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Index

Underlined page numbers identify a page citation that continues on the pages thatfollow.

absorbed dose, 72, 79, 354, 516absorber, 233

crystal, 263layer

thick, 9thin, 7, 10, 18, 233

material, 257uranium, 255

plate, 295absorption, 35

coefficient, 38, 515cross section, 35, 38edge, 32energy, physical, 72full-, peak, 486muon

detector, 488measurement, 466

of electrons, 27of hadrons, 41of photons, intensity, 515shower, 233total-

peak, calibration, 259scintillator calorimeter, 312, 495

X-ray, high, 291abundance, elemental,

cosmic-ray, 180

accelerator, 82AGS, 492charged particles, 516circular, 517cosmic, 87linear, 82, 517test beam, 79, 259

acceptanceelectron, 294range of, 489

acceptor level, 114accident

dosimetry, 503radiation, 81, 503

accommodation period of theeye, 122

accuracy, see resolutionacetone, 351acoustic detection techniques, 258activation

function, 457neutron, 484of hair, 503

activator centre, 124activity, 516

of 1 g radium, 72ADC, 188, 275, 392, 531

conversion time, 422, 423, 425

599

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information

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600 Index

ADC (cont.)differential non-linearity, 423, 425flash, 188, 422–423parameters, 421successive approximation, 423Wilkinson, 423–425

adiabatic light guide, 130aerial survey, 484aerogel

as Cherenkov medium, 282, 286, 367Cherenkov-counter system (ACC),

367, 369silica, 144, 145, 367

AES, 480after-discharge, 108ageing, xxi, 68, 346, 347, 530

constructional features, 351rate, 349tests, 350wire chamber, 346, 349, 350

AGS accelerator, 492air

capacitor, cylindrical, 97Cherenkov telescope, 504gap magnet, 332, 336light guide, 146range of particles, 26shower

Auger experiment, 498extensive, see extensive air shower

(EAS)albedo, 238

fluctuations, leakagedue to, 238

ALEPHdetector, 450experiment, 445, 461time-projection chamber, 211,

281, 282ALICE, 328alignment data, 437α particles, 26, 298

energy loss, 7range, 26

α spectroscopy, 117alternative hypotheses, 281

aluminiumcalorimeter, 257granules, 266scattering foil, 481

AMANDA, 320-II layout, 321

ambiguityexclusion, 191left–right, 192, 444

americium-241, decay-levelscheme, 597

amplificationcurrent, 132gas, see gas amplification

amplifier, 397–401bandwidth, 399–400charge-sensitive, 116,

398–401feedback, 398frequency response, 399–400input impedance, 400–401low-noise, 116rise time, 416simple, 399–400virtual ground, 401

amplitudedistribution, 294, 295signal, 92-to-digital converter, 275

AMS experiment, 292analogue-to-digital converter, see

ADCanalysis

classical cut stream, 460cut, 460neural-net, 460of data, 436, 532of detector system, electronic noise,

409–413of pictures, bubble chamber, 163pulse height, 392selection criteria, 439

AND, 417Anger camera, 468angiography, dual-energy subtraction,

472






Index 601

angleCherenkov, see Cherenkov anglecritical, for internal reflection, 145deflection, 330, 331Lorentz, 48, 201, 205multiple scattering, 18, 333, 514of emission

scintillation photons, 276transition-radiation photons, 148

photon, 287measurement, 243scattering, 34

polar, 339scattering, distribution, 18solid, coverage, 197stereo, 201

Belle CDC, 364zenith, 79

angular distribution, see distribution,angular

angular resolution, see resolution,angular

annealing, 355, 356annihilation, 11, 77

cross section, 12radiation, 475

anodecharge deposition, 347coating, 347current, rapidly increasing, 276segmented, 277wire, 198

deposits, 352electrostatic repulsion, 189gain change, 349gold-plated tungsten, 188, 351,

365spacing, 192thick, 107, 351thin, 97, 351

ANTARES detector, 320anti-coincidence

counter, 297requirement, 495

antineutrino, 309antiparticle, 82

APD, 138, 242application-specific IC, 421approximation, empirical, 253archaeology, 466area density, 5, 32argon

liquid, 110, 211, 256, 257counter, 110ionisation detector, 246sampling, 247

solid, 112ultrapure, 211

ARIADNE Monte Carlo, 584arrival time, 63, 277

photon, 287astronomy, γ-ray, 287, 495astroparticle experiments, 292astrophysical neutrinos, 121astrophysics, 36ATLAS

detector, 341energy resolution, 257

experiment, 328, 442transition-radiation tracker

(TRT), 289atmospheric neutrinos, 308, 319atom, pionic, 478atomic number, 19attachment of positive ions, 194attenuation

coefficient, 32, 38, 472, 515length, light, 276of photons, intensity, 21

Augerair-shower experiment, 498effect, 33electron, 33, 76, 480

spectroscopy, 480automatic pattern

recognition, 300reconstruction, 176, 180

autoradiographic techniques, 484avalanche, 276

chambermultistep, 196parallel-plate, 278






602 Index

avalanche (cont.)development, 100, 101, 106electron, 97, 103formation, 188, 346photodiode (APD), 138, 242propagation, 106secondary and tertiary, 105

averageenergy loss, see energy lossmean free path, 44, 49photon path, 238refractive index, 145

Avogadro number, 4, 578axis of a shower, 235Ayre–Thompson technique, 169

B factory, 360�B field, see magnetic fieldb parameters, 25BaBar, 328

detector, 287, 288angular resolution, 244

back-end electronics, 363background

beam, 362cosmic-ray, 294processes, 61radiation, microwave, 122reduction, 460rejection, 439WIMP searches, 265

backpropagation, 449, 458backscattering, 35Baikal detector, 320Bakelite, 277band

conduction, 112, 123forbidden, 112structure, 112valence, 112, 114, 123

bandwidth, amplifier, 399–400barn, 300baryon number, conservation, 500beam

background, 362diagnostics, 83

-dump experiment, 309energy, known, 260heavy-ion, monitoring, 476loss

monitors, 83uncontrolled, 88

mixed-particle, 281momentum, 260monoenergetic

collinear, 285neutrino, 493pencil, 476secondary, 336test, 79, 259

beams, counterrotating, 84beamstrahlung, 586Becquerel (Bq), 72, 516Belle, 328

central drift chamber (CDC), 362,364–367

detector, 361components, 361data-acquisition electronics,

382–384level-1 trigger, 382particle identification, 367, 379,

380performance, 385

ECL, 372–376energy calibration, 374experiment, 360KLM, 377–381luminosity measurement, 385TOF, 369–372trigger system, 360, 382, 383

bending radius, magnetic, 273, 330, 333Bernoulli distribution, 60β decay, 76

inverse, threshold, 307nuclear, 308

β-raydose constant, 74emitters, 77, 486

β spectroscopy, 117Bethe–Bloch relation, 3, 5, 512, 517Bhabha scattering, 86, 260






Index 603

bialkali cathode, 131bias, 440

neuron, 457reverse, see reverse bias

Big Bangneutrinos, 264, 309, 322remnants, 230

Big European Bubble Chamber(BEBC), 314, 316

binding energynuclear, 252of the electron, 34

binomial distribution, 60biological

cortical neural systems, 456effect, 71–73effectiveness, 476

neutron, relative, 299, 300relative, 72, 516

half-life, 80Birks’ constant, 127bismuth

-207, 259decay-level scheme, 596

-germanate (BGO) crystal, 362blackening, photometrically measured

and radial distribution, 177blood vessels, imaging, 471,

474Blumlein circuit, 168boiling temperature, 163bolometer, 120, 263

two-component, 120bond

covalent, molecule, 347nuclear, break up, 252

borehole investigations andtechnique, 483

Born approximation, 32boron

coating, 298trifluoride

counter, 297, 483gas, 297

borosilicate glass, 145Bose condensate, 262

boundary between media, 146emission, 147

Bragg peak, 475brain, PET scan, 470, 471branching ratio, 440breakdown voltage, static, 276bremsstrahlung, 1, 19, 77, 231,

481, 512cross section, 20energy loss, 19, 513magnetic, 77muon, 296, 336

brilliance, 31bubble chamber, 163, 518

BEBC, 314, 316bubble density, 164electronic, 211events of high complexity, 163expansion, 163hydrogen, 163large-volume, 314liquid, 165neutrino observation, 316pictures, analysis, 163size of bubbles, 166superheated state, 163synchronisation, 163vertex, holographic readout, 511

bubble formation, 163bulk

damage, 355resistivity, 277

14C method, 501cable

driver, 427impedance, 427propagation delay, 427reflections, 427–429termination, 428–429

cadmium-109, decay-level scheme, 595calcium-fluoride crystal, 177, 284, 286calibrated reference signals, 260calibration

calorimeter, 258coefficient, 259, 261






604 Index

calibration (cont.)constants, 260, 261, 374, 437, 454data, 437energy, 79, 259

Belle, 374function, 61monitoring, 259, 526of detectors, 61of time, 502on-line, 454parameters, 61pedestal, 259, 261relative, 259time dependence and stability, 260with a laser, 260, 503with cosmic-ray muons, 260with light-emitting diodes, 260with radioactive sources (e.g. noble

gases, uranium), 259calorimeter, 90, 510

aluminium, 257angular resolution, 243BaBar detector, angular

resolution, 244calibration and monitoring, 258calibration with radioactive

sources, 259cells, 438compact, 249completely contained

electromagnetic cascades, 245cryogenic, 261–263, 266, 526crystal, 239

disadvantage, 242separation capability, 294

CsI crystal, 295, 372electromagnetic, 166, 231, 438,

524, see also Belle ECLcalibration, 260CMS detector, 241, 242crystal, 294monitoring, 454parameters, 238

electron forward (EFC), 362element, response, 261energy resolution, 257, 261

escape from, 252granularity, 438hadron, 166, 249, 438, 525

compensation, 255, 256energy resolution, 257overcompensation, 256performance check, 260

high-resolution, 372homogeneity, 238ionisation, 243iron–scintillator, 249, 250, 253KTEV, 241lead-glass, 242linearity, 259longitudinal segmentation, 293marble, 257measured energy spectrum, 239micro-, 120muon, 296

efficiency determination, 454non-uniformity, 259resolution, energy dependence,

240sampling, 161, 244, 245, 312, 438

accordion type, 247calibration, 260elements, 257energy resolution, 245–247fluctuation, 246hadron, 256

scintillation counters in, 249scintillator

calibration, 260total-absorption, 312, 495

sensitive volume, 237shashlik type, 249spaghetti, 249, 525spiralling electrons, 259streamer tube, 247, 292–296temperature rise, 262thickness, 233, 238

effective, 238tile, 249tungsten, 253uranium, 259wavelength-shifter readout, 248–250






Index 605

calorimetricdetector, 211measurement, 296, 531neutrino detector, 312particle identification, 292, 529

calorimetry, 230, 524electromagnetic, Belle, 372–374

cameraAnger, 468CCD, 174Compton, 469gamma, 468, 469radiation, 467

capacitance per unit length, 99, 189capacitor, air, cylindrical, 97carbon

-14 method, 501fibre, 351ions, energy loss, 475

carrier foil, 300cascade, see also shower and extensive

air shower (EAS)electromagnetic, 178, 233, 293

Cherenkov rings, 286completely contained, 245counter, 249in the Earth atmosphere, 251, 257lateral development, 238lateral width, 234, 235longitudinal development,

234–236, 238electron-induced, 236electron–photon, 231hadron, 178, 250, 293, 297

centre of gravity, 293electromagnetic subcascades, 251in the Earth atmosphere,

251, 257invisible energy, 252, 255ionisation loss, 252lateral distribution, 255lateral width, 250length, 253longitudinal development, 250longitudinal energy

distribution, 253

lost energy, 256neutral particles, 252radius, 95 % containment, 256secondary particles, 251

in the Earth atmosphere, 250photon- and proton-induced, 250radial width, 255

cathodebialkali, 131continuous, 351deposits, 347pad, 194, 217segmentation, 106, 109strips, 190

cavityaccelerating, 83reflecting, 265

CCD detector, 174, 217CDHS experiment, 313, 314cell

killing rate, 476nucleus, 475

cellulose acetate and nitrate, 300central drift chamber (CDC), 362, 364centre of gravity

charges, 190energy deposition, 243shower, 254

longitudinal, 293centre of mass, energy and system,

336, 337ceramic substrate, 213cerium-doped glasses, 354cesium, 80, 541

-137, decay-level scheme, 595-iodide

crystal, 372, 495crystal calorimeter, 295photocathode, 286

CGRO, 497chain of resistors, 193chamber

bubble, see bubble chambercloud, see cloud chamberdischarge, 169drift, see drift chamber






