, due tocultural values and conflict assumptions. Reinforcing the relational contention, they(Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998) note that additional to communication effects,intercultural conflict parties typically use their habitual conflict scripts to approach theconflict situation, thus incompatible goals become a tendency.
To summarize, since internationalisation of football marketing is increasing, thisstudy suggests the need to address cultural diversity team conflict factors (Schneiderand Barsoux, 2003). The awareness of how our culture influences the way we behaveand how others perceive and respond to that behaviour needs to be developed(Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). This is important because diverging perspectives andviewpoints cause increased conflict levels (Amason and Sapienza, 1997) andheterogeneity reduces social integration, communication and cohesion (Wagner et al.,1984).
This paper views cultural diversity from the social perspective (Nishii and Ozbilgin,2007) that aims to achieve appropriate diversity management programmes tailoredtowards “understanding how to manage multicultural teams, develop cultural . . . .
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competence, and facilitate smooth interactions among . . . employees and units” (Nishiiand Ozbilgin, 2007). Ensuring the above is critical for effective management ofculturally diverse teams to optimize team interaction and esprit de corps behaviour.
This paper embraces procedural fairness literature (Lind and Tyler, 1988 cited inDooms and van Oijen, 2005) that associates team conflict with reward diversity, andthis context is explained next.
Reward diversity as antecedent of team conflict. Reward is a core human resourcemanagement element (Doherty, 1998). The context here is discussed in two sections;first the relevance to sports marketing is highlighted, and then followed by itstheoretical grounding.
The introduction to this paper pinpointed increasing global recognition of footballmarketing as a channel for wealth enhancement. Consequently, wealthy investors aresourcing out football clubs as investment targets. In the last five years, over six toppremiership clubs have found their ownership firmly in the control of one or two verywealthy hand(s), a trend that has dual consequences. First and positive, these clubs areexposed to a huge cash bag. On the other hand, while this (put in sports terms) hasenabled their ability to play in the recruitment space, it has triggered astronomical signon-fees. In the current market climate, clubs flex their economic muscles, a trend, whichadditional to the inflated fees clubs pay to release players from their contracts has ledto players getting weekly earnings beyond yearly imaginations of professors.
The latter negative outcome is the concern of this paper, not for the abovecomparative evidence relative professors, but for its team building implications(Doherty, 1998). There are astronomical and imbalanced wage categories in footballindustry. Notably, this paper claims that this practice lubricates interpersonal conflictamong team members, an outcome that drives team ineffectiveness.
Though critical for team effectiveness, conflict contingencies of this sort are hardlyhighlighted. They are however existent: the BBC (online) Thursday’s Gossip Column(17/07/08) had this as its key flash point:
Real Madrid and Holland midfielder Wesley Sneijder has said the Spanish champions do notneed Cristiano Ronaldo as he will “disrupt” the squad. He also accused the Portuguese wingerof going missing in big games and said his wages will cause a dressing room revolt at theBernabeu. (Various).
Interpersonal conflict contingency of this sort, as highlighted by Wesley Sneijder, ispredominantly existent in today’s football marketing, as well as other team-orientedsports, though many might lack the courage to champion its publicity. Contemporarycomments (Sunday, 11 April 2010) on the German Football League reinforce abovewage-based team danger: Analysing the performance of Hoffenheim FC comparativeto last season, Udo Lattek (2010), a world renowned ex-German international andpresently a football analyst, pinpointed this wage-based negative impact on team spiritand team performance. According to him, the inequity in wage increases for playerssubsequent to the end of last season triggered a poisoned team spirit, with theconsequence that team members sacrificed team bond and unity of purpose, andprioritised individual goals towards earning better reward for individualachievements.
While, realistically, pay equity is unachievable, even in non-sports industries, giventhat service duration (promotion) and market forces (competition) induced pay rise, isrational, maintaining a fair balance is necessary, for procedural justice (Cropanzanoand Randall, 1993 cited in Dooms and van Oijen, 2005; Smucker et al., 2003) is a
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condition for relational effectiveness, after all, a top-in-form Cristiano Ronaldo wouldnot be effective on his own.
