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MASSACHUSETTS
MOTOR VEHICLE STOPS
BENCHBOOK
2016 EDITION
James F. Comerford, Esq. Quincy District Court
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Hon. John M. Greaney (ret.), Chair Supreme Judicial Court
Hon. William F. Sullivan Superior Court
Hon. Cathleen E. Campbell District Court
Hon. Kevin J. O’Dea District Court
Affiliated with the Social Law Library
Major funding by the Massachusetts Bar Foundation
Franklin N. Flaschner Judicial Institute, Inc.
John Adams Courthouse
One Pemberton Square, Suite 4300
Boston, Massachusetts 02108-1727
Phone: 617-226-1565
Fax: 617-226-1564
www.flaschner.org
© 2016 by Franklin N. Flaschner Judicial Institute, Inc.
All rights reserved. Published 2016
ISBN: 978-1-889916-13-2
[A]nalysis of events in motor vehicle stops is not only fact intensive and
time dependent . . . but also interconnected and dynamic: observations
made, and events occurring, during the stop often lead to heightened
suspicion (justifying further inquiry), or to probable cause, or to plain-
view seizures. . . .
Commonwealth v. Ciaramitaro, 51 Mass. App. Ct. 638, 642, 747
N.E.2d 1253, review denied, 434 Mass. 1107 (2001).
Flaschner Judicial Institute i
FOREWORD
The Flaschner Judicial Institute is pleased to publish the 2016 Edition of the
Massachusetts Motor Vehicle Stops Benchbook. This new edition of the Bench-
book updates the 2011 Edition with the most recent changes in the law for every
stage of a motor vehicle stop, from the initial stop to appellate review. To reflect
the dozens of relevant federal and state cases decided since the last edition, this
edition includes new, revised, and reorganized sections on such topics as
— the lawful justifications for a stop, from inspection violations to po-
lice observations of possible drug exchanges;
— extraterritorial jurisdiction, including issues surrounding special po-
lice officers, citizen arrests, and mutual aid agreements;
— exit orders, from what situations and knowledge of the officer may
influence their use to who has the standing to challenge them;
— patfrisks, both of persons and containers;
— impoundment, including the reasons for impoundment and when al-
ternatives are appropriate;
— warrantless searches, from issues regarding probable cause and the
plain view doctrine to those involving drug searches, interior pro-
tective searches, and searches incident to arrest;
— OUI detection, including additional screening at roadblocks;
— suppression of evidence, from motions and reconsideration of mo-
tions to standing to challenge searches, as well as alternative bases
for searches such as independent and intervening acts and inevita-
ble discovery;
— passenger issues, including searches and patfrisks, exit orders, and
passenger identification and detention; and
— appellate issues, such as the appellate court’s supplementing of
facts found by the lower court.
In addition to these changes, this 2016 Edition includes a new appendix contain-
ing a list of motor vehicle topics examined by the U.S. Supreme Court and the
cases relevant to each topic, as well as an updated table of authorities and index.
ii Flaschner Judicial Institute
The 2016 Edition of the Benchbook has been reviewed by a Flaschner Judicial
Institute editorial committee chaired by former Supreme Judicial Court Justice
John M. Greaney and is being distributed to every trial judge in the Common-
wealth who sits on criminal matters. The Flaschner Judicial Institute wishes to
thank Justice Greaney and current committee members Justice William F. Sulli-
van, Justice Cathleen E. Campbell, and Justice Kevin J. O’Dea for their review
of the 2016 Edition of the Benchbook.
Flaschner trusts that you will find the 2016 Edition of the Massachusetts Motor
Vehicle Stops Benchbook a useful addition to your library.