606 Index

chamber (cont.)emulsion, 176flash, 257gas

-filled, 246Freon, 165

hyperbolic, 201ionisation, see ionisation chamberlifetime, 347material, outgassing, 348multistep avalanche, 196multiwire, see multiwire

(proportional) chamberneon flash, 169, 519

plastic tubes, extruded, 169parallel-plate, 257

avalanche, 278resistive plate, 277, 278, 327,

362, 377spark, see spark chamberstraw, 202, 521streamer, 167, 518time expansion, 196, 521time projection, see time-projection

chamber (TPC)tracking, 476Wilson, see cloud chamberwire, see wire chamber

chance coincidences, 63channel control, electronics, 259channel plates, 135channelling, 12characteristic times, 61, 62characteristic X rays, 33, 77,

260, 480characteristic, shower, 236, 254charge

carriergenerations, 100mobility, 44, 117number, fluctuations, 15

centre of gravity, 190colour, 447-coupled device, 174, 217deposition, anode, 347-division method, 200, 206

equivalent noise, 410–415induced, 110ion, 75mirror, 147nuclear, screening, 37particle, 273projectile, 285-sensitive amplifier, 116, 398–401space, see space, charge-to-time conversion (QTC), 366,

384charged-current interaction, 309, 317charged particle, see particle, chargedcharging resistor, 105charging-up

electrostatic, 213time, 194

Charm experiment, 314chemical abundance in a borehole, 484chemical composition of high-energy

cosmic rays, 292Cheops pyramid, 487Chephren pyramid, 487, 488Cherenkov

angle, 143, 288reconstructed, 286resolution, 286

counter, 142, 281, 287, 438, 528aerogel (ACC), 367, 369differential, 145, 282discriminating (DISC), 146gas, 144radiation hardness, 354sea water and ice, 501water, 327, 497water, large-volume, 318, 319, 500

light, 237, 258, 276, 287,500, 527

cone, 282medium

aerogel, 282, 286, 367water and ice, 258

pattern, 319photons, 143

number, 288number, total, 242






Index 607

radiation, xxi, 28, 142particle identification, 281, 528threshold energy, 242

radiator, 144, 145, 283quartz, 355

ring, 283, 285, 287, 289, 438, 500, 501distribution of radii, 284elliptically distorted, 287from electromagnetic

cascades, 286intersecting, 286technique, 288

telescope, air, 499, 504Chernobyl (isotopes), 486χ2

distribution, 444minimisation, 374

chlorine experiment, 311circuit

Blumlein, 168digital, 417–421electronic, delay, 197equivalent, 409–410integrated, see integrated circuits

civil engineering, 466cladding-fibre light guide, 249classical cut stream analysis, 460classical electron radius, 4clearance level, 76clearing field, 168, 172cloud chamber, 160, 163, 517

diffusion, 161expansion, 161

cycle, 161fast, 161

multiplate, 161cluster

KTEV calorimeter, 241model, 447of crystals, 260of energy depositions, 239, 446silver, 176

CMD-2 detector, 294, 295CMOS

inverter, 419power dissipation, 419

CMS detector, 241, 328, 338, 340coating

anode, 347boron and uranium, 298lithium-fluoride, 298

cobalt, 541-57, decay-level scheme, 592-60, decay-level scheme, 593

coilcompensation, 338pickup, 262

coincidenceanti-, counter, 297chance, 63majority, 64, 66

efficiency, 66random, 63

q-fold, 64threefold, 65twofold, 64, 65

collectiontime, electrons, 93efficiency, light, 127

collidercounterrotating beams, 84electron–positron,

particle–antiparticle,proton–antiproton, 85

linear, 84low-rate, 350muon, 85

collimator, multichannel, 469collision

cross section, 44, 45electron–electron, 11friction and stochastic force,

47, 48length, 42, 515multiple, 43µ+µ−, 85of gas molecules, 47

colourcharge, 447factor, 448

combined parameter distributions, 293compactness parameter, shower, 293






608 Index

compensationcoil, 338hadron calorimeter, 255, 256

Comptoncamera, 469edge, 128effect, 31, 33, 231

inverse, 35Gamma Ray Observatory

(CGRO), 497scattering, 1, 514

cross section, 38telescope, 50

conduction band, 112, 123confidence

interval, 58, 59level, 58, 59, 61, 445limit, 444

conservationbaryon number, 500lepton number, 492, 500particle tracks, 176

constantfine structure, 5Planck, 45, 577Rydberg, 33

containment95 % energy, 25495 % longitudinal, length, 254radius 95 %, 235, 255, 293

contaminants, 346, 347dissolve, 351silicon, 351

contamination, 46surface, 81, 503with pions, 293

contrast, image, 471controlled areas, 76, 516Conversi tubes, 169, 519conversion

charge-to-time (QTC), 366, 384electrons, 76

monoenergetic, 79flash, 422photon, 208, 450, 451point, photon, 243

reaction, neutron, 297time, ADC, 422, 423, 425

converteramplitude-to-digital, 275analogue-to-digital, see ADCdigital-to-analogue, 393photo-, 286time-to-digital, 275, 425

Cooper pairsbinding, 261break-up, 262in superconductors, 120tunnelling, 262

coordinatesdetermination, 291ghost, 191photon, 284two- or three-dimensional, 437

copper, 257braid syndrome, 431

correction function, 243corrections, radiative, 260CORSIKA EAS generation,

453, 587COS-B satellite, 496cosmic accelerators, 87cosmic radiation, 75, 491

high-energy, chemicalcomposition, 292

highest-energy, 258primary, (heavy) nuclei and

photons, 257sources, 466

cosmic-raybackground, 294elemental abundance, 180experiments, 257, 292Monte Carlo event generators, 587muons, 79

calibration with, 260high-energy, 258

neutrinohigh-energy, 258low-energy, 261

cosmological neutrinos, 510Coulomb potential and scattering, 18






Index 609

count ratehigh, 278true, 63

counteranti-coincidence, 297boron trifluoride, 297, 483Cherenkov, see Cherenkov counterDIRC, 287, 288

working principle, 289DISC, 146electromagnetic cascade, 249end-window, 503Geiger–Muller, 62, 104, 105, 257ionisation, 90, 517

cylindrical, 94large-size, 276liquid argon, 110low-level, 502methane-flow, 502mosaic, 190neutron, 296–298, 529Pestov, 277proportional, see

proportional counterRICH, see RICH counterscintillation, see scintillation

counterself-quenching, 106spark

large-area, 277planar, 276, 277

strip, superconducting, 267TDC, 425–426threshold, gaseous, 281time-of-flight, 274, 276, 527

Belle, 369–371time-of-propagation (TOP),

288trigger, 438

counterrotating beams, 84counting

gas, 91, 189medium, 112, 211statistics, 61track, 247

covalent molecule bond, 347

covariance matrix, 444helix, 445independent measurements, 444

Crab Nebula, 496critical angle, internal

reflection, 145critical energy, 21, 232, 235, 244, 513critical field strength of

superconductivity, 266cross-coupling strip detectors, 401cross section

annihilation, 12atomic, 38, 43Born approximation, 32bremsstrahlung, 20collision, 45

energy dependence, 44Compton effect, 38, 514electron scattering, 110energy

absorption, 35, 38dependence, 33scattering, 35

hadronic, 41interference effect, 45Klein–Nishina, 34neutrino–nucleon scattering, 307neutron, 297neutron–proton scattering, 300nuclear, 43of photons, 38pair production, 32, 36, 514photoelectric, 32, 514photon absorption, total, 38proton–proton, 41Ramsauer effect, 45recoil proton, 299Thomson, 32total, 32, 42

cross-talk, 429–433cryogenic

calorimeter, 261–263, 266, 526detector, 264, 265

experimental set-up, 266equipment, 111temperatures, 120






610 Index

cryptographic key and treatment,489

crystalAgCl, 175absorber, 263bismuth-germanate (BGO), 362CaF2, 177, 284, 286calorimeter, 239

CsI, 295, 372disadvantage, 242separation capability, 294

CaWO4, 264, 265CdWO4, 264cluster, 260CsI, 495dielectric, scintillating, 264germanium, high-purity, 118,

470, 486heavy transparent, 237lattice, excitation, 122LiF, 177non-uniformity, 237, 242scintillation, 237, 264

heavy, 239silver-halide, 175TeO2, 263UV-transparent, 283window, 284ZnWO4, 264

Curie (Ci), 72current

amplification, 132anode, rapidly increasing, 276dark, 68leakage, 355, 362-limited spark chamber, 172mode, 96paths, shared, 430–432reverse-bias, 355, 356surface, 355tunnel, interference

effect, 262curvature, radius of, 273cut, 439

analysis, 460likelihood ratio, 381

cycle time, 161cyclotron frequency, 48Cygnus X3, 496cylindrical

drift chamber, 196, 198, 522ionisation counter, 94proportional chamber,

198, 522wire chamber, 197, 522

damagebulk, 355local, by sparks, 350metallic surface, 277radiation, see radiation damagesurface, 355

dark currents, 68dark, non-luminous matter, 261darkness, structure, 177data

-acquisitionelectronics, Belle detector,

382–384system, 275, 436

alignment, 437analysis, 436, 532calibration, 437detector, raw, 436–438digitised, 258event, raw, 439-taking time, 437

dating, 180radio-carbon, 501

dead time, 62, 63, 170effects, 259

decaybeta

inverse, threshold, 307nuclear, 308

channel, 492constant, 71law, 516length, 166level schemes, 79, 591–597nucleon, 170

experiment, 134






Index 611

positron in nucleus, 76proton, 500

Cherenkov counter, 500radioactive, 489, 516time, 123

scintillator, 124vertex, 318, 451

decontamination procedure, 81decoration of particle

tracks, 176dE/dx, see energy lossdeflection

angle, 330, 331by multiple scattering, 333

delay, 63circuits, electronic, 197gas, 197line

magnetostrictive, 173spiral-wire, 200

propagation, 419cable, 427

δ rays, 7, 10, 279, 285, 291, 512dense media, shower development,

236density

bubble, 164effect, 4, 279, 280of radicals, 347times thickness, 5, 32

deoxyribonucleic acid, 475depletion region (layer), 114deposition

charge on anode, 347energy, see energy deposition

depositsanode wire, 352burning off, 351cathode, 347macroscopic on wires, 351

depth–intensity relation, 50

muon, 488of shower, 236, 255profile, 479

destruction, local, 179

detectioncharged particle, Belle KLM, 377efficiency, see efficiencyindividual particle, 263KL and muon, 377, 378light, 264limits, 395–397minimum-ionising particle, 267neutron, see neutron detectionντ , 318, 319of muons, 327photon in RICH counter,

efficiency, 284techniques, acoustic, 258threshold, 245

reducing, 261detector

ALEPH, 450AMANDA, 320ANTARES, 320applications, 466, 532array readout, 393–395ATLAS, 341

energy resolution, 257BaBar, 287, 288

angular resolution, 244Baikal, 320Belle, see Belle detectorcalorimetric, 211CCD, 174, 217CDHS, 313characteristic properties, 56Cherenkov, see Cherenkov counterCMD-2, 294, 295CMS, 241, 328, 338, 340concept, 1cryogenic, 262, 264

experimental set-up, 266description, 437DONUT, 318efficiency, 455endcap, 209flexible, 213Fly’s Eye, 498gallium-arsenide, 120γ-ray, 468






612 Index

detector (cont.)gas, 65, 77, 347

ageing effect, 346pressure, 280

general-purpose, 274, 360, 531homogeneity, 67IceCube, 320, 324, 501isotropy of response, 67KARMEN, 314KEDR, 243KLOE, energy resolution, 249layers

number, 257saturation effects, 256

linear, 61micropattern gaseous, 212, 213, 286,

474, 523microstrip, 213, 443microvertex, 267multipurpose, 510muon absorption, 488NEMO, 320NESTOR, 320neutrino, see neutrino detectorneutron, see neutron, counter and

detectionnon-linear, 61nuclear-track, plastic, 179of internally reflected Cherenkov

light (DIRC), 287peak, 424phonon, 262, 264phosphate glass, 179photon, entrance window, 285, 286plastic, 176, 179, 300, 520position-sensitive, 284, 287proportional, 3He recoil, 298, 299prototype, ageing test, 350pulsed, 62quality, 515radiation, medicine, 466radiophotoluminescence, 178raw data, 436–439response, simulation, 439, 453RICH

