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Index

Aari 277ablative, grammaticalization 235–6, 237–8accusative case marking 253accusative languages 253, 254Adamawa languages 31Adamawa-Ubangi languages 18

ATR vowel harmony 158features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167labial flaps 165labial-velar stops 157in the Macro-Sudan belt 178minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169question intonation 79word order 161, 162, 164, 167

adjectives 125–6, 279paucity of 21position of 279possibilities of expansion 125reduplication of 21

adpositions 124–5, 145, 280adverbs 126, 237, 304Afar 140Afitti 285Africa 15–33

‘‘Africanisms’’ 19–27as an areal-typological unit 10comparative linguistics 17–18evidence for definition as a linguistic area

28–34, 149–50,internal coherence 148language groups in 36micro-areas 9–10as a morphosyntactic area 86–315as a phonological area 36phonological zones 36–9, 81typological properties 12, 13

African languages 10, 28–34, 168, 178anastasis 22areal-linguistic relations 184areal subgroups 11characteristics more common in Africa than

elsewhere 26–7, 36

consonant types 40–1distinctively African characteristics 26distribution of case languages 251distribution of typological properties 31documentation of languages 86, 103, 153,

224genetic relationships among languages 12,

34history of 1phonological features 10prosodic features 68–80relative frequency of typological properties

29segmental features 39–68specific properties 10, 28–34typological features 11typological relationships among 1variation space 36

African linguistics, history of 170–4genealogical super-group 173–4Greenberg’s nuclear African area 172–3morpholosyntactic features 11, 148Niger-KordofanianþNilo-Saharan

super-group 173–4Westermann’s Sudansprachen 170–2

‘‘Africanisms’’ 18, 19–27, 39gender or noun class systems 19grammar 20–4polysemy and grammaticalizations 24–6

Afroasiatic languagesaccusative languages 267case marking 88, 147, 251, 301clause-chaining 107converbs 299double object constructions 102in Ethiopia 229gender systems 115ideophones 127implosives 59marked-nominative languages 263, 270and Nilo-Saharan languages 308prenominal relatives 140

354

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question intonation 77‘say’ constructions 304structural diversity 269verb-final languages 273, 275–81word order 129

Agaw languages 231, 240, 268agriculture 188Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 269Aiki (Runga) 118Akan 50, 160Akure Yoruba 52Alagwa 189

Bantu influence in 225–6lexical transfer from Burunge 214preverbal clitic la for optative 214preverbal hortative laa 214subjunctive suffix 218verbal plural stem formation 206word order 219

Amharic 234, 235, 250, 281accusative case 235, 237, 238, 313agreement markers 243benefactive focus 243comparative constructions 236complementation 143existence 245hypothetical conditional 248intentional constructions 241irrealis condition 248language contact with K’abeena 250obligation 245possession 245prenominal relatives 140prepositions incorporated into the verb 111relativization 141subordinate clauses 244

anastasis 22||Ani

adverbial clauses 283converbs 298postpositional phrases 283subject and object agreement 309word order 282–3

animate vs. inanimate distinction 117antipassive 97, 111, 314Anywa 321apodosis of an irrealis conditional 247–50Appleyard, David 230applicatives 109–10, 121, 218Arabic languages 38, 117, 142–3, 152Arbore 268areal contact 2, 306areal diffusion 6, 74, 269areal ‘‘hotbeds’’ 167, 169areal patterning 6–9, 13, 17

articles, definite 315Asax 188aspirated stops 61–2, 63assertion, focus marking and 132Atlantic languages 31, 152

ATR vowel harmony 158labial-velar stops 43, 157noun class systems 116plural number systems 120question intonation 75–6verb-final languages 322word order 128, 161, 162

ATR vowel harmony 21, 50–3, 81, 159, 178,311

distribution of 51in the Macro-Sudan belt 158–9, 179, 181reduced form 50–1

Attie 145

Bacama 158Bambara 121, 131, 133, 141Bantoid languages 79, 155Bantu languages 186, 312; see also Narrow

Bantu languages Proto-Bantu, SavannaBantu languages, Southern Bantulanguages, Ruvu Bantu languages

the accusative in 252applicatives 218aspirated stops 61case marking 88, 89, 90, 263in the Center zone 39clause fusion 200–1clicks 63consonants 64contact with Nilotic languages 4contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 196cross-height ATR harmony 54ejective stops 60, 61future marker laa- 214habitual or pluractional marker 210human vs. non-human distinction 117implosives 55, 57, 59, 60influence in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 191,

225–6labial-velar stops 43–4, 316language contact 186locative constructions 146nasal vowels 45noun class systems 116number systems 3, 120, 190past and future tenses 211, 212pluractional verbs 114predicative inflection of nouns 131preverbal clitic clustering 198