Robert J. Brink
Executive Vice President
Flaschner Judicial Institute
Flaschner Judicial Institute iii
INTRODUCTION
The volume of cases in which, as a result of a motor vehicle stop, defendants
seek to have suppressed evidence gathered from a search of the defendants’ per-
son or from the vehicle in which the defendants occupied or had an expectation
of privacy is reflective of the complexity of the law and the often unique cir-
cumstances that surround the state action. While it is not possible in each case to
apply in a mechanical fashion the facts to the law as developed, our jurispru-
dence has examined many of the contours of police-motorist interaction. Though
not intended to be exhaustive, it is the goal of this benchbook to provide an un-
derstanding of the continuum of suppression issues—from expectation of pri-
vacy through appeal—that the prosecutor, defense counsel, and the court face,
and, as a product of that understanding, it is hoped that this benchbook will pro-
vide each participant with a framework in which to examine and argue the statu-
tory and constitutional issues consistent with what is demanded by the U.S.
Constitution, the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights, and the Massachusetts
General Laws.
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CONTENTS
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1 EXPECTATION OF PRIVACY ......................................................... 1
1.1 Automobile Parked in Driveway ...................................................... 1
1.1.1 Generally.................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Police Officer’s Technical Trespass onto Driveway; Effect ...... 2
1.2 Interior of Motor Vehicle ................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Areas Where an Expectation of Privacy Exists.......................... 2
1.2.2 Covered Items in Area Not Otherwise Subject to Privacy
Expectation ................................................................................ 3
1.3 Equipment and Safety Features ........................................................ 4
2 EXISTENCE OF A STOP/SEIZURE/SEARCH................................ 4
2.1 Following a Motor Vehicle .............................................................. 4
2.1.1 Merely Following....................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Pursuit; Criteria Implicating Constitutional Rights.................... 5
2.2 Roadblock......................................................................................... 6
2.3 Random License Plate Check; Random Stop to Check
Documents........................................................................................ 6
2.4 Activation of Lights.......................................................................... 6
2.4.1 Context....................................................................................... 6
2.4.1.1 Non–Community Caretaking............................................... 6
2.4.1.2 Community Caretaking ....................................................... 7
2.4.2 Civil Infraction........................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Threshold Inquiry....................................................................... 8
2.4.3.1 Moving Vehicle ................................................................... 8
2.4.3.2 Parked Vehicle..................................................................... 8
2.5 Use of Flashlight or Take-Down Lights ........................................... 8
2.6 Use of Alley Lights on Moving Vehicle .......................................... 9
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2.7 Approaching Parked Vehicle ..........................................................10
2.7.1 Investigatory Purpose ...............................................................10
2.7.1.1 Merely Approaching ..........................................................10
2.7.1.2 Blocking.............................................................................11
2.7.2 Community-Caretaking Purpose ..............................................11
2.8 Canine Sniff of Exterior of Motor Vehicle .....................................12
2.8.1 Exterior Sniff Where There Is Reasonable Suspicion
of Criminal Activity .................................................................12
2.8.2 Exterior Sniff Not Search Under Article 14 .............................14
2.8.3 Exterior Sniff Occurring During Routine Traffic Stop ............15
3 LAWFUL JUSTIFICATIONS FOR A STOP...................................15
3.1 Administrative Inspection of Commercial Vehicle.........................15
3.2 Civil Motor Vehicle Infraction .......................................................15
3.2.1 Generally ..................................................................................15
3.2.2 Type of Violation .....................................................................16
3.2.2.1 Equipment Violation ..........................................................16
3.2.2.2 Traffic Violation ................................................................16
3.2.2.3 Inspection Violation...........................................................16
3.2.3 Level of Police Belief Required ...............................................17
3.2.3.1 Dependent on Type of Violation........................................17
3.2.3.2 Good-Faith Belief but Officer’s Mistake of Law
or Fact ................................................................................20
3.2.4 Authorization Test Versus Pretext Test....................................21
3.2.4.1 Difference Explained; Pretextual-Stop Rule Rejected .......21
3.2.4.2 Failure to Cite for Violation Not Fatal to Subsequent