Human resource management literature (Suß and Kleiner, 2007) underlines the needto flag diversity in payment, among others. This view lends support to insights on theprocedural justice concept, which according to Dooms and van Oijen (2005, p. 321-322)“has been applied to a variety of decision settings, including . . . and pay raisedecisions” (Folger and Konovsky (1989).
This organisation “pay raise” context is the emphasis in this paper. The proceduraljustice orientation in relation to pay rise is important: procedural justice enables groupcohesion and loyalty, because fair procedures will reassure members that their interestswill be protected and advanced through group membership (Lind and Tyler, 1988, p. 227,cited in Dooms and van Oijen, 2005). For group or organizational membership, it isimportant to fulfil people’s needs for self-identity, self-worth, acceptance, and respect(Konovsky and Brockner, 1993 cited in Dooms and van Oijen, 2005). Fair proceduresstrengthen these needs and increase people’s loyalty and commitment to the group theybelong (Lind and Tyler, 1988, cited in Dooms and van Oijen, 2005). These perspectivesexplain much of how people react to unfair procedures.
In organizational settings, perceptions of unfairness may lead to frustration,non-compliance with rules and procedures, distrust, sabotage, low commitment to theorganization, and poor performance (Cropanzano and Randall, 1993 cited in Dooms andvan Oijen, 2005; Folger and Konovsky, 1989). Further literature argues that unfairpractices cause lack of effort and cooperation behaviour among employees, resulting indissatisfied and alienated workers (Chelladurai, 1999), and poor (employee attitudesand job satisfaction) in sports organisations (Smucker et al., 2003).
These contentions find support in Dooms and van Oijen (2005): there is a criticalassociation between joint reward and team allegiance. Empirically, wage structuresimbalance correlates negatively with team integration (interaction and esprit de corps)(e.g. Chimhanzi, 2004; Xie et al., 2003; Opute, 2007, 2009) Chimhanzi (2004): joint rewardimpacts positively on: interpersonal communication and written communication; andcollaboration; joint reward leads to low conflict levels, among integrating members.Thus, joint reward systems have the capacity to sustain desired behaviours anddiscourage detrimental behaviour to organisational functioning, such as conflict(Chimhanzi (2004)).
Management support for team effectivenessWith increasing workforce diversity, managing diversity-based conflict becomes acritical concern (Harrison et al., 1998) to sustain organisational effectiveness (McCannand Galbraith, 1981).
Interfunctional integration literature (e.g. Kotler et al., 2006; Opute, 2009;Mollenkopf et al, 2000; Xie et al., 2003; Le Meunier-FitzHugh and Piercy, 2007) stressthe critical importance of management support to achieving effective (interaction andesprit de corps) behaviour. Management support enables integration (Opute, 2009;Le Meunier-FitzHugh and Piercy, 2007), reduces conflict of interests when aiming toimprove collaboration between personnel (Opute, 2009; Le Meunier-FitzHugh andPiercy, 2007), and enables team conflicts management (Opute, 2009).
Suitable management policy formulation and behaviour mechanisms will galvaniseinteraction, but also more critically, esprit de corps behaviour. Extendedly, if foundedon a practical, “hands-on-deck” implementation approach, the galvanised interactionand esprit de corps culture would be sustained. Essentially, while galvanisation is
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important, consistent team effectiveness over time would hinge largely on thesustenance factor. Therefore, management must aim for both targets, to optimise teameffectiveness.
Following this logic, this paper suggests that management must:. ensure policies and behaviour that prioritize team effectiveness; and. enforce a practical approach to evaluate and improve the outcomes.
Management policies must promote performance measures that align with the teameffectiveness goal. In this connection, this paper suggests that management shouldexploit evaluative (for identifying) and corrective (for managing) tools, in relation to thecultural and reward diversities of the team.
