markets, regula.on, and the compe..ve processmasonlec.org/site/rte_uploads/files/session 4 -...
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Markets,Regula.on,andtheCompe..veProcess
Global Antitrust Institute
Kahuku, Hawaii
November 2015
1October30,2012
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EfficiencyofMarketAlloca9on
• MaximizingSocietalWelfare– Inequilibrium,thesizeofthepie–producer+consumersurplus–ismaximized.
• Pricesasinforma9on– Marketsproduceinforma9oninformofprices– Pricessendsignalstoproducersandconsumersaboutrela9vescarci9es
– Incen9vestoenter– Pricecoordinatesac9vi9esamongstrangers
2
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MarketDemandCurve
3
Price
Quantity
D = Marginal Value Curve
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DemandCurve
4
Price
Quantity
D = Marginal Value Curve
q1
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DemandCurve
5
Price
Quantity
D = Marginal Value Curve
q1
p1
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LAWOFDEMANDàInverserela9onshipbetweenprice&quan9tydemanded,ceterisparibus
6
Price
Quantity
D = MV
q1
p1
q2
p2
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LAWOFDEMANDàderivedfromra9onalbehavioramongtradersaSemp9ngtomaximizeu/lity
7
Price
Quantity
D = MV
q1
p1
q2
p2
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LAWOFSUPPLYàderivedfromra9onalbehaviorandtheideaofopportunitycost
8
Price
Quantity
Supply = Marginal Cost Curve
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LAWOFSUPPLYàexpandingsupplyinthismarket,pullsmoreinputsfromothers
9
Price
Quantity
Supply = MC
q1 q2
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Equilibrium
Law 123 * GMU Lecture 1 10
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
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p*,q*proper9es
• spontaneity– compe99veauc9onprocess
• pricesignalsvalue– minimumdemand– maximumsupply
• coordinatesmaximumtotalvalue– marginalcondi9ons– resourcesusedforeveryunitwhereMV>MC
Law 123 * GMU Lecture 1 11
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MaximizingSocialWelfare(=CS+PS)
12
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
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ConsumerSurplus(=WTP–price)
13
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
CS
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Producers’Surplus(=price–oppcost)
14
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
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SocialWelfare(=CS+PS)
15
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS
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SoHere’sthePie(SW=CS+PS)
16
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS
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PriceRegula9on&BarrierstoEntry
• Pricesasinforma9on– Marketsproduceinforma9oninformofprices– Pricessendsignalstoproducersandconsumersaboutrela9vescarci9es
– Pricecoordinatesac9vi9esamongstrangers
• Welfareimplica9onsofregula9on– Barrierstoentry
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Price
Quantity
S
D
5
6 12
Shortage 12 - 6 = 6
If price is too low…
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Price
Quantity
S
D
9
14
Surplus 14 - 6 = 8
6
If price is too high…
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Impact of Price Restrictions • Priceceiling:maximumlegalpriceBELOWtheequilibriummarketprice• Examples:gaspricesin70s,rentcontrol,pricegouginglaws,prohibi9onsoncompensa9onfororgandona9on
• Pricefloor:minimumlegalpriceABOVEtheequilibriummarketprice• Examples:minimumwage
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Price
Quantity
S
D
P*
Q*
Ceiling Price
Qs
PF
Impact of a Price Ceiling
Shortage
Qd
Non Pecuniary Price
Full Economic Price
Pecuniary Price
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ImpactofaPriceFloor
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Federal Minimum Wage Relative to Wages in Manufacturing, 1938–2009
July22,2015 EconomicIns9tuteforLawProfessors 24
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MinimumWage• Only3.9%ofhourlyworkersearnatorbelowminimumwage• 48%are16-24.• 65%workpart9me.• 23%haveyettograduatehighschool• 31%haveahighschooldegree• 37%havehighschooldegreeandsomecollege
25
0% 2% 4% 6% 8%
10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Perc
enta
ge o
f Wor
kfor
ce
Age Cohort
Percentage of Workers Earning at or Below Minimum Wage by Age
At or below Minimum Wage
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Empiricales9matesoftheimpactoftheminimumwageonemployment
– Decreaseinemploymentofteenagers:elas9cityofteenageemploymentwithrespecttochangesintheminimumwagebetween-0.2to-0.6.
– Decreasesinemploymentoflow-wageworkersthatearnatorneartheminimumwagebeforeitisincreased:elas9cityoftheiremploymentwithrespecttochangesintheminimumwageis-0.12.
– ButseeCard&Krueger(AER,1994):smallorevenslightlyposi9veimpactonemployment.
– Butbutsee:Neumark&Wascher(AER2000):Card&Kruegerresultsturnnega9veusingdifferentdata.