Police Action......................................................................22
3.2.5 Police Officer Defined..............................................................22
3.2.6 Length of Detention..................................................................23
3.3 Community Caretaking ...................................................................24
3.3.1 “Totally Divorced” Rule...........................................................24
3.3.1.1 Officer’s Belief of Possibility of Criminal Activity
Does Not Change Justification...........................................24
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3.3.1.2 Concern for Motorist and Concern for Public’s Safety
Justify Application of Doctrine ......................................... 25
3.3.2 Noncoercive Approach and Inquiry......................................... 26
3.3.2.1 No Preliminary Showing of Need or Reasonableness
Required ............................................................................ 26
3.3.2.2 Activation of Police Lights Does Not Transform
into Seizure........................................................................ 27
3.3.2.3 No Written Policy Required .............................................. 27
3.3.3 Applicability When Based on Anonymous Report
(Moving Vehicle)..................................................................... 28
3.3.4 License and Registration Request Does Not Turn Check
into a Seizure; Rationale .......................................................... 29
3.3.5 Exit Order Is Permissible ......................................................... 29
3.3.6 Stranded Driver and the Issue of Seizure................................. 29
3.3.7 Explicit or Invariable Directive Not Required ......................... 29
3.3.8 Approaches Deemed Lawful.................................................... 30
3.3.8.1 Massachusetts Case-Law Examples .................................. 30
3.3.8.2 Other Jurisdictions............................................................. 30
3.3.9 Approaches Deemed Unlawful ................................................ 33
3.3.9.1 Massachusetts Case-Law Examples .................................. 33
3.3.9.2 Other Jurisdictions............................................................. 33
3.4 Emergency...................................................................................... 35
3.4.1 Generally.................................................................................. 35
3.4.2 Anonymous Report of Operating Under the Influence ............ 36
3.5 Roadblock....................................................................................... 37
3.5.1 OUI Detection .......................................................................... 37
3.5.2 Homeland Security................................................................... 37
3.5.2.1 Search Analogous to Screening/Administrative Search .... 37
3.5.2.2 Two-Prong Test for Legality ............................................. 38
(a) First Prong: Search Must Not Be to Gather Evidence
for Criminal Prosecution ....................................................... 38
(b) Second Prong: Search Must Be Limited in Its Intrusiveness ... 38
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(b)(i) Advance Notice a Factor; Minimizes Search’s
Intrusiveness .................................................................39
(b)(ii) Less Intrusive Alternatives to Search Not Required.....40
3.5.3 Apprehension of a Fleeing Suspect ..........................................41
3.5.4 Roadblock Decisions Do Not Open the Door to Suspicionless
Searches and Seizures in Other Contexts .................................43
3.6 Threshold Inquiry............................................................................44
3.6.1 Based on an Officer’s Observation...........................................44
3.6.1.1 Operator Deemed Owner ...................................................44
3.6.1.2 Propriety of Stop; Based on Reasonable-Police-Officer
Test, Not Officer’s Subjective Belief.................................46
3.6.1.3 The “Good Faith” Doctrine................................................47
(a) Reliance on the Warrant..........................................................47
(b) Reliance on Other Agency Records ........................................47
(b)(i) Federal View.................................................................47
(b)(ii) Massachusetts View......................................................47
3.6.2 Based on an Informant’s Tip ....................................................49
3.6.2.1 Anonymous Tipster Versus Citizen ...................................49
3.6.2.2 Veracity and Basis of Knowledge of Tipster .....................51
(a) Veracity ...................................................................................52
(b) Basis of Knowledge ................................................................54
(c) Federal Totality-of-Circumstances Test ..................................54
(d) Concerns Regarding Police .....................................................55
(d)(i) Fabrication ....................................................................55
(d)(ii) Calculated Harassment .................................................55
(d)(iii) Arbitrary Action and Abusive Practices .......................55
(e) Concerns Regarding Anonymous Telephone Tipster .............55
3.6.3 Based on a Police Radio Broadcast ..........................................57
3.6.3.1 General Rule ......................................................................57
3.6.3.2 Description of Vehicle .......................................................60