HERA-B, 286

photon sensor, 286scintillation, 392, 402semiconductor, 466, 481, 486

track, 215, 523signal vs. capacitance, 397–398silicon

microstrip, 216, 437oxygenated, 356pixel, 443radiation damage, 356radiation hardness, 355strip, double-sided, 363

silver chloride, 176solenoid, 339solid-state, xxii, 14, 112, 279,

298, 517strip, signal cross-coupling, 401SuperKamiokande, 320surface-barrier, 117test, 77thermal, 263thermoluminescence, 177threshold, for neutrons, 300time-of-flight, 438track, see track detectortransition radiation, 146, 149, 289,

292, 438, 528uniformity, 67, 455vertex, see vertex detectorvisual, 163

determinationof coordinates, 291of efficiency, 60of muon energy, 258of neutrino energy, 258, 446particle mass, 283, 528

deuteron, energy loss, 7diagnostics

beam, 83X-ray, 75

diamond, 145dielectric

scintillating crystal, 264surface, 212

differential non-linearity,423, 425






Index 613

diffusion, 43, 44cloud chamber, 161coefficient, 43constant, 44linear and volume, 43longitudinal and transverse, 45

digitalcircuits, 417–421hit pattern, 295, 296signature schemes, 489-to-analogue converter, 393

digitisation of time, 384dimensions, 57

molecular, 45diode, 114

light-emitting, calibration with, 260PIN, structure, 116semiconductor, 116

dipolefield, time variation, 142magnet, 82, 338

self-compensating, 338moment

radicals, 347resulting, 142

DIRC counter, 287, 288working principle, 289

direction of incidence, 287DISC counter, 146discharge

after-, 108chamber, 169channel, 171Geiger, 107glow, 109, 169localised, 107, 278microplasma, 346, 530of electrodes, 277spark, 171–173transverse propagation, 106

discriminating Cherenkov counter(DISC), 146

discriminator, 275, 370dislocations, 354, 355dispersion, 143displaced vertices, 449

displacement, electric, 147dissipation of power, 419distribution

amplitude, 294, 295angular

flat, 260muon, 79scattering, 18shower, 234

binomial (Bernoulli), 60χ2, 444continuous and discrete, 59energy

longitudinal, 253thermal, 43

energy loss, 7, 10, 60, 279FWHM, 279truncated, 282

expectation value, 57function, 56

normalisation, 56variance, 56–58

Gaussian, 9, 18, 58, 59logarithmic, 239

half width, 59invariant-mass

Belle ECL, 376K+K−, 441

Landau, 8, 9, 60, 513lateral

extensive air shower at sealevel, 257

hadronic cascade, 255mass, 372Maxwell–Boltzmann, 43normal, 57–59normalised, 58of Cherenkov ring radii, 284parameter, combined, 293Poisson, 59

error, 60rectangular, 56scattering angle, 18

donor level, 114DONUT experiment, 311, 318,

319






614 Index

doseabsorbed, 72, 79, 354, 516constant, 74–depth curve, 478, 480equivalent, 73, 516

commitment, 50-year, 539effective, 73, 74

per-capita, annual, 75personal radiation, 97profile, 478–480rate, equivalent whole-body, 74surface, 475whole-body, 76

lethal, 76dosimeter

ionisation, 97neutron, 299pocket, 80, 97thermoluminescence, 177, 178

dosimetry, accident, 503double-focussing spectrometer, 343double-sided silicon strip

detector, 363double-strand break, 476drift, 44, 515

cell, Belle CDC, 364chamber, 45, 67, 347, 474

central (CDC), 362, 364cylindrical, 196, 198, 522electrodeless, 195, 521energy-loss resolution, 280induction, 196, 521jet, 197, 205, 522jet, Mark II, 206large-area, 194planar, 191, 521solid state, 218

field configuration, 194gas dependence, 44mode, 213module, multiwire, 202properties, 111time, 192

measurement, 57, 291trajectory, 201, 206tube, 196, 290

velocity, 44, 45, 48, 92,192, 515

field dependence, 46, 95volume, 196, 197, 210

dual-energy subtractionangiography, 472

DURHAM algorithm, 448dynode, 131

continuous, 135

E scheme, 448Earth

atmosphere, see (extensive) airshower and cascade

magnetic field, 134EC emitter, 79effect

Auger, 33biological, 71–73Compton, 31, 33, 231

inverse, 35dead and recovery time, 259density, 4, 279, 280interference, 45, 148

tunnel current, 262Josephson, 262Landau–Pomeranchuk–Migdal, 236Malter, 348, 349Meissner, 262nuclear counter, 138of magnetic fields, 136photoelectric, 1, 31, 32, 231, 287,

472, 486, 514radiation, 346Ramsauer, 45saturation, 101

in detector layers, 256screening, 11, 20space charge, 350, 355threshold, 143, 176tunnel, one-electron, 262

effectivecalorimeter thickness, 237equivalent dose, 73, 74ionisation potential, 14light speed, 276






Index 615

sampling thickness, 246threshold behaviour, 148

effectiveness, biological, see biologicaleffectiveness

efficiency, 60, 65, 452detection, 440

Belle KLM, 378, 380, 381muon, Belle KLM, 379neutron, 298, 300photon in RICH

counter, 284electron, 292, 293extracting from data, 454for majority coincidence, 66for pion/kaon separation, 290identification, 274light collection, 127multiparticle, 67multitrack, 67,

172, 277of a detector, 455plateau, 108quantum, 131reconstruction, 454

multitrack, 67track, 454

scintillation, 123separation, 292signal, 439track, 454

e/h ratio, 257elastic scattering, 504

e+e−, 386neutron, 297, 299

electrodedischarge, 277gap, small, 278material, 351pickup, 169, 196structure, 213

on thin plastic foils, 213electrodeless drift chamber, 195, 521electroencephalogram, 470electromagnetic

calorimeter, see calorimeter,electromagnetic

calorimetry, Belle, 372–374cascade, see cascade,

electromagneticenergy, 252shower, see cascade, electromagneticsubcascades, 251

electronabsorption, 27acceptance, 294Auger, 33, 76, 480avalanche, 97, 103binding energy, 34capture, 76, 79, 91, 308

of the K shell, 77cascade

lateral development, 235longitudinal development, 293

cloud, 45collection time, 93component, 93

rise time, 102conversion, 76δ, 7, 10, 279, 285, 291, 512detection efficiency, Belle KLM, 380efficiency, 292, 293–electron collisions, 11emitter, 77energy, 100

loss, 7, 10, 11, 20, 22, 231, 278,279, 282, 527

forward calorimeter (EFC), 362/hadron separation, 292/hadron/muon separation, 161high-energy, 287, 294–hole pair, 14, 112hypothesis, 293identification, Belle detector, 379-induced cascade, 236–ion pair, formation, production, 13knock-on, 7, 10, 279, 285, 291, 512

energy dependence andspectrum, 10

lithography, 213mobility, 45, 102monoenergetic, 76, 259multiplier, gas, 214






616 Index

electron (cont.)/muon misidentification, 296/muon separation, 295neutrino, 309, 310, 492neutrino-induced, 287, 320number, 244

in shower, 236relative fluctuation, 244

–photon cascade, 231/pion misidentification probability,

292–294/pion separation, 290, 291,

293, 294–positron

annihilation, 202collider, 85interaction, 202pair production, 231

primary, 11radius, classical, 4range, 27

low-energy, 27rays, 475recoil, 264, 265scattering

cross section, 110quasi-free, 32

secondary, 11emission coefficient, 131

signature, 320spectra, linearised, 486spectroscopy, 117spiralling in calorimeter, 259synchrotrons, 84track, 291, 292-volt (eV), 538

electronegative gas, 110chlorine and oxygen, 49quencher, 168

electronic circuit, delay, 197electronic filter techniques, 263electronic noise, see noise, electronicelectronic readout

Belle ECL, 374, 375detector array, 393–395

electronic recording, 169

electronics, 390, 531back-end, 363channel control, 259data acquisition, Belle detector,

382–384electrostatic

charging-up, 213repulsion, 189

elements, periodic table, 598ELOISATRON, 296emission

anglescintillation photons, 276transition-radiation photons, 148

at boundaries, 147coefficient, secondary electrons,

131positron, see positronspectrum, 123, 126

emulsionchamber, 176nuclear, see nuclear emulsion

ENC, 410end-window counter, 503endcap detector, 209energy

absorption, physical, 72balance in events, 446bands, 123beam, known, 260calibration, 79, 259

Belle, 374containment, 95 %, 254critical, 21, 22, 232, 235, 244, 513cross section

absorption, 35, 38scattering, 35

dependence, cross section, 33deposited, 276deposition, 10, 290, 291, 294, 446,

513by transition radiation, 149centre of gravity, 243difference in longitudinal and

lateral distributions, 292in clusters, 446






Index 617

in insulators, 262of shower in clusters, 239sample measurement, 245total, 260

distributionlongitudinal, 253thermal, 43

electromagnetic, 252electron, 100

binding, 34extremely low, particle, 261-flow object, 439, 448fluctuation

discontinuous, thermal, 263leakage, 237

gain between two collisions, 97gap, 112high, see high energyinvisible, 252, 255

fraction, 252ionisation, 5kinetic, 273, 527known, of particle, 261leakage, lateral and rear, 233,

237, 238lost in hadron cascade, 256low, see low energymaximum transferable, 2measurement, see measurement,

energymissing, 446, 447

technique, 310, 455nuclear binding, 252of extensive air shower, 257of muons, 296

determination, 258maximum transferable, 3

of neutrinos, determination,258, 446

partition, pair production, 37, 38plasma, 147quantum transition, 261–range relations, 26reconstruction, 446reduced, of photons, 32resolution, see resolution, energy

shower, 235lateral structure, 250

spectrummeasured, 239neutron, 300

threshold, see threshold energytotal, 2, 274

of event, 446transfer

high, exclusion, 280large, 296

visible, 252energy loss, 512

atomic corrections, 10average, 3, 7, 13, 14, 24, 278, 527by bremsstrahlung, 19, 513by Cherenkov radiation, 142by excitation, 273by ionisation, 7, 273by pair production, 24by radiation, 7by transition radiation, 147catastrophic, 26charged particles, 5, 252cut value, 10distribution, 7, 10, 60, 279

FWHM, 279truncated, 282

Fermi plateau, 4, 10fluctuation, 7, 10, 18, 26

statistical, 15high-energy muons, 296information, 438large samples, 280logarithmic rise, 7measurement, 205, 278, 281

Belle CDC, 367minimum, 582, 583

of ionisation, 281most probable, 8, 9of α particles in air, 7of carbon ions, 475of deuterons in air, 7of electrons, 11, 22, 279

by bremsstrahlung, 20by ionisation, 10






618 Index

energy loss (cont.)by radiation, 231in air, 7

of kaons, 278–280, 282of muons, 7, 22, 25, 278

in air, 7of pions, 278–280, 282

in air, 7of positrons, 11of protons, 278, 280, 282

in air, 7parameter, muon, 25relativistic rise, 7, 281resolution, 280spin dependence, 10total, 24trident production, 22, 336truncated, 10

engineering, civil andunderground, 466

entrance window, 285, 286epoxy resin, glass-fibre reinforced,

351equivalent circuit, 409–410equivalent commitment dose,

50-year, 539equivalent dose, 73, 516

effective, 73, 74equivalent noise charge, 410–415equivalent whole-body dose rate, 74error

Gaussian, 443momentum measurement, 333multiple scattering, 332, 339, 342normal, 60Poisson-like, 60, 66Poissonian, 60square root, 61standard, 58, 59track measurement, 331, 334,

339, 342escape

from calorimeter, 252peak, 104

estimate, maximum likelihood, 456etch cone, 179

etchingprocess, 179technique, 300

Euler’s Γ function, 234event

BB creation, 387bubble chamber, high

complexity, 163builder, 383display, 450elastic e+e− scattering, 386energy balance, 446generators, Monte Carlo, 452, 584

cosmic rays, 587specific, 584

interpretation, 67random trigger, 259reconstruction, 337, 383, 437, 439

three-dimensional, 166, 211separation, quality, 294simulated, 291, 341

excitation, 1, 2, 231, 512, 517energy loss, 273of phonons, 262of the crystal lattice, 122

exciton, 124level, 124

exclusive OR (XOR), 417exemption limit, 76, 490expansion

bubble chamber, 163cloud chamber, 161

cycle, 161fast, 161

expectation value, 56, 57experiment

ALEPH, 445, 461AMS, 292astroparticle, 292ATLAS, 328, 442Auger, air-shower, 498beam dump, 309Belle, 360, see also BelleCDHS, 313, 314Charm, 314chlorine, 311