Policies must be complemented with inter-personal tools to enhance interaction andesprit de corps behaviour among team members, using a personal audit tool, a taskpremise for the sport psychologist. The sport psychologist, justified on contextrelevance (Doherty, 1998), is the hub of the proposed personal audit tool because of thevintage skills utility (Cockerill, 2002; Steinberg et al., 1998). For this implementation(see Sport Psychologist qualities in Figure 1).
Exploiting personal audit tool. Conflict management is a core organisationaleffectiveness factor (Doherty, 1998). Sport organisations can exploit internal audit toolto capture and manage conflict elements. Sports marketing research void justified, thispaper focuses on culture and reward diversities, as well as management support asteam effectiveness factors. Interpersonal relationships shape team effectiveness ( Joneset al., 2005), and it is important to examine the tripartite factors in sports marketing.
Integration mechanisms literature (Maltz, 1997, p. 92) notes that using managers inother functions to evaluate a person’s performance would prompt the person to be moreresponsive to the concerns of other group members, an outcome that leads to increasedcommunication and moderation of the language difference-cooperation relationship(Maltz, 1997) in the group.
Building on this foundation, this paper suggests a management (personal audit) toolfor exploiting motivational input. Extending Maltz (1997), this paper suggests that themoderating potential is not limited to language difference dimensions but also otherelements that underlie cultural diversity driven conflict. Thus, this paper suggests thatthe combined moderating synergies would sustain increased communication andcooperative behaviour.
In the suggested personal audit tool, management gauges interpersonal relationshipamong team members, via the regular use of purpose-fit designed questionnaires(Stevens and Bloom, 2003). The relational evaluation aims to highlight the one-to-onerelational facts among team members, sensitizing if positive or negative, and thediversity contexts of conflict driven negatives.
Also, for the personal audit benefits, management must enforce a mechanism formanaging the individual one-to-one outcomes. Thus, the personal audit context(elaborated in the proposal) aims to identify and manage (through active learning)conflict factors, for enhancement of team effectiveness. Using such learning frameworkto manage conceptualised diversity drivers of conflict is important because conflictparties consider protecting self-interest conflict goals and attacking another person’sconflict goals (Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998).
The proposed framework would help football clubs direct attention to the culturalblind spots and reward imbalance in team relational process. Achieving this focus
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Figure 1.Elaborates the teammembers, sportpsychologist and teammanager relationships,and critical steps in thepersonal audit tool
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offers a useful tool for early conflict intervention and avoidance of diversity-conflictdriven miscommunication and poisoned relational behaviours.
The propositionDiversity is a critical factor of organisational performance and needs to be studied(Driver, 2003; Harrison et al., 1998), a view supported by Doherty (1998, p. 2) who notes:“the attitudes and behaviours of members are critical” in human resource managementin sport organisations. Following these foundations, a tool for enhancing teamperformance in football clubs is proposed here.
Sport organisations face a “challenge to direct organisation members towardsoutcomes that will have a positive impact on organisational effectiveness” (Doherty,1998), and there is a resurgence of interest in the management problems caused bynational cultural differences – in values, ideologies, . . ., and behavioural styles (Kanterand Corn, 1994; Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999). Given its importance in the underlinedchallenge context, diversity (cultural and reward) management is the interest here.Flagging diversity management as one key management challenge of our times, intheir paper “Management challenges in a new time”, Barkema et al. (2002) reinforce theresurgence fact, and note further that organizations must manage multinationaldiversity to avoid its undesirable outcomes such as interpersonal conflicts. This benefitlens reinforces the logic that managing conflict well will improve team performance(Zachary, 1998; Opute, 2009).
Organisations must highlight cultural differences (Ferraro and Cummings, 2007) for“diversity in cultural characteristics, . . ., can challenge the prevailing culture”(Claussen et al., 2008, p. 64). In such circumstances, adaptation is required (Claussenet al., 2008).
Cultural differences, among others, trigger conflicts in team relationship (Kotleret al., 2006; Opute, 2009). Heterogeneity in team reduces social integration,communication and cohesion (Wagner et al., 1984). Heterogeneity would influenceteam stability (Chandler et al., 2005) and management must recognise and confront theconflict avenues.