3.6.3.3 Differences Between Report and Observation ...................60
3.6.3.4 Type of Crime Reported ....................................................61
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3.6.4 Based on a So-Called “Silent Movie” of a Possible
Drug Exchange......................................................................... 61
3.6.4.1 Observed Interaction and Exchange .................................. 62
3.6.4.2 Observed Interaction but No Exchange............................. 63
3.6.4.3 Observed Interaction and Ride to Nowhere ...................... 64
3.6.4.4 Collective Knowledge and Statements of Buyer ............... 64
4 UNLAWFUL JUSTIFICATIONS FOR A STOP ............................ 65
4.1 Hunch ............................................................................................. 65
4.2 Contraband Interdiction Roadblock ............................................... 66
4.2.1 Contraband Defined ................................................................. 66
4.2.2 Reason...................................................................................... 66
4.3 License and Registration Check ..................................................... 67
4.4 Selective Enforcement Based on Race or Ethnicity ....................... 67
4.5 Warrant for Search of Residence.................................................... 67
4.5.1 Search of Vehicle on Way to Residence .................................. 67
4.5.2 Curtilage Issues ........................................................................ 68
THE STOP ITSELF
5 EXTRATERRITORIAL JURISDICTION........................................ 71
5.1 Police Territory Not Always Determined by Imaginary
Boundary Lines .............................................................................. 71
5.2 Sources of Authority Recognized................................................... 72
5.2.1 Fresh Pursuit ............................................................................ 72
5.2.1.1 Common Law: “Fresh Felony Pursuit” ............................. 72
5.2.1.2 Statutory Authority: Fresh Pursuit for Misdemeanor
or Felony............................................................................ 73
(a) Pursuit Does Not Require Activation of Lights or Siren ........ 73
(b) Pursuit Justified Only for Arrestable Offenses Occurring
in Police Officer’s Jurisdiction.............................................. 75
(b)(i) Police Knowledge of Arrestable Offense Required ..... 75
(b)(ii) Collective-Knowledge Doctrine Meets Requirement .. 75
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(b)(iii) “Some Reason to Believe” Is Level of Knowledge
Required........................................................................76
(c) Pursuit in Unmarked Police Cruiser by Plain-Clothed
Officer ....................................................................................76
5.2.1.3 Authority Measured by Objective Standard.......................77
5.2.2 Aid Requested by Police ..........................................................77
5.2.3 Mutual Aid Agreement.............................................................78
5.2.4 Specially Sworn City or Town Police Officer..........................79
5.2.4.1 Statutory Authority: G.L. c. 41, § 99 .................................79
5.2.4.2 Purpose...............................................................................79
5.2.4.3 Prerequisites to Invocation.................................................80
5.2.5 Specially Sworn State Police Officer .......................................80
5.2.5.1 Statutory Authority: G.L. c. 22C, § 63 ..............................80
5.2.5.2 Geographical Scope of Authority ......................................81
5.2.6 Brookline Police Acting in Boston...........................................82
5.2.7 Private Citizen ..........................................................................82
5.2.7.1 Common-Law Standard .....................................................82
5.2.7.2 Relaxed Standard Where Citizen Is a Police Officer
and Crime Is a Felony ........................................................84
5.3 Sources of Authority Not Recognized ............................................85
5.3.1 Emergency Exception...............................................................85
5.3.2 Terry Stop.................................................................................85
5.3.3 Stop to Deliver Copy of a Civil Motor Vehicle Infraction.......86
5.4 Remedy for Unlawful Extraterritorial Stop.....................................87
5.5 Out-of-State Stops...........................................................................88
5.5.1 Common Law; Look to the State in Which Stop Occurred......88
5.5.2 Interstate Fresh-Pursuit Laws ...................................................88
5.5.2.1 Massachusetts ....................................................................88
5.5.2.2 Connecticut ........................................................................89
5.5.2.3 New Hampshire..................................................................91
5.5.2.4 New York...........................................................................93
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5.5.2.5 Rhode Island...................................................................... 94
5.5.2.6 Vermont............................................................................. 95
6 SCOPE OF INTRUSION ................................................................... 97
7 TERRY STOP VERSUS ARREST .................................................... 99
7.1 Degree-of-Intrusiveness Distinction............................................... 99