Index 619

cosmic-ray, 257, 292DONUT, 311, 318, 319fixed-target, 166Fly’s Eye, 498GALLEX, 311, 312GlueX, 276HEAT, 292heavy-ion, 67high-rate, 196, 202IMB, 500in space, 466KamiokaNDE, 134, 500, 501KARMEN, 312, 314KOPIO, 249KTEV, 241NA48, 243neutrino, 134, 170NOMAD, 314, 315nucleon decay, 134OPAL, 242PAMELA, 292‘Poltergeist’, 310radiochemical, 311random, 60satellite, γ rays, 495SELEX, 243SNO, 287, 288, 501STAR, 67storage ring, 166, 197SuperKamiokande, 501two-neutrino, 310, 492

experimental systematicuncertainty, 440

extensive air shower (EAS), 327, 497acoustic detection techniques, 258CORSIKA, 453, 587energy, 257geosynchrotron radiation, 258, 499lateral distribution at sea level, 257measurement principle, 498measurement with Fly’s Eye, 497simulations, 453

external muon identifier, 314extraction of light, 126extragalactic neutrinos, 320

eye, accommodation period andsensitivity, 122

factoryB , 360neutrino, 73, 85

FADC, see ADC, flashfake rate, Belle KLM, 379–381fallout, radioactive, 486Fano factor, 15, 17, 18, 118feed-forward network, multilayer, 449feedback amplifier, 398Fermi

–Kurie plot, 486motion, 84plateau, 4, 10

ferrite core, 173fibre

carbon, 351cladding-, light guide, 249light guide, 248, 249

principle of operation, 248scintillating, 219, 249

tracker, 219, 524single- and multicladding, 248, 249

fieldclearing, 168, 172gradient, 83magnetic, see magnetic fieldstrength

critical, of superconductivity, 266electric, 44quadrupole, 543

filmthermoluminescence, 178

scanning, 178X-ray, 176

industrial, 177filter technique, electronic, 263fine-mesh-type photomultiplier tube,

368, 369fine-structure constant, 5fish tail, 130fission

reaction, 298spontaneous, 180






620 Index

fitgeometrical, 451kinematical, 451straight line, 443

fixed-targetexperiments, 166magnetic spectrometer, 328mode, 84

flammability, 111flash, see also light flash

ADC, 188, 422–423chamber, 257conversion, 422

flint glass, 145flip-flop, 417

toggle, 490fluctuation

albedo, leakage due to, 237energy

discontinuous, thermal, 263leakage, 237loss, see energy loss, fluctuation

first interaction point, 238hadron-shower development, 255ionisation loss, 279Landau, 18, 246number

of charge carriers, 15of electrons, relative, 244of neutral pions, 252, 255

path length, 134, 276Poisson, 18primary ionisation, statistical,

192sampling, 245, 246, 257

correlations, 246FLUKA simulation, 453fluorescence radiation, 178flux tube, ion, 105Fly’s Eye, measurement of extensive

air showers, 497, 498foil

carrier and plastic, 300scattering, aluminium, 481

foils, periodic arrangement, 148forbidden band, 112

forcefriction and stochastic, 47, 48Lorentz, 47, 82

formationof avalanches, 188, 346of bubbles, 163of polymers, 347of silver nuclei, 176of sparks, 172, 350of stars in pion capture, 475, 478of streamers, 247, 350zone, 237

4π geometry, 166FPGA, 421fragment, nuclear, short-range, 252Freon, 165, 283frequency

cyclotron, 48response, amplifier, 399–400

friction force, 48Frisch grid, 93

ionisation chamber, 94full-absorption peak, 486full width at half maximum

(FWHM), 59fusion, proton–proton, 308FWHM, 59

energy-loss distribution, 279

gainlosses, 68, 349, 350variation, 348, 349

galacticneutrinos, 319particles and γ rays, 466

GALLEX experiment,311, 312

gallium-arsenide detector, 120gamma-backscatter method, 482gamma camera, 468, 469Γ function, 234γ radiation, 475

galactic, 466monochromatic, 76, 77, 259satellite experiment, 495solar, 466






Index 621

γ-rayastronomy, 287, 495detector, 468dose constant, 74high-energy, direction of

incidence, 287imaging, 468line, 486point sources, 496, 499

gapair, magnet, 332, 336electrode, small, 278energy, 112spark, 168

gasamplification, 277, 278

factor, 97, 99in liquids, 112low, 278photoelectrons, 276, 284, 286,

301region, 196

boron trifluoride, 297Cherenkov

counters, 144radiator, 144

counting, 91, 189delays, 197detectors, 65, 77, 212, 213, 286,

347, 474, 523ageing effect, 346

diffusion in, 43electron multiplier (GEM), 214electronegative, 49, 110

quencher, 168-filled chamber, 246for high-rate applications, 350heavy, 283impurities, 14low-Z, 365mixture, 91noble, see noble gaspressure, 280purification, 351quenching, 106

scintillation counter(scintillator), 127

temperature, 43ultrapure, 348vapour mixture, 160

gating principle, 210gauge particles, virtual, 24Gaussian

distribution, 9, 18, 58, 59logarithmic, 239

errors, 443noise distribution, 404

GEANT simulation, 453gedankenexperiment, 16Geiger

discharges, 107mode, 105

locally limited, 106, 257(–Muller) counter, 62, 104, 257

Geminga, 496generations of produced charge

carriers, 100generator

Marx, 168Monte Carlo, see Monte Carlo

generatorrandom number, 489, 491, 492

geometrical fit, 451geoneutrinos, 323geophysics, 466geosynchrotron radiation, 258, 499germanium crystal, high-purity, 118,

470, 486ghost coordinates, 191glaciophone, 501glass

borosilicate, 145cerium-doped, 354flint, 145lead, see lead glassphosphate, silver-activated, 178plate, graphite-covered, 277spark chamber, 172Yokota, 179

glow discharge, 109, 169GlueX experiment, 276






622 Index

gluon jets, 447gradient

of the quadrupole, 543temperature, constant, 162

granularity, 438, 439granules

superheated superconducting, 262,265–267

tin, zinc, aluminium, 266gravitational wave, 510Gray, 72, 516grid (‘gate’), 210‘ground loop’, 430ground, virtual, 401grounding, 432GUT theory, 500

hadron, 251absorption, 41calorimeter, see calorimeter, hadroncascade, see cascade, hadronenergy resolution, 252, 255interaction, 41jet, 447signal, 253therapy, 476

hadronic cross section, 41hadronic processes, inelastic, 251hadronisation of partons, 260, 447,

584hair activation, 503half-life, 71, 516

biological and physical, 80half width, 59harsh radiation environments, 68,

346heat

capacity, 120signal, 263specific, capacity, 263

HEAT experiment, 292heavy flavour physics, 449heavy-ion

beam, monitoring, 476experiments, 67therapy, 475

heavy ions, 475fast, 285

heavy nuclei, primary cosmicradiation, 257

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, 237helium-3 recoil detector, 298, 299helix, 445

parameters, 445, 446HERA-B RICH detector, 286hermeticity, 197, 337, 439HERWIG Monte Carlo, 447, 584hidden layers, 457Higgs

candidate, 461mechanism, 459production, 67-strahlung, 459

high-energycosmic radiation, 258

chemical composition, 292electron, 287, 294γ-ray, direction of incidence, 287hit, 292ion, 292muon, 294

cosmic, 258energy loss, 296range, 28

neutrino, cosmic, 258neutron, 297particle, 274photon, 287pion, 294transfer, exclusion, 280

high-purity germanium crystal, 118,470, 486

high-rateapplications, gases for, 350experiment, 196, 202

high-resolutioncalorimeter, 372scintillation counter, 470

High Resolution (HiRes)telescope, 498

high-voltagecontact, 117






Index 623

pulse, 168rise time, 172

HiRes, 498hit

high-energy, 292mirror, 445multiple, readout, 67pattern

digital, 295, 296lateral, 296

single, readout, 67transition-radiation, 291

hodoscope, 239holographic readout technique, 511holographic recording, 166homogeneity, 67, 237HPMT, 136hybrid photomultiplier tube,

136, 286hydrogen bubble chamber, 163hyperbolic chamber, 201hypothesis

alternative, 281of particles, 293

Iarocci tubes, 107ice

Cherenkov counter, 501polar, as Cherenkov medium, 258

IceCube, 320, 324, 501identification

charged particle, 274, 527, 531by Cherenkov radiation, 281, 528by ionisation loss, 278, 279, 527by transition radiation, 289, 528transition radiation, 289

efficiency, 274electron, Belle detector, 379neutrino-induced muons and

electrons, 287of isotopes in radioactive fallout, 486of muons, 166particle, 273, 274, 340, 438, 449,

450, 526Belle ACC, 367Belle detector, 379

with calorimeters, 292, 292, 529pion and kaon, Belle detector, 380

imagecontrast, 471quality, 472

imaging, 466γ rays, 468air Cherenkov telescopes, 499of blood vessels, 471, 474X rays, 467, 468

IMB experiment, 500impact-parameter resolution, 363,

364impedance

cable, 427input, 400–401

improvement of energy resolution,18, 257

impurities, 113, 124electronegative, 110gas, 14

incandescent mantle, 490incidence, direction of, 287incorporation, 75independence, statistical, 280independent measurements, 444index of refraction, 142, 582, 583

average, 145induced radioactivity, 466induction drift chamber, 196, 521inefficient zone, locally, 189inelastic hadronic processes, 251inelasticity, average, 251inhalation and ingestion, 75initial partons, 447initial-state radiation, 260inorganic scintillator, 123, 353, 468input

impedance, 400–401layer, 457

insulator, 116energy deposition, 262

integrated circuit, 395application-specific, 421readout, 393






624 Index

interaction, 1charged current, 309, 317electron–positron, 202inelastic, 24, 41

neutron, 297length, 41, 42, 515, 582, 583

nuclear, 249, 292photon, 232

mechanism, 1neutral current, 309ντ , 317nuclear, 24, 296

cross section, 43of charged particles, 2, 41of hadrons, 41of neutrinos, 163, 309, 318,

319probability, 307with nucleons, 320, 493with nucleons, cross section,

307of neutrons, 296of photons, 1, 31photonuclear, 24, 336point, 449

fluctuation, 237probability, 42rate, 85strong, 41vertex, 168, 445weak, 308WIMP, simulation, 265with matter, 1, 512

interference effect, 45, 148tunnel current, 262

interferometer, quantum, 262interlock systems, 480internal conversion, 76internal reflection, 130, 249, 287

critical angle, 145interstitials, 355intrinsically conducting, 116invariant-mass distribution, 376

K+K−, 441inverse beta decay, threshold, 307inverter, CMOS, 419

investigationof boreholes, 482surface, non-destructive, 480

invisible energy, 252, 255fraction, 252

ioncarbon, energy loss, 475charge, 75flux tube, 105heavy, 475

fast, 285high-energy, 292mobility, 44, 110pair, 14positive, attachment, 194

ionisation, 1, 2, 231, 237, 512calorimeter, 243chamber, 91

filled with liquids, 110Frisch grid, 94liquid-argon, 246liquid-noble-gas, 111solid-state, 91, 112under high pressure, 257

constant, 4counter, 90, 517

cylindrical, 94dosimeters, 97energy, 5

loss, 7, 10, 273loss, 286

fluctuation, 279hadron shower, 252of electrons and positrons, 11of heavy particles, 3particle identification, 278,

279, 527measurement, 160minimum, 6, 267, 281, 291potential, effective, 14primary, see primary

ionisationsecondary, 13, 91specific, 197statistics, 17structure, 188






Index 625

total, 13trail, 438yield, 13

iron, 257-55, decay-level scheme, 591pions in, 254–scintillator calorimeter, 249,