According to Sawyer (2001), managers should hire “team players” and carefullyassemble teams of “compatible” people. Since sport organisations may not favour thishiring logic, given the industry dynamics (see Introduction), managing for teamcompatibility becomes the suitable option, for team effectiveness. To achieve teamstability and effectiveness, the management of football teams must mobilise its effortstowards managing interpersonal conflicts in the team.
If not managed properly, such conflicts, regardless of diversity source, would affect(negatively) attitudes and behaviours (Doherty, 1998), commitment to the team (Cadyand Valentine, 1999), and performance (Doherty, 1998). Grounded on this need torecognise, and properly manage diversity in sport organisations), the frameworkproposed here (see Figure 2) offers a channel for achieving team compatibility,necessary for effective symbiotic interrelation. A further contribution of thisframework is that, additional to the recognition and management of daily relationshipissues, it embeds guides (see Figure 1) for active learning towards cultural adaptationand addressing reward based issues.
“Effective teamwork is an ever increasing goal of sport teams” (Stevens and Bloom,2003, p. 44) and “team building intervention” is a critical tool for achieving teameffectiveness (Bloom and Stevens, 2002; Beckhard, 1972; Woodcock and Francis, 1994,
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Beer, 1980 cited in Bloom and Stevens, 2002; Stevens and Bloom, 2003). Theinter-personal tool instrument suggested in this paper draws on this strategy.
Following team building intervention precedence:. the implementation involves team manager[1] and sport psychologist (Bloom
and Stevens, 2002; Stevens and Bloom, 2003); and. the sport psychologist is the “central hub” while the team manager plays a
supporting role (Bloom and Stevens, 2002; Stevens and Bloom, 2003; Beer, 1980).
For optimum effectiveness of this intervention tool (Stevens and Bloom, 2003), thesport psychologist must possess specific skills (see Figure 1) and is the intermediarybetween the team manager and the team members, in the intervention strategy.
Team building intervention is useful for “examining team functioning” (Woodcockand Francis, 1994), “examining relationships between members”, and “diagnosingpotential weaknesses and minimizes their influences” in seeking culture training ofteam members (Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998). It is “designed to promote enhancedperceptions of cohesiveness and enable a team to be more effective” (Newmann, 1984,cited in Stevens and Bloom, 2003, p. 44). Team building intervention could be direct orindirect (Bloom and Stevens, 2002). The direct approach is advanced in this paper dueto context suitability (see Prapavessis et al., 1996):
. team members become active agents in the team-building process, as they areinvolved in diagnosis, and evaluation of team functioning (Bloom and Stevens,2002, p. 2);
. The sport psychologist works directly with both the coaching staff and the teammembers[2] in all stages, including the implementation of strategies, to improvegroup effectiveness (Bloom and Stevens, 2002, p. 2); and
. direct approach team-building is very effective in improving group effectiveness(Sundstrom et al., 1990).
For the team effectiveness goal, the direct team building plan must be well articulated.This is essential to ensure that the personal risks elements of efficiency risks, flaggedthrough PA-assessment, are effectively addressed. Next, therefore, this plan is
Figure 2.Framework: personalaudit tool for evaluatingand mitigating conflict inteams effectiveness
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elaborated, flagging team manager, team members and sport psychologistsfoundations connecting to Figures 1 and 2.
The team manager – policy formulation and behaviourThe team manager plays a supporting role (Beer, 1980 cited in Bloom and Stevens,2002; Bloom and Stevens, 2002) in the personal audit scheme. For management ofdiversity to facilitate process gains, the team manager must ensure suitableenvironment and training initiatives that enhances group members’ abilities to cope(Austin, 1997).
Undertaking necessary measures (see Figure 1), the team manager must ensurepolicies and behaviour that underscore the importance of team behaviour. To aid thesport psychologist’s effort, the team manager should initiate seminars and courses thatfor example sensitize group diversities and conflict, cultural understanding and thepertinence for purposeful interaction and group esprit de corps relationship.
In this supporting role, the team manager liaises directly with the sport psychologist,and communicates views through the sport psychologist (Stevens and Bloom, 2003).