7.2 Blocking Vehicle .......................................................................... 100
7.2.1 At Minimum a Terry Stop...................................................... 100
7.2.2 Policy Issues Involved in Distinguishing Terry Stop
from Arrest............................................................................. 101
7.3 Seizure of Keys............................................................................. 102
7.4 Detention of Individual................................................................. 102
7.4.1 Placing Motorist in Police Cruiser ......................................... 102
7.4.2 Length of Detention ............................................................... 103
7.5 Display of Weapons ..................................................................... 103
7.5.1 No Bright-Line Rule; Reasonableness Inquiry ........................ 103
7.5.2 Safety Justification................................................................. 104
7.5.3 The “Hobson’s Choice” Rationale......................................... 104
7.6 Considerations in Allowing Police to Adapt to Particular
Circumstances............................................................................... 104
8 APPROACH AND CONTACT; FURTIVE MOVEMENTS........ 106
8.1 What Is at Issue ............................................................................ 106
8.1.1 Not Forcing Officer to Gamble with Personal Safety ............ 106
8.1.2 Citizen’s Right to Make Movement....................................... 106
8.1.3 Avoiding Turning Any Movement into Furtive Movement ... 107
8.2 General Meaning Ascribed to Furtive Movement ........................ 107
8.3 Typical Factors Considered in Furtive-Movement Analysis........ 108
8.4 Police Officer’s Testimony; Reasonable-Person Analysis ........... 109
8.5 Furtive Movement as Reason for Search or Patfrisk .................... 110
8.6 Routine Traffic Stop Completed; Prior Furtive Movement
as Reason to Continue Detention.................................................. 110
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9 EXIT ORDER....................................................................................111
9.1 Generally.......................................................................................111
9.2 Routine Traffic Stop......................................................................111
9.2.1 Fourth Amendment: As a Matter of Course to Both Driver
and Passenger .........................................................................111
9.2.2 Article 14: Reasonable-Safety Justification ...........................112
9.2.2.1 Article 14 Rationale .........................................................112
9.2.2.2 Safety-Belief Threshold ...................................................113
(a) Generally ...............................................................................113
(b) Belief Measured by “Reasonable” Police Officer Standard....113
(b)(i) Standard Applied in Reviewing “Reasonableness”
of Belief ......................................................................113
(b)(ii) Testimony by Officer That Fear Existed Not
Necessary ....................................................................114
(c) Factors Alone Insufficient to Create Reasonable Belief .......115
(c)(i) Nervous Appearance...................................................115
(c)(ii) Inability to Produce Identification ..............................115
(c)(iii) Police Outnumbered ...................................................116
(c)(iv) High-Crime Area ........................................................116
(c)(v) Suspected Narcotic Involvement ................................116
(c)(vi) Gang Membership.......................................................116
(c)(vii) Prior Weapons Arrest..................................................117
9.2.3 Exit Order May Be Issued to Conduct Search..........................117
9.2.4 Exit Order May Be Issued for Valid Investigatory Purpose.....117
9.2.5 Exit Order May Precede Threshold Inquiry ...........................119
9.2.6 Exit Order Not Dependent on Immediate Threat ...................119
9.3 Community Caretaking .................................................................120
9.4 Standing to Challenge Lawfulness................................................120
10 PATFRISK.........................................................................................120
10.1 Standard ........................................................................................120
10.2 Of a Person....................................................................................121
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10.3 Of a Container .............................................................................. 122
10.4 Waiting for Backup ...................................................................... 123
11 THRESHOLD INQUIRY................................................................. 123
11.1 Miranda Warnings........................................................................ 123
11.2 Expanding Threshold Inquiry and Prolonging Detention ............ 124
SEIZURES OF MOTOR VEHICLES
12 IMPOUNDMENT ............................................................................. 127
12.1 Generally ...................................................................................... 127
12.2 Community-Caretaking Justifications .......................................... 128
12.2.1 Generally................................................................................ 128
12.2.2 Vehicle Disabled, Illegally Parked, or Impeding Traffic ....... 128
12.2.3 Postarrest; Vehicle on Private Property ................................. 129