250, 253solid, magnet, 332

ISAJET Monte Carlo, 584isotope, 79

Chernobyl, 486identification, 486neutron threshold

reaction, 300technology, 485

isotropy of response, 67

JADE algorithm, 448jet

clustering algorithms, 448drift chamber, 197, 205, 522

Mark II, 206gluon, 447of hadrons, 447quark, 447shape, 448two-, structure, 202

JETSET Monte Carlo, 447, 584jitter, 416

time, 134, 416Johnson noise, 403–405Josephson effect and junction, 262

K-edge subtraction technique, 472K-line emitter, 259KamiokaNDE experiment, 134,

500, 501kaon, 251, 252

detection, efficiency, Belle KLM, 381energy loss, 278–280, 282identification, Belle detector, 380mass, 562neutral, 252/pion separation see pion/kaon

separation

KARMEN experiment, 312, 314KEDR detector, 243kinematical

fit, 451refit, 454

kinetic energy, 273, 527maximum transferable, 2

KL detection system, 377, 378Klein–Nishina formula, 34KLOE detector, energy resolution,

249klystron, 83knock-on electron, 7, 10, 279, 285,

291, 512KOPIO experiment, 249KTEV experiment and

calorimeter, 241

laboratory system, 337Landau

distribution, 8, 10, 60, 513fluctuation, 18, 246–Pomeranchuk–Migdal effect,

236large-area

drift chamber, 194scintillation counter, 484spark counters, 277

Large Electron–Positron collider(LEP), 31, 206, 350, 453

Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 67,296, 327, 342, 346, 453

large-size counter, 276large-volume

bubble chamber, 314neutrino detector, 287water Cherenkov counter, 318,

319, 500Larmor radius, 209laser calibration, 260, 503

UV, 211latch, 418lateral

development of electromagneticcascade, 238






626 Index

lateral (cont.)distribution

extensive air shower at sealevel, 257

hadronic cascade, 255hit pattern, 296leakage, 233, 238shower

position, resolution, 243profile, 253, 254shape, 449

widthelectromagnetic shower, 235hadron cascade, 250

lattice contribution to the specificheat, 263

layer, 457depletion, 114input, output, and hidden, 457number, of detector, 257oxide, thin, 347sampling, 245saturation, 256sensitive, 295thick, absorber, 9thin, absorber, 7, 10, 18, 233

leadfluoride, 145glass, 145, 237

block, 242calorimeter, 242cerium-doped, 354plate, 135

matrix, 249leading-edge trigger, 415leakage

current, 355, 362due to albedo fluctuations, 237energy, lateral and rear, 233, 238

learningalgorithm, 449scheme, 457

least-squares method, 444, 451left–right ambiguity, 192, 444length

attenuation, light, 276

collision, 42, 515decay, 166interaction, see interaction lengthlongitudinal containment, 95%, 254measurement, 510path, see path lengthradiation, see radiation lengthshower, 253track, see track length

LEP, 31, 206, 350, 453lepton

number, conservation, 492, 500tau, 317

lethal whole-body dose, 76level

acceptor, 114clearance, 76confidence, 58, 59, 61, 445donor, 114exciton, 124schemes, decay, 79, 591–597trigger, 439, 532

LHC, 67, 296, 327, 342, 346, 453LHCb, 328lifetime, 71, 445, 516

chamber, 347proton, 500

lightattenuation length, 276Cherenkov, 237, 258, 276, 287,

500, 527collection efficiency, 127cone, Cherenkov, 282detection, 264-emitting diode, calibration with,

260extraction, 126flash

Cherenkov light, 276duration, 276

guide, 129adiabatic, 130air, 146fibre, 248, 249fibre, cladding, 249fish-tail, 130






Index 627

loss, 248, 352output, 123

reduction, 353relative, 354

receiver, spectral sensitivity, 126scintillation, 237, 258, 264, 276, 498speed, effective, 276transfer, 247yield, 264

lightest supersymmetric particle, 455likelihood, see also maximum

likelihoodfunction, 280

combined, 293joint, 274separation parameter, 293

probability, Belle, 379ratio, 281

cut, 381limit

confidence, 444detection, 395–397exemption, 76, 490lower and upper, 59

linearaccelerators, 82, 517collider, 84detector, 61diffusion, 43

Liouville’s theorem, 130liquid, 163

argon, see argon, liquidbubble chamber, 165Cherenkov radiator, 144counting medium, 110neutron, 165noble gas, 237

ionisation chambers, 111scintillator, 127

radiation resistance, 354state, superheated, 163warm, 111, 246, 257xenon, 110, 257

lithium-fluoride

coating, 298

crystal, 177-iodide scintillation counter, 298,

483lithography, electron, 213local damage

by radiation, 180by sparks, 350

local destruction, 179logarithmic Gaussian

distribution, 239logic

arrays, 421CMOS, 419external, 197FPGA, 421functions, 417inverter, 418–419power dissipation, 419symbols, 418synchronous, 421timing, 418

longitudinalcentre of gravity, shower,

254, 293containment length,

95 %, 254development

electromagnetic cascade,234–236, 238

electron shower, 293hadron cascade, 250pion shower, 254, 293

diffusion, 45energy distribution, hadronic

shower, 253magnetic field, 197shower shape, 449

Lorentzangle, 48, 201, 205factor, 2, 274, 528force, 47, 82

low-energycalibration, with radioactive

sources, 259electrons, range, 27neutrino, cosmic, 261






628 Index

low-energy (cont.)neutron, 297particle, 261

range, 26separation, 294

photon, 2recoil proton, 256

low-level counter, 502low-noise

amplifier, 116preamplifier, 211

low-rate collider, 350lower limit, 59luminescence, 2

radiation, 124spectrum, 125

luminosity, 86measurement, 360, 504

Belle, 385Lund string model, 584

macaroni, 219magnet

air gap, 332, 336dipole, 82, 338quadrupole, 82solid-iron, 332toroidal, 338

magneticbremsstrahlung, 77field, 47

bending radius, 273, 330, 333configuration, 338longitudinal, 197orientation of granules, 266solenoidal, 205, 338

flux quanta, 262monopole, 121, 180spectrometer, see spectrometer,

magneticmagnetostriction, 173magnetostrictive delay line and

readout, 173majority coincidence, 64, 66

efficiency, 66Malter effect, 348, 349

marble calorimeter, 257Mark II jet chamber, 206Marx generator, 168mass

constraint, 453refits, 453

determination, 283, 528distribution, 372invariant, distribution

Belle ECL, 376K+K−, 441

kaon, muon, pion, 561, 562resolution, 453, 454

Belle ECL, 375separation, 275

materials, composite, properties, 582matrix

covariance, see covariance matrixof photomultipliers, 468

matter, dark (non-luminous), 261maximum detectable momentum,

332maximum likelihood, 455

techniques and estimates, 456maximum transferable

energy, muon, 3kinetic energy, 2

maximum, shower, 233, 234Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, 43mean free path, 44, 49mean, truncated, 279–281, 367measurement

calorimetric, 296, 531drift time, 57, 291energy, 230, 273, 295

loss, 205, 278, 281, 367neutron, 300photon, 244sample of deposition, 245

error, track, 331, 334, 339, 342extensive air shower with Fly’s

Eye, 497independent, covariance matrix,

444ionisation, 160length, 510






Index 629

luminosity, 360, 504Belle, 385

momentum, 327, 530, 531error, 333sagitta method, 334

muon absorption, 466neutron, 299non-ionising particles, 526optimum number, 280particle velocity, 283, 528photon angle, 243position, 446radiation, 71

units, 71, 516range, 296rate, 63reference, 260time, 276time of flight, 273, 275, 527

mass distribution, 372timing, 415–416track, 160width, 59

medicinenuclear, 75radiation detectors, 466

Meissner effect, 262memory time, 63, 170, 172mental process, task, 470methane-flow counter, 502method

14C, 501calorimetric, 230charge division, 200, 206gamma-backscatter, 482hair-activation, 503least squares, 444, 451likelihood ratio, 281non-destructive, 480photometric, 177road, 443, 444sagitta, momentum

measurement, 334separation, 292track-following, 445truncated mean, 279–281, 367

microcalorimeter, 120microchannel photomultiplier, 135Micromegas, 214micropattern gaseous detector, 212,

213, 286, 474, 523microplasma discharge, 346, 530microstrip gas detector, 213microvertex detector, 267microwave background radiation,

122milli-Kelvin range, 262minimisation, χ2, 374minimum detectable signal, 395minimum of ionisation, 6, 281, 291

muon, 259particle, detection, 267

minimum wire tension, 189mirror

charge, 147hits, 445spherical, 283

misidentification probability, 65, 274,290, 292–294, 296

fake rate, Belle KLM, 379–381missing

energy, 446, 447technique, 310, 455

momentum, technique, 310, 455mobility

of charge carriers, 44, 117of electrons, 45, 102of ions, 44, 110

moderationneutrons, non-thermal, 297paraffin, 298polyethylene spheres, 298

molecular sieve, 351molecule

bond, covalent, 347fragments, 346

Moliere’s theory, 18Moliere radius, 234momentum

beam, 260known, 260maximum detectable, 332






630 Index

momentum (cont.)measurement, 327, 530, 531

error, 333sagitta method, 334

missing, technique, 310, 455particle, 273, 526resolution, see resolution,

momentumspectrometer, 257transverse, see transverse

momentummonitor, beam loss, 83monitoring

Belle ECL, 373calorimeter, 258heavy-ion beam, 476on-line, 68stability of calibration, 259, 526

monochromatic γ rays, 76, 77, 259monoenergetic collinear particle

beam, 285monoenergetic electrons, 76, 259monopole, magnetic, 121, 180Monte Carlo

generator, 452, 584ARIADNE, 584cosmic rays, 587HERWIG, 447, 584ISAJET, 584JETSET, 447, 584PYTHIA, 584specific, 584

simulation, 246, 250, 251, 253,254, 439

shower development, 234, 235techniques, 452, 453

mosaic counter, 190Moseley’s law, 33, 482mu-metal cylinder, 131multi-anode photomultiplier, 286multichannel collimator, 469multicladding fibre and scintillation,

248, 249multigap spark chambers, 197multilayer feed-forward network, 449multiparticle efficiency, 67

multiplate cloud chamber, 161multiple collisions, 43multiple reflections, 287multiple scattering, 18, 26, 208, 234,

250, 333, 514angle, 18, 333, 514error, 332, 339, 342

multiplicationof shower particles, 232system, 131

multiplicity, 251track, 448

multipurpose detector, 510multistep avalanche chamber,

196multitrack efficiency, 67, 172, 277

reconstruction, 67multivariate techniques, 439,

452, 455multiwire

chamber, thin-gap, 279drift module, 202proportional chamber, 56, 186, 257,

284, 347, 437, 474, 520cylindrical, 198, 522miniaturised, 213neutron detection, 298, 299

muon, 252absorption

detector, 488measurement, 466

angular distribution, 79bremsstrahlung, 296, 336calorimeter, 296

efficiency determination, 454colliders, 85cosmic radiation, 260depth–intensity relation, 488detection, 327

efficiency, Belle KLM, 379system, 377, 378

energy, 296determination, 258loss, 7, 22, 25, 278maximum transferable, 3

flux of cosmic rays, 79






Index 631

high-energy, 294cosmic, 258energy loss, 296

identification, 166identifier, external, 314/kaon separation, 377mass, 561minimum-ionising, 259neutrino, 289, 310, 317, 492, 494neutrino-induced, 287, 288,

321, 322pair production, 260/pion separation, 278production, 494range, 27

high-energy, 28in rock, 28system, 295

signature, 321trident production, 336, 337X-ray photography, 488, 489

µ+µ− collision, 85

NA48 experiment, 243NAND, 418natural

radiation load, 75radioactivity, 259, 466, 516

negative temperaturecoefficient, 263

NEMO detector, 320neon

-flash chamber, 169, 519plastic tubes, extruded, 169

tubes, spherical, 170NESTOR detector, 320network, multilayer feed-forward,

449neural networks, 449, 455, 456,

458, 460learning scheme, 457overtraining, 458training cycles, 458training, testing, and validation

samples, 457–459neural-net analysis, 460

neuron, 449, 457bias, 457

neutral-current interactions, 309neutrino, 252

anti-, 309astrophysical, 121atmospheric, 308, 319beam, 493Big Bang, 264, 309, 322cosmological, 510detector, 307, 311, 529

calorimetric, 312deep water, 258ice or water, 320, 501large-volume, 287

electron, 309, 310, 492energy determination, 258, 446experiment, 134, 170

two-, 310, 492extragalactic, 320factory, 73, 85galactic, 319geo-, 323high-energy cosmic, 258higher energy, 318-induced electron, 287, 320-induced muon, 287, 288, 321, 322interactions, 163, 309, 318, 319

probability, 307low-energy cosmic, 261muon, 289, 310, 317, 492, 494–nucleon interactions, 320, 493, 494

cross section, 307observation in bubble

chamber, 316oscillations, 323, 501physics, 287primordial, 322radiation exposure, 323reactor, 308solar, 307, 308, 318, 323, 501sources, 307spectrum, 324supernova, 318tau, 311, 317, 319telescope, 258, 296, 501