Educating team membersEducating the team members is also necessary to optimise team effectiveness.Organisational efforts must transcend recognition and flagging of diversity drivenconflicts through policies, but energise cultural learning. Team members (Adler, 1997)must be firmly educated about cultural diversity (language, sign, values, behaviour,inter alia) that can trigger miscommunication between two cultural parties and escalateinto polarized conflict situation (Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998). Team members needto be aware of the conflict avenues and learn to adapt to them.
This learning focus is essential towards (Adler, 1997):. ensuring that members see situations from the other’s perspective; and. establishing agreed-upon norms for interacting.
It is also important that the members freely voice out their views and fears withouthaving to face consequences (Stevens and Bloom, 2003).
The personal audit process and the sport psychologistThere are knowledge gaps on organisational behaviour, “which is the attitudes andbehaviour of individuals, . . . in the organisation; their satisfaction, commitment,performance, and so on” in sports (Doherty, 1998, p. 1). Concurring to organisationalbehaviour in sport foundation (Doherty, 1998), the personal audit tool is suggested heretowards knowledge advancement in this area.
To utilize this conceptualised tool, the three roles/activities concerning the teammanager, team members and the sport psychologist must be fulfilled. While the firsttwo interests were explained above, the PA tool is explained next pinpointing the sportpsychologist roles.
Figure 1 summarises key steps that the sport psychologist must take in the PA tool.The sport psychologist must keep a direct contact with the team members (Stevens andBloom, 2003), a relational behaviour that is critical for diversity and conflict linkassessment, and the adaptability (learning) targets. A combination of use ofquestionnaire (Stevens and Bloom, 2003) and one-on-one contact (Adler, 1997) in theteam members’ relational assessment and enhancement is ideal.
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A regular and consistent use of this “hands-on-deck” approach allows for quickidentification and mitigation of team conflict contingencies. Figure 1 flags personalrisks assessment steps that the sport psychologist can enforce.
Enforcing active learning approach (Silberman and Auerbach, 1998), a backgroundwhich aligns with “culture training” (Ting-Toomey and Kurogi, 1998), is also essentialin this tool. Learning should be tailored towards harmonisation of values, attitudes,emotions and culture based behaviours. In this regard, the team manager’s supportivemeasures (see Figure 1) must be utilised.
Additional to enabling cultural adaptability (Engler and Michalcak, 2007, p. 11), thesport psychologist can also use this tool to identify other critical diversity drivenconflict factors, e.g. reward inequity (see Figure 2). “How members feel about their pay,their commitment to the workgroup or organisation . . . and job performance areexamples of important attitudes and behaviours in the workplace” (Doherty, 1998, p. 2).Supporting this workplace view, Figure 1 suggests steps towards managing paydiversity issues.
For this tool (Figure 2, supported by Figure 1) to be fully effective, some liaisingbetween the sport psychologist and the team manager is necessary.
Identifying the features and implications of these dual conflict factors, andmanaging them is essential, for “individual performance is the foundation oforganisational performance” (Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996, p. 14). Using thiselaborated modus operandi, team effectiveness in football marketing will be improved:the prospects for effective interaction and team esprit de corps behaviour will beenhanced through active learning and adaptability among team members.
This audit tool offers a good means for the sport psychologist to gauge teamclimate, by gathering members’ conflict views, their nature, the protagonists, and theconflict space.
The sport psychologist, supported by the team manager, can assess members’experience and encounters with other members, or agitations and queries on rewardstructure. The input from this tool will generate valuable insights that enable criticaldecisions for change. Essentially, the emerging interpersonal knowledge can beleveraged to tailor and sustain appropriate policies for ensuring team behaviour. Also,given one-to-one approach suitability, management can also leverage on suchknowledge outcomes in enforcing its occasional individual “change your behaviour”schemes.
The proposed personal audit lends itself as a useful tool for enhancing interpersonalskills (Scherr and Losch, 2004). Exploiting this framework, football clubs can harnessthe social benefits from the interpersonal learning mechanism, one that would exposethe usually ignored cultural blind spots, or “the subtle and difficult to recognise” (Brettet al., 2006) cultural issues, in team dynamics.