Index 355






Bantu languages (cont.)pronominal affixes 87question intonation 76, 77, 80in the South zone 39stops 63in the Sudanic belt 38tonal accent languages 69tonal case system 88, 252tone system 189use of bare verbs 108vowel harmony 53–4vowel systems 218without P-sounds 312

Bari 97, 269Baule 98Bayso 120, 268, 322Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne 15‘belly,’ semantic extension for emotional

concepts 216Bender, M. Lionel 230

grammatical features of the ELA 232, 233Niger-KordofanianþNilo-Saharan

super-group 173phonological features of the ELA 230

benefactive focus, in the ELA 243Benue-Congo languages 31, 183

ATR vowel harmony 158features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167labial-velar stops 157logophoricity 155in the Macro-Sudan belt 178minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169word order 128, 161, 162, 164

Berber languages 38, 152, 265case marking 90, 263, 264construct form of nouns 315dative 102marked-nominative languages 252, 270split-S systems 252word order 129

Beria 295Bisang, Walter 230Blench, Roger M. 173, 178Bondei 9Bongo-Bagirmi languages

ATR vowel harmony 158features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167labial flaps 165labial-velar stops 157minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169word order 164, 167

Boyd, Raymond 173Boretsky, Norbert 18Brown, Cecil H. 24Bryan, M. A. 284, 285

Bura Mabang 285Burak 310Burunge

Bantu influence in 225–6degree of similarity index 224future tenses 212, 213lexical transfer to Alagwa 214preverbal clitic la for optative 214preverbal hortative laa 214subjunctive suffix 218suppletive verb stems 207–8verbal plural stem formation 207word order 219

Bwamu 57

Cahill, Mike 310calquing 3Campbell, Lyle 233, 310case marking 21, 121, 251, 256

accusative 90characteristics of 13ergative 90and flexibility in word order 278locative 145by tonal differences 89, 263, 270typology of 87–91

cattle nomads 188causal relations 143, 293Center zone 66, 82Central Chadic languages 88, 128Central Khoisan languages 298, 301; see also

Khoisan languagescase marking 288complementation 143head marking on verbs 291lateral consonants 192number system 119and Sandawe 283sequential constructions 140verb-final languages 273, 281–4verb serialization 298, 299verbal derivational markers 292verbs 307word order 281

Central Sudanic languages 18, 182; see alsoSudanic languages

labial flaps 41labial-velar stops 43, 44logophoricity 155, 182number system 119word order 283

Chadic languages 31, 38, 152; see also CentralChadic languages Eastern Chadiclanguages

adverbs 126

Index356






ATR vowel harmony 158, 159auxiliary verbs 106case marking 88, 264complementation 143, 144dative 100, 102focus 138gender systems 314goal orientation 110–11implosives 59labial flaps 41labial-velar stops 43, 44, 157, 158locative constructions 146logophoricity 155modality markers 104negation 135, 137number 118, 119object markers 94pluractional verbs 114possession 123pronouns 169questions 76, 79, 80, 133–4relativization 141sequential constructions 140serial verb systems 113in the Sudanic belt 38tense/aspect systems 108tone languages 72verbal number 114word order 164, 315

Chai 267clause combining 13clause fusion 199clause coordination 139cleft-constructions 22, 137, 139Clements, G. N. 20–1, 36, 56clicks 19, 62–4, 189communicative task, principle of 282comparative constructions 25, 35, 236complementation 143–4complex constructions 139–45

clause coordination 139complementation 143–4consecutive constructions 140logophoricity 144–5relativization 140–3sequential constructions 140switch-reference in 144–5

compound verb forms 106emergence of 305–6in Ethiopia 234, 295, 304in verb-final languages 293, 302

Comrie, Bernard 241, 244conceptualization strategies 23–4conditional clauses 238, 247–50

irrealis 247–50

conjunctions 301consecutive constructions 140consonants 20–1, 40, 41, 61, 63

fortis 57Sudanic 40–1in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 189

constituency relations, in verb-final languages290–3

constituent orders: see word orderconverbs 107, 273, 298

in Nilo-Saharan languages 107, 295in verb-final languages 293–4

convergence 4, 184, 186coordination and subordination 13, 139, 294,

308copulas 130–2, 321coronal stops 68Crass, Joachim 321Creissels, Denis 86–315creole languages 18, 30, 35, 44cross-height vowel harmony 21; see also ATR

vowel harmonycrosslinguistic variation 308Cushitic communities 188Cushitic languages 38, 152, 186, 229; see also