632 Index

neutron, 252, 255activation, 484-backscatter technique, 483conversion reaction, 297counter, 296–298, 529cross section, 297detection

efficiency, 298, 300scintillation counter, 298sensitivity, 299

dosimeter, 299elastic scattering, 297, 299energy, measurement and

spectrum, 300high-energy, 297inelastic interaction, 297interaction, 296liquid, 165low-energy, 297measurement, 299moderation, 297, 298non-thermal, 298quasi-thermal, 298reaction, threshold, 300relative biological effectiveness,

299, 300slow, 298thermal, 297, 298treatment, 475, 479

nitrogen scintillation, 258noble gas

liquid, 237ionisation chambers, 111

radioactive, 259node, 457noise

1/f , 404, 411electronic, 242, 362, 403–406

analysis of detector system,409–413

contribution to energyresolution, 240

equivalent noise charge, 410–415Gaussian distribution, 404parallel and series, 410shot, 404–405

thermal (Johnson), 403–405white, 403

NOMAD experiment, 314, 315non-destructive methods, 480non-ionising particles, measurement,

526non-linearity

differential, 423, 425of a detector, 61

non-uniform scintillator response, 352non-uniformity

of calorimeter, 259of crystals, 237, 242

NOR, 418normal-conducting state, 266, 267normal distribution, 57–59normal error, 60normalisation, distribution

function, 56normalised distribution, 58NTC resistor, 263n-type semiconductor, 114nuclear

beta decay, 308binding energy, 252bond, break up, 252charge, screening, 37counter effect, 138emulsion, 173, 317, 520

stacks, 174fragment, short-range, 252interaction, 24, 296

cross section, 43length, 249, 292

medicine, 75physics, 466recoil, 264, 265, 355track detector, plastic, 179weapon test, 502

nucleon, 251decay, 170

experiment, 134heavy, primary cosmic radiation,

257number

atomic, 19






Index 633

Avogadro, 4, 578baryon, conservation, 500lepton, conservation, 492, 500of charge carriers, fluctuations, 15of Cherenkov photons, 288

total, 242of detected particles, 245of detector layers, 257of electrons, 244

and photons in a shower, 236relative fluctuation, 244

of high-energy hits, 292of intersection points, 245of measurements, optimum, 280of neutral pions, fluctuation, 252,

255of photoelectrons, 286

effective and total, 276of track segments, 245of transition-radiation photons, 292

object-oriented language, 439occupancy, 67ocean, as Cherenkov medium, 258on-line

calibration, 454monitoring, 68

one-electron tunnel effect, 262OPAL experiment, 242operating voltage, 355optical recording, 163optical spark chambers, 493OR, 417

exclusive (XOR), 417organ

malfunctions, 468–470picture, 468

organic scintillator, 126as neutron detector, 299compounds, 123

oscillation, neutrino, 323, 501output layer, 457overcharging, 195overcompensation, hadron

calorimeter, 256overtraining, 458

oxide layer, thin, 347oxygenated silicon detector, 356

pad, 194, 216pair of ions, 14pair production, 1, 15, 31, 36

by muons, 22cross section, 32, 36, 514direct, 22–24, 296, 336electron–positron, 231energy loss, 24energy-partition parameter, 37, 38of muons, 260threshold energy, 36

PAMELA experiment, 292paraffin as moderator, 297parallel noise, 410parallel-plate

avalanche chamber, 278chamber, 257

parametercombined distribution, 293electromagnetic calorimeter, 237energy partition, pair production,

37, 38helix, 445, 446impact, resolution, 363, 364most efficient, 281muon energy loss, 25of separation, 291, 293

parametrisationenergy resolution, 239, 257shower, 231

particle–antiparticle colliders, 85beam

mixed, 281monoenergetic collinear, 285

charge, 273charged

accelerator, 516detection, Belle KLM, 377energy loss, 5, 252interaction, 2, 41ionisation and excitation, 231spatial resolution, 277






634 Index

particle (cont.)tracking, 290trajectory, 329, 442

extremely low energy, 261gauge, virtual, 24heavy, ionisation loss, 3high-energy, 274identification, see

identificationindividual, detection, 263known energy, 261location, resolution, 438measurement

energy, 230in liquids, 110

minimum-ionising, 6, 291detection, 267

missing, reconstruction, 455momentum, 273, 526multiplicity, 251neutral, in hadron cascade, 252non-ionising, measurement, 526number, detected, 245quasi-, 261, 262radiation, solar and

galactic, 466range

in air, 26low-energy, 26

rate, 259relativistic, 3secondary, in hadron

cascade, transversemomentum, 251

separation, see separationshower

multiplication, 232track segments, 245

supersymmetric, lightest, 455therapy, 475track, conservation and

decoration, 176unstable, reconstruction, 449velocity, 274

measurement, 283, 528

weakly interacting massive(WIMP), 261, 264, 265

partons, initial, 447path

average mean free, 44, 49length, 134

differences, 134fluctuation, 134, 276

photon average, 237pattern, 457

Cherenkov, 319hit, digital, 295, 296of ‘wire shadows’, 347recognition, 443

automatic, 300reconstruction, automatic,

176, 180PDF, 56, 280peak

Bragg, 475detector, 424escape, 104full-absorption, 486total-absorption, calibration, 259

peaking time, 406pedestal determination, 259pencil beam, 476per-capita dose, annual, 75period of accommodation, eye, 122periodic table of elements, 598personal radiation dose, 97Pestov counters, 277PET, 469, 470, 475, 476

scan, 470, 471phonon, 261

detector, 262, 264excitation, 262, 264pulse height, 265

phosphate glass, silver-activated, 178photocathode, 130

cesium-iodide, 286photo-converter, 286photodiode

avalanche (APD), 138, 242silicon, 137






Index 635

photoelectric effect, 1, 31, 32, 231,287, 472, 486, 514

photoelectroneffective and total number, 276gas-amplified, 100number, 286production, 105statistics, 237, 242transit-time spread, 276

photographic recording, 162photoluminescence centre, 178photometric methods, 177photomultiplier, 130

in RICH counters, 286matrix, 468microchannel, 135multi-anode, 286readout, 275, 287rise time, 134silicon, 142transit time, 134, 276tube

fine-mesh-type, 368, 369hybrid, 136, 286

window, transparency, 131photon, 1

absorption, total cross section, 38angle, 287

measurement, 243scattering, 34

arrival time, 287Cherenkov, 143

number, 288number, total, 242

conversion, 208, 450, 451point, 243

coordinates, 284cross section, 38detection efficiency, RICH

counter, 284detector, entrance window, 285,

286emission angle, 276energy

measurement, 244reduced, 32

high-energy, 287-induced cascade, 250intensity

absorption, 515attenuation, 21

interaction length, 232interactions, 1, 31low-energy, 2number in shower, 236path, average, 237–photon scattering, 38primary cosmic radiation, 257pulse height, 265range, 31, 106sensor, RICH, 286single optical, spectroscopy, 261spatial resolution, 243starlight, 36synchrotron, 77timing, 249transition radiation, see transition

radiationvirtual, 24yield, 143, 480

photonuclear interactions, 24, 336photopeak, 128, 486photoproduction on protons, 165photosensitive vapour, 284phototetrode, 137phototriode, 137

vacuum (VPT), 242physical constants, 577physical half-life, 80physical units, 580physics

heavy flavour, 449neutrino, 287nuclear, 466

pickup, 429coil, 262electrode, 169, 196signal, 429–433

picture of an organ, 468pile-up, 406PIN diode structure, 116






636 Index

pion, 252capture, star formation, 475, 478charged and neutral, 251contamination, 293energy loss, 7, 278–280, 282high-energy, 294hypothesis, 293identification, Belle detector, 380in iron or tungsten, 254/kaon separation, 205, 275, 282,

284, 288, 290, 368, 380, 381/kaon/proton separation, 278mass, 561neutral, 251

fluctuation in number, 252, 255range, 27shower, longitudinal development,

254, 293track, 291, 292treatment, 477

pionic atoms, 478PIXE technique, 480, 481

applications in geology and materialscience, 482

pixel3D (voxel), 477and silicon tracker, 443size, 68system, 217, 221

planar drift chamber, 191, 521planar spark counter, 276, 277Planck’s constant, 45, 577plasma

channel, 169, 171, 276energy, 147

plasticdetector, 176, 179, 300, 520foil, 300polymerised, 126scintillator, 127, 275, 353

material, 126structure, 213

Plexiglas, 145pn junction, 114pocket dosimeter, 80

directly readable, 97

Poissondistribution, 59

error, 60fluctuation, 18-like error, 60, 66statistics, 15

square-root error, 61polar angle, 339‘Poltergeist’ experiment, 310polyethylene as moderator, 298polymerisation, 346, 347

structure, hair-like, 351polymerised plastics, 126polyvinyltoluene, 353position

centre of gravity, 254lateral, resolution, shower, 243measurement, 446monitors, 83resolution, 237

high, 277, 278-sensitive detector, 284, 287

positrondecay in nucleus, 76emission tomography, 469–471, 475,

476emitters, 469, 470, 476energy loss, 11

potentialCoulomb, 18distribution, 94ionisation, effective, 14wire, 198

power dissipation, 419preamplifier, low-noise, 211pressure

gas, detector, 280high, ionisation chamber, 257vapour, saturation, 160

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 489primary ionisation, 13, 100

processes, statistical fluctuation,192

statistics, 193, 206primary vertex, 493primordial neutrinos, 322






Index 637

probabilitydensity function (PDF), 56, 280distribution, normalised, 58electron/muon misidentification,

296electron/pion misidentification,

292–294electron–positron pair production,

231interaction, 42likelihood, Belle, 379neutrino interaction, 307of particle misidentification, 65, 274

fake rate, Belle KLM, 379–381pion/kaon misidentification, 290transfer, mean, 197

production vertex, 318projectile charge, 285propagation

avalanche, 106delay, 419

cable, 427time, counter (TOP), 288

proportionalchamber, multiwire, see multiwire

(proportional) chambercounter, 97, 100, 298, 490

3He recoil, 298xenon, 104

mode, 278tube, 257

proton–antiproton collider, 85decay, 500

Cherenkov counter, 500energy loss, 7, 278, 280, 282-induced cascade, 250-induced X-ray emission, 480lifetime, 500photoproduction, 165positron decay in nucleus, 76primary cosmic radiation, 257–proton

cross section, 41fusion, 308

range, 26, 27

recoil, 297, 298cross section, 299low-energy, 256range, 299

slow, 480storage ring, 180synchrotron, 492therapy, 475, 477

prototype detector, ageing test,350

pseudo random numbers, 491psychological bias, 460p-type semiconductor, 114pulse

height, 258, 275analysis, 392from phonons and photons, 265spectrum, 94, 369

high-voltage, 168rise time, 172

shaping, 392–393, 406–409stretcher, 424test, 259

purification of gas, 351purity, 452pyramids, hidden chambers, 487PYTHIA Monte Carlo, 584

q-fold random coincidence, 64quadrupole, 88

field strength (gradient), 543magnet, 82

quality factor, 73quantum

efficiency, 131interferometer, 262state, well-defined, 85transition, 266

energy, 261quark jet, 447quartz

as Cherenkov radiator, 355bar, 287, 288window, 284

quasiparticle, 261, 262quench gas, 106






638 Index

quencher, electronegative, 168quenching, 106

rad, 72, 516radiation

accident, 81, 503annihilation, 475belt, 466biological effect, 71–73camera, 467Cherenkov, see Cherenkov

radiationcosmic, see cosmic radiation and

cosmic-raydamage, 353

local, 180recovery from, 353reduced, 213silicon detector, 356

detector applications in medicine,space experiments, high energyphysics, archaeology, 466

dose, personal, 97effects, 346electron, 475energy loss, 7, 231environments, harsh, 68, 346exposure due to neutrinos, 323fluorescence, 178γ, see γ radiationgeosynchrotron, 258, 499hardening, 357hardness, xxi, 68, 77, 111, 222, 355