12.2.3.1 Arrest Unrelated to Property; “Imperiled” Vehicle
Exception......................................................................... 129
12.2.3.2 Arrest Related to Premises .............................................. 129
12.3 Motor Vehicle Parked in Private Lot ............................................. 130
12.3.1 Vehicle Parked at Time of Defendant’s Arrest in Vicinity.... 130
12.3.2 Vehicle Parked at Location Unrelated to Where Arrest
Occurred................................................................................. 132
12.3.3 Vehicle Stopped at the Direction of Police ............................ 133
12.4 Consideration of Practical Alternatives to Impoundment ............ 134
12.5 Impoundment Not Dependent on Arrest ...................................... 136
12.6 Impoundment Allows Officer to Perform Acts Without
Implicating Bishop........................................................................ 136
12.6.1 The “Minimally Necessary” Rule .......................................... 137
12.6.2 Exigency Theory as Basis to Enter Vehicle........................... 137
13 CRIME CONNECTION .................................................................. 138
14 FORFEITURE .................................................................................. 139
14.1 Statutory Authority....................................................................... 139
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14.2 Statutory Interpretations................................................................139
14.2.1 Merely Possessing Contraband...............................................139
14.2.2 Conveying a Party to a Drug Transaction ..............................140
14.2.3 Exercising Dominion and Control Over the Vehicle..............140
14.2.4 Carrying Drugs on the Person ................................................140
14.3 Underlying Philosophy .................................................................141
14.4 Criminal Case Requirement ..........................................................141
14.5 Exemptions from Forfeiture..........................................................141
14.6 Time Period to Initiate Proceeding ...............................................142
14.7 Right to Jury Trial .........................................................................142
14.8 Burden of Proof.............................................................................143
14.9 Double Jeopardy ...........................................................................145
14.10 Incident-to-Forfeiture Exception to Warrant Requirement...........145
WARRANTLESS SEARCHES
15 SCOPE................................................................................................149
16 WARRANTLESS SEARCH OF MOTOR VEHICLE
ON A PUBLIC WAY ........................................................................149
16.1 Original Formulation of the Automobile Exception: Probable
Cause and Exigency ......................................................................149
16.2 Current Formulation of the Automobile Exception: Probable
Cause Alone ..................................................................................150
16.2.1 Fourth Amendment.................................................................150
16.2.2 Article 14 ................................................................................150
16.2.2.1 Moving Vehicle to Secure Location Does Not Alter
Current Formulation.........................................................152
16.2.2.2 Timing of Search Once Vehicle Is Removed Is
Critical .............................................................................153
16.2.3 Meaning of Probable Cause....................................................154
17 WARRANTLESS SEARCH OF MOTOR VEHICLE
PARKED ON PRIVATE PROPERTY............................................155
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18 DRUG SEARCH ............................................................................... 158
18.1 Marijuana...................................................................................... 158
18.2 Other Drugs .................................................................................. 160
19 SEARCH BASED ON CONSENT................................................... 165
19.1 General Principles ........................................................................ 165
19.2 Miscellaneous Issues .................................................................... 166
19.2.1 Consent Must Be Voluntary; “Knowing and Intelligent”
Waiver Not Required ............................................................. 166
19.2.2 Consent May Be Found Even if Arrest Occurred Prior
to Consent .............................................................................. 166
19.2.3 Consent Not Dependent on Advisement of Right to Refuse... 166
19.2.4 Consent Not Dependent on Informing Person of Right
to Demand Warrant................................................................ 167
19.2.5 Consent Obtained Through Exploitation of Prior Illegality
by Officer Is Invalid............................................................... 167
19.2.6 Search with Consent Limited to Extent Individual Has
Consented............................................................................... 168
20 INTERIOR PROTECTIVE SEARCH............................................ 169
20.1 Generally ...................................................................................... 169
20.2 Two-Part Test for Legality: Permissible Initiation and Scope ..... 169
20.3 Knowledge of Presence of Weapon; Reasonable Concern
for Safety ...................................................................................... 170