26
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BarrierstoEntry:Occupa9onalLicensing
• Requirementofgovernmentcer9fica9ontoenterprofession• Openmandateseduca9onalrequirementsandtest:
– E.g.,8monthsofeduca9ontobecosmetologistinNY;3yearstobecomeasecurityguardinMichigan
• ¼USworkersneedalicense—5xmorethan1950s• Examples:
– Doctors– Den9sts– Lawyers– Florists
27
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EffectofLicensingRequirement
28
Wages
Number of Workers
Supply2
EntryLimit
Supply1
W2
W1
Q2 Q1
Demand
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Innova9ontoLowerCosts
31
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
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Innova9ontoImproveProducts
32
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
MV’
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SocialGains–butInefficient?
33
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
MV’
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Supposenewoutput=qi
34
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
MV’
qi
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sonewprice=pi
35
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
MV’
qi
pi
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Dead-weightloss
36
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
MV’
qi
pi
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But“innova9on”surplusdominates
37
p*
Quantity
MC
MV
Price
q*
PS
CS MC’
MV’
qi
pi
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F.A.Hayek
• ‘Nobodycanbeagreateconomist
whoisonlyaneconomist—andIameventemptedtoaddthattheeconomistwhoisonlyaneconomistislikelytobecomeanuisanceifnotaposi9vedanger’
--F.A.Hayek
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HayekonMarketPricesandInforma9on
F.A.Hayek,TheUseofKnowledgeinSociety,35Am.Econ.Rev.519(1945).
• Itismorethanametaphortodescribethepricesystemas
akindofmachineryforregisteringchange,orasystemoftelecommunica9onswhichenablesindividualproducerstowatchmerelythemovementofafewpointers,asanengineermightwatchthehandsofafewdials,inordertoadjusttheirac9vi9estochangesofwhichtheymayneverknowmorethanisreflectedinthepricemovement.
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HayekonMarketPricesandInforma9on
F.A.Hayek,TheUseofKnowledgeinSociety,35Am.Econ.Rev.519(1945).
• Wemustlookatthepricesystemassuchamechanismforcommunica9nginforma9onifwewanttounderstanditsrealfunc9on.
• Themostsignificantfactaboutthissystemistheeconomy
ofknowledgewithwhichitoperates,orhowliSletheindividualpar9cipantsneedtoknowinordertobeabletotaketherightac9on.
• [O]nlythemostessen9alinforma9onispassedonandpassedononlytothoseconcerned.
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NYCWithSurgePricing
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NYCWithSurgePricing
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NYCWithoutSurgePricing
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UBERinLow-IncomeNeighborhoodsinLosAngeles
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Sydney,December14,2015
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Transitional Gains Trap (Tullock 1975)
• The new generation faces the costs of the licensing requirements. – These costs must be factored in to any notion of
lifetime returns, considering those people’s alternative life paths.
• Even if the subsequent generations earn only normal returns, they have as much incentive to oppose abolition of licensing as the first generation had to support its imposition – transitional gains trap.
• The beneficiaries end with the first generation of privilege, yet occupational licensing policies continue one generation after another because of transitional interests.
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Adver9singasNon-PriceCompe99on• What is the impact of the grade cards on
– consumers’ restaurant choices – restaurants’ hygiene quality – incidence of foodborne illness?
• Why did some restaurants have high hygiene
scores before grade cards? • Do grade cards change the behavior of restaurant
inspectors?
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Impact of Grade Cards on Consumers’ Choices
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Impact of Grade Cards on Consumers’ Choices
• Before grade cards, restaurant revenue is insensitive to changes in inspection scores
• After grade cards, revenue responds to grades
– A grade: + 5.7% – B grade: + 0.7% – C grade: – 1.0%
• Total industry revenue increases by 3.3% ($250
million increase in LA)
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Impact of Grade Cards on Average Inspection Scores
• BEFORE AFTER DIFF • ---------------------------------------------------------------- • ALL restaurants 81.6 88.7 7.1 • Chains 87.1 92.6 5.5 • Zagat guide 78.4 88.6 10.2 • Chinese food 78.4 86.3 7.9 • Mexican food 82.5 88.9 6.4 • Pizza 84.2 89.7 5.5 • Low income areas 80.5 88.5 8.0 • ------------------------------------------------------------------ • • All entries are statistically different from the
mean for all restaurants
Aretheseimprovementschangesinactualqualityoffoodarisingfromgradecards?Ordotheyrepresentchangesinbehaviorofinspectors?Somethingelse?
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• Compare the number of food-related hospitalizations in LA with – non-food-related hospitalizations in LA – food-related hospitalizations outside LA
• Hospitalizations for which 90% or more of cases are transmitted via food. This includes
Salmonella Shigellosis Amebiasis E. coli Tularemia Brucellosis Listeriosis Other food-poisoning
Impact of Grade Cards on Foodborne Illnesses
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Impact of Grade Cards on Foodborne Illnesses