Cherenkov counters, 354of scintillator crystals, 353, 354of scintillator liquids, 354scintillators, 352

initial state, 260length, 19–21, 231, 235, 249, 292,

513, 582, 583of mixtures, 21

loadenvironment, civilisation, and

natural, 75on the patient, 468

luminescence, 124

measurements, 71units, 71, 516

microwave background, 122officer, 76particle, solar and galactic, 466primary cosmic, 257protection, 96, 300, 490

regulation, 76sources, 71, 76synchrotron, 28, 84, 338terrestrial, 75tolerance, 363transition, see transition

radiationunits, 71weighting factors, 73

radiative corrections, 260radiative return, 459radiators

for Cherenkov radiation,144, 283

quartz, 355solid, liquid gaseous, 144

radical (free), 346, 347chemical activity, 347

radio band, 258radio-carbon content and dating,

501, 502radio-tribology, 484radioactive

decay, 489, 516fallout, 486load, 75noble gases, 259sources, 260

low-energy calibration, 259properties, 78radium–beryllium, 77

tag, 484tracer, 468, 469

radioactivityinduced, 466natural, 259, 466, 516of the human body, 75

radiochemical experiment, 311radioisotopes, identification, 486






Index 639

radionuclide, 466, 468activity, 72, 516decay constant, 71

radiophotoluminescence detector, 178radiotherapy, 479radium

activity, 72–beryllium source, 77

radiusbending, 273, 330, 333Cherenkov ring, 283, 285

distribution, 284containment, 95 %, 235, 255,

293, 256electron, classical, 4Larmor, 209Moliere, 234of curvature, 273

Ramsauer effect, 45random

coincidence, 63q-fold, 64

experiment, 60-number generator, 489, 491, 492trigger events, 259

rangemeasurement, 296of acceptance, 489of α particles, 26of electrons, 27

low-energy, 27of muons, 27

high-energy, 28in rock, 28

of particlesin air, 26low-energy, 26

of photons, 31, 106of pions, 27of protons, 26, 27

recoil, 299practical, 27relations with energy, 26short, nuclear fragment, 252system for muons, 295

raster-scan technique, 476, 477

rateageing, 349capability, 191coincidence, two- and threefold, 65count

high, 278true, 63

fake, Belle KLM, 379–381interaction, 85measurement, 63of particles, 259of polymerisation, 347random coincidence, 64

raw detector data, 436–438raw event data, 439RBE factor, 72, 516reaction

conversion, neutron, 297fission, 298threshold, neutron, 300

reactor neutrino, 308readout

chain, 363electronic

Belle ECL, 374, 375detector array, 393–395

element, 213holographic, vertex bubble

chambers, 511integrated circuit, 393magnetostrictive, 173multiple-hit, 67photomultiplier, 275, 287single-hit, 67technique, holographic, 511thermistor, 120, 263time, 62wavelength shifter, 248–250

rear leakage, 233, 237recoil

detector, 3He, 298, 299electron, 264, 265nuclear, 264, 265, 355proton, 297, 298

cross section, 299low-energy, 256






640 Index

recoil (cont.)reaction, elastic, 299triton, 298

recompression, 161reconstruction

algorithms, 439, 469efficiency, 454

multitrack, 67track, 454

energy, 446event, see event reconstructionmissing particles, 455of tracks, 202, 339, 341, 442, 443pattern, automatic, 176, 180raw detector data, 436unstable particles, 449vertex, 500

recordingelectronic, 169holographic, 166optical (photographic), 162, 163

recoveryfrom radiation damage, 353time, 62

effects, 259rectangular distribution, 56reference signal, calibrated, 260refit, mass constraint (kinematical),

453, 454reflection

cable, 427–429internal, 130, 249, 287

critical angle, 145multiple, 287

refractive index, 142, 582, 583average, 145

Regener statistics, 60, 61region of controlled access, 76, 516registering

electronic, 62stereoscopic, 173

rejuvenation, 348relative biological effectiveness, see

biological effectivenessrelativistic particles, 3rem, 73, 516

repetition time, 62, 163repulsion, electrostatic, 189resistance

high, wire material, 351radiation, see radiation hardnessvolume, 194

resistive-plate chamber, 277, 278, 327,362, 377

resistivitybulk and surface, 277specific, 113

resistorchain, 193charging, 105NTC, 263

resolution, 56, 211angular

BaBar detector, 244calorimeter, 243energy dependence, 244magnetic spectrometer, 341

Belle KLM, 378calorimeter, energy dependence, 240Cherenkov angle, 286detection, 395–397energy, 18, 61, 79, 237–240

ATLAS detector, 257Belle ECL, 375, 376calorimeter, 257, 261CMS electromagnetic

calorimeter, 242electronics-noise contribution, 240hadron, 252, 255hadron calorimeter, 257improvement, 18, 257ionisation calorimeter, 243KEDR detector, 243KLOE detector, 249Landau fluctuations, 246liquid-argon sampling

calorimeter, 247loss, 280NA48 experiment, 243OPAL experiment, 242parametrisation, 239, 257sampling calorimeter, 245–247






Index 641

sampling fluctuations, 246scintillator, 247shashlik-type calorimeter, 249thermal detector, 263

high-calorimeter, 372scintillation counter, 470

impact parameter, 363, 364lateral shower position, 243mass, 453, 454

Belle ECL, 375momentum, 330, 332, 334, 335

Belle CDC, 366transverse, 339

particle location, 438position, 237

high, 277, 278silicon vertex detector, 363single-track, 221spatial, 61, 192, 291

Belle CDC, 366charged particle, 277photon, 243

time, 61, 63, 188, 275–277, 288,415–416

Belle TOF, 372electronics contribution, 276high, 277, 278

two-track, 68, 221vertex, 362

resonance, known mass, 260response

calorimeter element, 261frequency, amplifier, 399–400isotropy, 67non-uniform, of scintillator, 352simulation, detector, 439, 453uniform, 127

reverse bias, 114current, 355, 356voltage, 115

RICHcounter, 282, 284, 285

efficiency of photon detection, 284working principle, 283

detector, HERA-B, 286

ring imaging Cherenkov counter, seeRICH counter

rise time, 102amplifier, 416high-voltage pulse, 172photomultiplier, 134short, 276

road method, 443, 444Rontgen, 74root mean square (rms) deviation,

18, 58run (taking data), 437ruthenium-106, decay-level

scheme, 594Rydberg’s constant, 33

sag of a wire, 190sagitta, 333sagitta method, momentum

measurement, 334sampling

calorimeter, see calorimeter,sampling

elements in calorimeters, 257fluctuation, 245, 246, 257

correlations, 246fraction, 246layer, 245plane, 257thickness, effective, 246

SAS-2 satellite, 497satellite

COS-B, 496experiment, γ rays, 495SAS-2, 497

saturationeffects, 101

in detector layers, 256pressure, vapour, 160super-, vapour, 161

scanning of thermoluminescencefilms, 178

scattering, 2, 18angle

distribution, 18of photons, 34






642 Index

scattering (cont.)angular distribution, 18Bhabha, 86, 260Compton, 1, 33, 514

cross section, 38inverse, 35

Coulomb, 18cross section, energy, 35elastic, 504

e+e− event, 386foil, aluminium, 481multiple, see multiple scatteringneutrino–nucleon, cross section, 307neutron

elastic, 297, 299–proton, cross section, 300

of electrons, see electronscattering

photon–photon, 38proton–proton, 41root mean square, 18WIMP–nucleon, 264

scintillatingdielectric crystal, 264fibre, 219, 249

calorimeter, 219tracker, 219, 524

scintillationbar, 276counter, 65, 67, 122, 161,

275, 327, 466, 497, 517gas, 127high-resolution, 470in calorimeters, 249large-area, 484lithium-iodide, 298, 483organic, 299segmented, 469trigger (TSC), 369

crystal, 237, 264heavy, 239

detector, 392, 402efficiency, 123light, 237, 258, 264, 276, 498mechanism, 123of nitrogen, 258

photon, emission angle, 276principle of operation, 248single- and multicladding, 248

scintillator, xxi, 122, 246, 256, 257calorimeter

calibration, 260total-absorption, 312, 495

decay time, 124effective light speed, 276energy resolution, 247inorganic, 123, 353, 468material, 123

inorganic crystals, 123liquid, 127organic compounds, 123plastic, 126, 127radiation resistance, 353, 354

non-uniform response, 352organic, 126plastic, 275, 353plate, end face, 247polyvinyltoluene, 353radiation hardness, 352thickness, 276wavelength-shifter readout,

247, 248screening

effect, 11, 20nuclear charge, complete, 37

sea-water Cherenkov counter, 501secondary

avalanche, 105beam, 336electron emission

coefficient, 131ionisation processes, 13, 91particle, 251

transverse momentum, 251segmented

anode, 277cathode, 106, 109

selection criterion, 274, 455analysis, 439

SELEX experiment, 243self-quenching, 106

streamer tube, 108






Index 643

semiconductordetector, 466, 481, 486diode, 116n- and p-type, 114thermistor, 120track detector, 215, 523

sensitivelayer, 295time, 62volume, calorimeter, 237

sensitivityneutron detection, 299of the eye, 122

separationcapability of crystal

calorimeter, 294efficiency, 292electron/hadron, 292electron/hadron/muon, 161electron/muon, 295electron/pion, 290, 291, 293, 294method, 292muon/kaon, 377muon/pion, 278of mass, 275parameter, 291, 293particle, 206, 281

calorimetric, 292low-energy, 294

pion/kaon, 205, 275, 282, 284, 288,290, 368, 380, 381

pion/kaon/proton, 278quality, event, 294

series noise, 410sextupole, 83shashlik-type calorimeter, 249shot noise, 404–405shower, see also cascade and extensive

air shower (EAS)absorption, 233angular distribution, 234axis, 235centre of gravity, 255

longitudinal, 254, 293characteristic, 236, 254compactness parameter, 293

core, 235depth, 236, 255development, 231, 233, 292

dense media, 236hadron, fluctuations, 255longitudinal, 254, 293Monte Carlo simulation, 234, 235starting point, 293

electromagnetic, counter, 249energy, 235

deposition in clusters, 239lateral structure, 250

length, 253maximum, 233, 234model, simplified, 231number of electrons and

photons, 236parametrisation, 231particles

multiplication, 232track segments, 245

position, lateral, resolution, 243profile, lateral, 253, 254radius, 95 % containment, 255, 256shape, lateral and longitudinal, 449

sieve, molecular, 351Sievert (Sv), 73, 516sigmoid function, 457signal

acquisition, 397–401amplitude, 92detector, vs. capacitance, 397–398efficiency, 439hadron, 253heat, 263minimum detectable, 395mode, 96pickup, 429–433process, statistical significance, 439reference, calibrated, 260rise time of electron component, 102‘start’ and ‘stop’, 274streamer, 107strip detector, cross-coupling, 401synchronisation, 274timing, 277






644 Index

signal (cont.)-to-noise ratio, 391, 395–397

vs. capacitance, 405–406transmission, 427trigger, 63voltage, 276yield, 440

signatureelectron and muon, 320, 321schemes, digital, 489

silane, 351silica aerogel, 144, 145, 367silicate, 351silicon

carbide, 351contaminants, 351detector

oxygenated, 356radiation damage, 356radiation hardness, 355

drift chamber, 218dust, 348microstrip counter, 216, 437photodiode, 137photomultiplier, 142pixel detector, 443pure, 118reverse current, 355, 356strip detector, double-sided, 363vertex detector (SVD), 363

resolution, 363wafer, 264

silver-activated phosphate glass, 178-chloride detector, 176cluster, 176-halide crystal, 175

simulationdetector response, 439, 453event, 291, 341extensive air shower, 453FLUKA, 453GEANT, 453Monte Carlo, see Monte Carlo

simulation

single-cladding fibre andscintillation, 248

single-track resolution, 221SIS transition, 262slow control, 68, 360, 454slow neutrons, 298slow protons, 480SNO experiment, 287, 288, 501sodium

-22, decay-level scheme, 591iodide, 122solid, 145

solarneutrinos, 307, 308, 318, 323, 501particles and γ rays, 466

solenoid detector, 339solenoidal magnetic field, 205, 338solid-angle coverage, 197solid argon, 112solid Cherenkov radiator, 144solid-iron magnet and spectrometer,

332solid sodium, 145solid-state

band model, 112detector, xxii, 14, 112, 279, 298, 517drift chamber, 218ionisation chamber, 91, 112phonons, 261

soundvelocity, 173waves, thermoacoustically

generated, 501source

neutrino, 307point, γ-ray, 496, 499radiation, 71, 76redioactive, see radioactive sources

spacecharge, 106, 210

effect, 350, 355experiments, 466missions, manned, 466

spaghetti calorimeter, 249, 525spark

chamber, 67, 170, 492, 494, 519






Index 645

current-limited, 172glass, 172multigap, 197optical, 493telescope, 488, 496track, 169

counterlarge-area, 277planar, 276, 277

discharge, 171–173formation, 172, 350gaps, 168local damage by, 350

sparking, 351spatial resolution, see resolution,

spatialspecific resistivity, 113spectrometer, 329

magnetic, 328, 335angular resolution, 341CMS detector, 340double-focussing semicircular,