20.4 Search of Interior Prior to Exit Order........................................... 172
20.5 Search of Interior While Suspect Outside Automobile ................ 172
21 PROTECTIVE SWEEP ................................................................... 173
22 SEARCH INCIDENT TO ARREST ............................................... 173
22.1 Generally ...................................................................................... 173
22.2 Difference Between Search Incident to Arrest and Terry-
Type Search .................................................................................. 173
22.3 Probable Cause to Search Versus Arrest; Distinction
and Importance ............................................................................. 174
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22.4 General Laws c. 276, § 1...............................................................175
22.4.1 Purpose of Statute...................................................................176
22.4.2 History Behind Exclusionary Amendment to Statute.............176
22.4.3 Fourth Amendment and Article 14 Limitations......................177
22.4.4 Policy Concerns......................................................................177
22.4.4.1 Pretextual Searches ..........................................................177
22.4.4.2 Identity Searches; Limiting the Breadth of G.L. c. 276,
§ 1 ....................................................................................177
22.4.5 Search Preceding Formal Arrest; Effect .................................178
22.4.6 Contemporaneous Requirement .............................................178
22.4.7 Search Violating G.L. c. 276, § 1 but Justified on Other
Grounds ..................................................................................179
22.4.8 Grounds Stated Do Not Support Search but Other Grounds
Do; Rule .................................................................................179
22.4.9 Search of Vehicle Before Search of Arrestee; Effect .............179
22.4.10 Search Incident to Arrest Leads to Independent Search
Incident to Arrest ....................................................................180
22.5 Search Area ...................................................................................180
22.5.1 Generally Limited to Area Within Arrestee’s Immediate
Control at Time of Arrest .......................................................180
22.5.1.1 Meaning of “Within Immediate Control” ........................181
22.5.1.2 The “Lunge Theory” Definition.......................................181
22.5.2 Analyzing the Area Under the Arrestee’s Control .................182
22.5.2.1 Search Area Dependent on the Circumstances ................182
22.5.2.2 Factors Considered in Analysis........................................182
22.5.3 Case Examples Involving Arrestee.........................................183
22.5.3.1 Defendant Standing Outside Vehicle ...............................183
22.5.3.2 Defendant Seated in Police Cruiser .................................184
22.5.3.3 Defendant Removed from Area of Vehicle......................184
22.5.4 Area Under Passenger’s Control ............................................184
22.6 Container Carried by Arrestee ......................................................185
22.6.1 Fourth Amendment.................................................................185
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22.6.2 Article 14 ............................................................................... 186
22.7 City Ordinance as Basis for Arrest ............................................... 186
23 STORAGE SEARCH........................................................................ 187
24 INVENTORY SEARCH................................................................... 187
24.1 Noninvestigatory Prerequisite ...................................................... 187
24.2 Lawfulness of Search Based on Two Inquiries ............................ 188
24.3 Three Interests Protected .............................................................. 188
24.4 Standardized Written Procedures Required Under Article 14...... 189
24.4.1 Reason Written Policy Required............................................ 190
24.4.2 Proof of Policy ....................................................................... 190
24.4.2.1 Oral Testimony May Be Basis ........................................ 190
24.4.2.2 Introduction of Policy Avoids Potential Hearsay
or Best Evidence Problem ............................................... 191
24.4.3 Breadth of Policy ................................................................... 191
24.4.3.1 Locked Trunk .................................................................. 191
24.4.3.2 Unlocked Closed Containers ........................................... 192
24.4.3.3 Closed Containers Within Closed Containers ................. 192
24.4.3.4 Containers Containing Valuables .................................... 193
24.4.3.5 Other Areas...................................................................... 194
24.4.4 Failure to Properly Complete Inventory Form......................... 194
24.5 Limited Search Constitutes Inventory Search .............................. 195
24.6 Inventory Search and Impoundment Require Different
Analysis ........................................................................................ 196
24.7 Police Officer’s Subjective Belief ................................................ 196
25 PLAIN-VIEW DOCTRINE ............................................................. 197
25.1 Constitutional Overview............................................................... 197