Over time, the sport psychologist can gauge improvement (or not) in relationalbehaviour between team members by comparatively inspecting personal auditevidence for identified pairs, especially for ones with critical relational problems. Inthis connection, the sport psychologist can identify the most critical conflict issues, andconfront them appropriately (Opute, 2009).
Optimum leveraging of the evaluation benefits hinges largely on appropriateconfrontation (nature and degree). Essentially thus, if for example, reward diversitydriven relational problems are spotted, then relevant approach, and in relevant measure,should be followed for effective mitigation. For example, motivation psychological
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enhancement, and boosting the inclusiveness feelings of aggrieved members. Also,efforts could be made to explain the pay structure rationale to concerned members.
Revisiting and inferring from the Canadian executive’s comment (see “Culturaldiversity as antecedent of team conflict”); culturally diverse teams can achieve teameffectiveness, if the suggested personal audit is carefully exploited to managehighlighted conflict contingencies. Implementing the suggested tool, organisationswould achieve sustained team harmonisation and enhanced performance, through theconflict management and active learning opportunities suggested in Figures 1 and 2.The emergent knowledge resource would, through its conflict management utility, aidteam effectiveness, and organisational performance (elaborated in recommendations).
Recommendations, limitations and future researchIn today’s marketplace, being competitive is becoming increasingly arduous. To succeed,organisations must embrace team mentality (Johnston et al., 2000), that is poweredthrough sustainable conflict level and effective resolution of such conflicts (Lam andChin, 2003). Using the proposed personal audit tool, organisations would achieve teameffectiveness, through identification, evaluation and resolution of conflict factors.
One major gain of this tool is that it sustains active learning; a development thatcontributes to HRM view (Doherty, 1998) that an organisation can shape theindividuals, through its practices. Using the lens pictured in both Figures,organisations would more effectively identify and manage “characteristics which[3]determine how individuals perceive what goes on around them, and how they react”(Doherty, 1998, p. 4). Achieving the conflict analysis and mitigation and active learningtargets, organisations would stimulate healthy interpersonal relationship, apre-condition for mutual team trust and commitment, and effectiveness.Organisations using this intervention tool would achieve higher satisfaction andperformance among team members (Steinberg and Cockerill, 1999, in Cockerill, 2002).
Organisations that use this tool would achieve a tripartite benefit (better teamharmonisation [interaction and esprit de corps ] – better “on the pitch success” – andbetter overall organisation performance, one that over time expands given multiplierfactor.
One limitation of the proposed framework is that it sensitizes only diversity drivenconflict factors. While the realm in this study is justified (see introduction), there areother team conflict drivers worth exploring in further efforts, to expand knowledge inthis field.
While this paper contributes to the understanding of how to enhance teameffectiveness in football marketing, and extendedly other team-based sports, the authorrecognises that there is a significant research void (see Doherty, 1998; Claussen et al.,2008) in the theoretical and sports marketing contexts. Testing the proposedframework, and exploring further research avenues connected to this theoretical andsports marketing contexts, would enhance the understanding of team effectiveness.
Notes
1. Coach used in the referenced studies.
2. Italics added, athletes used in Bloom and Stevens (2002).
3. Italics added by the author
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Appendix
Figure A1.2010-2011Futball-Bundesliga Table
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About the authorAbdullah Promise Opute (PhD) is a Marketing Researcher and Management Consultant. He hasworked in Nigeria, Germany and the UK. Being multi-disciplinary, his research straddles thefields of organisational behaviour, marketing and strategic management accounting (SMA) Hisresearch interest includes inter-functional integration, conflict management, cross-functionalbridge, strategic marketing, services marketing, and SMA. He received the “Best Paper” awardat the Academy of Marketing Conference, 2007. He is currently working on a range of projects.Abdullah Promise Opute can be contacted at: [email protected]
Figure A2.A sample of results in the
2010-2011 BundesligaSeason
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