343fixed target, 328special applications, 336

momentum, 257spectroscopy

α and electron (β), 117Auger electron, 480with single optical photon, 261X-ray, 103, 117, 261

spectrumelectron, linearised, 486emission, 123, 126energy, measured, 239luminescence, 125neutrino, 324neutron energy, 300pulse height, 94, 369

speed of light, effective,scintillator, 276

spherical mirror, 283spherical neon tubes, 170spinthariscope, xxspiral-wire delay line, 200spontaneous fission, 180

square-root error, 61SQUID, 262standard error, 58, 59Standard Model Higgs boson, 459STAR experiment, 67star formation, by pion capture,

475, 478starlight photon, 36statistical

independence, 280systematic uncertainty, 440

statisticsbasic, 56counting, 61ionisation, 17photoelectron, 237, 242Poisson, 15

square-root error, 61primary ionisation, 192, 193, 206Regener, 60, 61small numbers, 60, 61

stereoangle, 201

Belle CDC, 364wires, 201

stochastic force, 47storage ring

experiment, 166, 197proton, 180

straight line fit, 443straw-tube

chamber, 202, 521tracker, 290, 443

streamerchamber, 167, 518formation, 247, 350luminous, 167signal, 107tube, 106, 107, 167, 257, 327

calorimeter, 247, 292–296self-quenching, 108

string model of hadrons, 447, 584strip

cathode, 190counter, superconducting, 267detector






646 Index

strip (cont.)double-sided silicon, 363signal cross-coupling, 401

strong interaction, 41strontium, 79

-90, decay-level scheme, 593substrate, ceramic, 213subtraction technique, K edge, 472successive-approximation ADC, 423superconducting

granules, superheated, 262, 265–267–insulating–superconducting

transition (SIS), 262quantum interference device

(SQUID), 262state, 266, 267strip counters, 267

superconductivity, destruction, 262superconductor, 120, 261, 510superheated liquid state, 163superheated superconducting

granules, 262, 265–267SuperKamiokande detector, 320SuperKamiokande experiment, 501supernova

1987A, 324, 501explosion, 308neutrinos, 318

supersaturation, vapour, 161supersymmetric particle, lightest,

455surface

-barrier detector, 117contamination, 81, 503current, 355damage, 277, 355dielectric, 212dose, 475investigation, non-destructive, 480quality, 277resistivity, 277

survey, aerial, 484symbols, logic, 418synchronisation

of bubble chambers, 163of signals, 274

synchrotron, 82, 517electron, 84photons, 77proton, 492radiation, 28, 84, 338

tag, radioactive, 484τ lepton, 317τ neutrino, 311, 317, 319TDC, 275, 425

analogue ramp, 425counter, 425–426

techniqueacoustic detection, 258autoradiographic, 484Ayre–Thompson, 169borehole, 483Cherenkov ring, 288electronic filter, 263etching, 300holographic readout, 511K-edge subtraction, 472maximum likelihood, 456missing energy, 310, 455missing momentum, 310, 455Monte Carlo, 452, 453multivariate, 439, 452, 455muon X-ray, 488, 489neutron-backscatter, 483PIXE, see PIXE techniqueraster scan, 476, 477

telescopeCherenkov, air, 499, 504Compton, 50HiRes, 498neutrino, 258, 296, 501spark chamber, 488, 496

Telescope Array (TA), 498temperature

annealing, 356boiling, 163coefficient, negative, 263cryogenic, 120extremely low, 262gas, 43gradient, constant, 162






Index 647

rise, in calorimeter, 262stability, Belle ECL, 374

tension, wire, 189minimum, 189

TeO2 crystal, 263termination, cable, 428–429terrestrial radiation, 75tertiary avalanche, 105test

ageing, 350beam, 79, 259nuclear weapons, 502of detector, 77pulse, 259

testing sample, 458tetrafluorsilane, 351tetrakis-dimethylaminoethylene

(TMAE), 284tetramethyllead, -pentane (TMP),

-silane (TMS), -tin (TMT), 111Tevatron, 453theoretical systematic uncertainty, 440therapy

hadron, heavy-ion, and particle,475, 476

proton, 475, 477radio-, 479

thermal (Johnson) noise, 403–405thermal detector, 263thermal neutrons, 297, 298thermistor, 263

readout, 120, 263thermoacoustically generated sound

waves, 501thermoluminescence

agents, 178detector, 177dosimeter, 177, 178film, 178

scanning, 178powder, 178

thermometer, 263tungsten, 264

thicknesscalorimeter, 233, 238

effective, 237

sampling, effective, 246scintillator, 276

Thomson cross section, 32threefold coincidence rate, 65threshold

behaviour, effective, 148counter, gaseous, 281crossing, 275detection, 245

reducing, 261detector for neutrons, 300effect, 143, 176energy

Cherenkov radiation, 242neutron reaction, 300pair production, 36

inverse beta decay, 307reactions, neutrons, 300

tile calorimeter, 249time

arrival, 63, 277photon, 287

calibration, 502characteristic, 61, 62charging-up, 194collection, electrons, 93conversion, ADC, 422, 423, 425cycle, 161dead, 62, 63, 170

effects, 259decay, 123

scintillator, 124delay, 63digitisation, 384drift, 192

measurement, 57, 291expansion chamber, 196, 521jitter, 134, 416measurement, 276memory, 63, 170, 172of data-taking, 437-of-flight

counter, 274, 276, 527counter, Belle, 369–371detector, 438difference, 274, 275






648 Index

time (cont.)measurement, 273, 275, 527measurement, mass

distribution, 372-of-propagation (TOP) counter,

288peaking, 406-projection chamber (TPC), 67,

197, 208, 438, 522ALEPH, 211, 281, 282gating principle, 210liquid-argon, 211track efficiency, 454

readout, 62recovery, 62

effects, 259repetition, 62, 163resolution, see resolution, timerise, see rise timesensitive, 62stability, calibration, 260stamp, 394-to-digital converter, 275, 425transit, see transit, timetravel, variation, 276walk, 416, 417

correction, 371timing

for photons, 249information, 438logic, 418measurements, 415–416signal, 277

tin granules, 266microphotograph, 266

tissue weighting factor,73, 74

toggle flip-flop, 490token passing, 393, 394toroidal magnet, 338total-absorption

peak, calibration, 259scintillator calorimeter, 312, 495

total cross section, 32, 42total energy, 2, 274total event energy, 446

total ionisation, 13total track length, 242, 245Townsend coefficient

first, 98, 99second, 171

toxicity, 111tracer, radioactive, 468, 469track

conservation, 176counting, 247decoration, 176detector, 186, 338, 520

nuclear, plastic, 179semiconductor, 215, 523triggered, 170

efficiency, 454electron, 291, 292finding, 444

strategy, 445-following method, 445length

measurable, 245total, 242, 245

measurement, 160error, 331, 334, 339, 342

multiplicity, 448of a particle, 442pion, 291, 292reconstructed, 291reconstruction, 202, 339, 341,

442, 443efficiency, 454

segment, 445number, 245of shower particles, 245

single-, resolution, 221spark chamber, 169streamer formation, 247two-, resolution, 68, 221

trackerpixel and silicon, 443scintillating fibre, 219, 524straw tube, 290, 443transition radiation, 289,

443






Index 649

tracking, 531chamber, 476charged particle, 290system, 276, 288, 442

training, sample and cycles, 457, 458trajectory

charged particle, 329, 442drift, 201, 206

transferenergy

high, exclusion, 280large, 296

light, 247probability, mean, 197

transit time, photomultiplier, 134spread (TTS), 134

photoelectron, 276transition radiation, 28, 527

detector (TRD), 146, 149, 289, 292,438, 528

energy loss, 147hits, 291particle identification, 289, 528photons, 148, 291

angle of emission, 148number of, 292

tracker (TRT), 289, 443transmission line, 168, 427transparency

photomultiplier window, 131reduction, 68, 353, 354, 368ultraviolet, 284

transparent crystal, heavy, 237transverse diffusion, 45transverse momentum, 197, 250, 329,

447average, secondary particles, 251resolution, 339

travel-time variation, 276treatment

facility, 480tumour, 475, 477with neutrons, 475, 479with pions, 477

tribology, 484trident production, 22, 336

triethylamine (TEA), 284trigger, 394

Belle TOF, 369counters, 438events, random, 259high time resolution, 277leading-edge, 415level, 439, 532requirement, 65scintillation counter (TSC), 369signal, 63system, Belle detector, 360,

382, 383triton, 298

recoil, 298troubleshooting, 433true count rate, 63true random-number

generator, 492true value, 59, 61truncated energy loss, 10

distribution, 282truncated mean, 279–281, 367tumour treatment, 475, 477tungsten

calorimeter, 253pions in, 254thermometer, 264wires, gold-plated, 188,

351, 365tunnel

Cooper pair, 262current, interference effects, 262effect, one-electron, 262junction, 122

two-jet structure, 202two-neutrino experiment, 310, 492two-track resolution, 68, 221twofold coincidence, 64

rate, 65

uncertaintyexperimental, statistical, and

theoretical systematic, 440principle, Heisenberg’s, 237

uncontrolled beam loss, 88






650 Index

underground engineering, 466undulator, 31uniform response, 127uniformity of a detector, 67, 455unit

dE/dx in MeV/(g/cm2), 5dx in g/cm2, 5physical, 580radiation, 71

unstable particles,reconstruction, 449

upper limit, 59uranium, 256, 257

as absorber material, 255calibration with, 259calorimeter, 259coating, 298/liquid-argon compensation, 256

UVlaser, calibration, 211transparency, 284

V 0 vertex, 450vacuum phototriode (VPT), 242valence band, 112, 123

edge of, 114validation sample, 459Van Allen belts, 466vapour

addition, 346photosensitive, 284saturation pressure, 160supersaturation, 161water, 351

variance, 56–58Vela X1, 496velocity, 274

drift, see drift velocityof sound, 173particle, measurement,

283, 528vertex, 449

bubble chamber, holographicreadout, 511

decay, 451detector, 166, 174, 202, 216

silicon (SVD), 363silicon (SVD), resolution, 363

displaced, 449interaction, 168, 445primary, 493production and decay, 318reconstruction, 500resolution, 362

virtualgauge particles, 24ground, 401photon, 24

visible energy, 252voltage, see also high voltage

breakdown, static, 276divider, 131operating, 355reverse-bias, 115signal, 276

volumediffusion, 43resistance, 194sensitive, calorimeter, 237

voxel (3D pixel), 477VPT, 242

W value, 13wafer, silicon, 264warm liquid, 111, 246, 257water

as moderator, 297Cherenkov counter, 327,

497, 500large-volume, 318, 319,

500deep, as Cherenkov

medium, 258vapour, 351

wavelength shifter, 126external rod, 247materials, 126readout, 248–250

weak interaction, 308weapon test, nuclear, 502wear, 484






Index 651

weighting factorsradiation, 73tissue, 73, 74

well-defined quantum state, 85whiskers, 351white noise, 403whole-body dose, 76

lethal, 76rate, equivalent, 74

Wideroe condition, 543width

half, 59lateral

electromagnetic shower, 235hadron cascade, 250

measurement, 59radial, cascade, 255

wiggler, 31Wilkinson ADC, 423–425Wilson chamber, 160, see also cloud

chamberWIMP – weakly interacting massive

particle, 261, 264, 265wire

anode, see anode wirechamber, 186

ageing, 346, 349, 350cylindrical, 197, 522

gold-plated tungsten, 188,351, 365

high-resistance material, 351macroscopic deposits, 351

potential, 198sag, 190spiral-, delay lines, 200stereo, 201tension, 189

minimum, 189

X rays, characteristic, 33, 77, 260,480, 481

X-rayabsorption, high, 291diagnostics, 75emission, proton-induced, 480film, 176

industrial, 177imaging, 467, 468photography, muon, 488, 489spectroscopy, 103, 117, 261yield, 480

xenonliquid, 110, 257proportional counter, 104

XOR, 417

Yokota glass, 179

zenith angle, 79zinc

granules, 266-sulphate screen, 122

zone, locallyinefficient, 189






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