25.2 Four-Part Test for Seizure of Objects........................................... 197
25.3 Issues Surrounding the Test.......................................................... 198
25.3.1 Being Lawfully in Position .................................................... 198
25.3.2 Observation of Objects Capable of Both Lawful
and Unlawful Use .................................................................. 199
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25.3.2.1 Generally..........................................................................199
25.3.2.2 Constitutional Concern Raised.........................................200
25.4 Observation of Item Versus Seizure of Item.................................201
OUI DETECTION
26 ROADBLOCKS.................................................................................203
26.1 Written Guidelines Required to Establish the Reasonableness
of the Action .................................................................................203
26.1.1 “Reasonableness” Requirement of the Fourth Amendment
and Article 14 .........................................................................204
26.1.2 McGeoghegan Guidelines ......................................................205
26.1.3 Site-Selection Requirement ....................................................206
26.1.4 Compliance with Guidelines ..................................................206
26.1.4.1 Constitutionality Measured by Compliance.....................206
26.1.4.2 Strict (Not Substantial) Compliance Required.................207
26.2 Commonwealth Need Not Prove That No Less Intrusive
Measures Are Available................................................................207
26.3 Further Screening..........................................................................209
26.3.1 Officer’s Discretion ................................................................209
26.3.2 Odor of Alcohol Alone Sufficient ..........................................209
27 FIELD SOBRIETY TESTING.........................................................210
27.1 Fourth Amendment and Article 14 Implicated .............................210
27.2 Article 12’s Self-Incrimination Provision Not Implicated............210
27.3 Miranda Warnings Not Required .................................................210
27.4 Performance Request Must Be Based on Reasonable-Suspicion
Standard ........................................................................................210
27.4.1 Combined Observations Rise to Required Standard ..............211
27.4.2 Suppression Is Remedy Where Suspicion Is Lacking ............212
27.5 Operator’s Right of Refusal Not Recognized, but Compulsion
Prohibited......................................................................................212
Flaschner Judicial Institute xix
SUPPRESSION OF EVIDENCE
28 MOTIONS TO SUPPRESS.............................................................. 213
28.1 Particularity of Motion ................................................................. 213
28.2 Supporting Affidavit..................................................................... 214
28.3 Motion for Reconsideration.......................................................... 215
29 STANDING TO CHALLENGE SEARCH..................................... 216
29.1 Standing Separate from Expectation of Privacy........................... 216
29.2 Automatic ..................................................................................... 216
29.2.1 The Massachusetts Rule......................................................... 216
29.2.2 Rationale ................................................................................ 218
29.2.3 Denial of Ownership of Item ................................................. 218
29.3 Target............................................................................................ 218
29.3.1 Theory Not Adopted but Not Rejected .................................. 219
29.3.2 Reason Behind Reluctance to Adopt Theory ......................... 220
29.4 Derivative ..................................................................................... 221
29.5 Expectation of Privacy ................................................................. 222
30 INDEPENDENT AND INTERVENING ACTS AND
INEVITABLE DISCOVERY........................................................... 222
PASSENGER ISSUES
31 DETENTION, IDENTIFICATION, AND THRESHOLD
INQUIRIES ....................................................................................... 225
32 EXIT ORDERS ................................................................................. 225
33 SEARCHES AND PATFRISKS ...................................................... 226
33.1 Passenger Versus Passenger’s Containers .................................... 226
33.2 Narcotic Cases .............................................................................. 227
33.3 Automatic Companion Rule ......................................................... 229
34 STANDING TO CHALLENGE SEARCH OR SEIZURE ........... 229
xx Flaschner Judicial Institute
STANDARD OF APPELLATE REVIEW
35 FINDINGS OF LOWER COURT ...................................................231
36 COURT INDEPENDENTLY REVIEWS APPLICATION
OF CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES..........................................233
37 COURT MAY ADOPT DIFFERENT THEORY ...........................233
38 COURT MAY CONSIDER ISSUES NOT RAISED BELOW......233
APPENDIX: U.S. SUPREME COURT CASES ................................235
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES .................................................................243
INDEX .......................................................................................................267