Eastern Cushitic languages, SouthernCushitic languages

agreement markers 243applicatives 218ATR vowel harmony 158, 159dative case 102, 301focus marking 104grammaticalizations 240Highland East Cushitic languages 230, 234,

265–9, 279implosives 55, 57, 59lateral fricatives and affricates 192, 194–5locative complements of verbs of motion

148Lowland East Cushitic languages 279marked-nominative languages 265, 270and Nilo-Saharan languages 285and Nilotic languages 270pharyngeal sounds 190pitch-accent system 189subclassification of 194switch-reference marking 144tense system 212transfer of lexical items 195verbal predication 95word order 103

Dahalo 319Daiso people 9Dan 71, 74

Index 357






dative 97–102, 292, 301Datooga dialects 186, 187, 189, 220–4

applicatives 218ATR vowel harmony 195Bantu influence in 225–6contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 195–6directional marking of the verb 211future tenses 213grammaticalizations 215, 216import of West Rift structures into 206influence of Cushitic languages 196lateral fricative 192, 227past and future tenses 212plural verb stems 208preverbal clitic clustering 198preverbal hortative laa 214semantic extension of ‘belly’ for emotional

concepts 216source of structural features 225tones 318ventive marking 210, 211verbal plurality 210vowel system 217

declarative sentences 132, 281deep structure 274Defaka 288definite articles 315definiteness 94, 117–18dependency relations 290–3detransitivizing derivation 97Dhaasanac 252, 257–62, 268, 269

accent language 258accusative case 259–60case system 258, 259–60, 260–90clitics 258genitive case 259isolation form of nouns 259nominative case 259, 262–4, 268nouns 258oblique case 259, 262passive clauses 260pronouns 258word order 257

Dholuo, see LuoDiamond, Jared M. 318Dickens, Patrick 61Dida 135diffusion areas 15, 38, 228, 285Digo 9Dime 277, 294Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. 86–315

areal diffusion 184ATR vowel harmony 52, 178logophoricity 174

nasal vowels 45Niger-Kordofanian þ Nilo-Saharan

super-group 173Nilotic languages 5

Dinka 141, 283, 315distributed predicative syntax 161, 197divergence processes 184Dixon, R.M. W. 253, 321Dogon languages 152, 155, 158, 162, 163Doke, Clement M. 41Dongolese Nubian 285double object constructions 92, 101–2Dryer, Matthew S. 9, 135, 272, 275, 316

East Africa 4, 9, 129, 140East Dangla 102East Gurage 241East zone 38, 59, 60, 82Eastern Bantu languages, future marker

laa- 214Eastern Chadic languages 95Eastern Cushitic languages 97, 269Eastern Nilotic languages 8, 310, 314Eastern Sudanic languages 89, 119–20, 129,

285Edenmyr, Niklas 193Edoid languages 79ejective stops 60

distribution of 61in the ELA 231implosives and 61in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 217

Emeneau, Murray B. 16, 310ergative systems 90, 251, 252, 253

distribution of 21, 27, 321Eritrea 228Ethio-Eritrean linguistic area 12, 228Ethiopia 228–321

a convergence area 229languages spoken in 228research history 229–34

Ethiopian Linguistic Area (ELA) 12, 275,304

areal diffusion 285areal features 235benefactive focus 243compound verb forms 234different copulas in main and subordinate

clauses 243–4ejective stops 231experiential perfect tense 244grammatical features 232–3grammaticalization processes 235

from exist to possession to obligation245–7

Index358






from past to apodosis of an irrealisconditional clause 247–50

from simile to complementizer to purpose240

of ablative to comparative 235–6of ablative to ‘since’ temporal to real

conditional 237–8of ‘since’ temporal to a real conditional

238idiomatic expressions 234language contact 235, 250lexicalization 230lexical features 233–4morphological features 235–40pharyngeal fricatives 231phonological features 229, 230–2possessive constructions 234proposed new features 234–50prospective and intentional forms 241–2quoting clauses 233subareas 230syntactic features 240‘to be’ auxiliary verbs 233verbal derivations 234word order 233

Ethio-Semitic languages 38, 152, 280, 285, 320features of 234prospective constructions 241

evidentiality in verbs 114–15Ewe 95–6existential quantification negation 137explosive stops 195–6experiential perfect tense 244extended ergative systems 252

Ferguson, Charles A.ELA 2, 15, 229grammatical featues 232, 250, 304phonological features 230, 250

Fleischman, Suzanne 250focus 22, 132, 137–9, 315

cleft-constructions 137, 139by consituent order 138by changes in verb form or special

auxiliaries 22, 138by extraposition 138focus particles 138outside Africa 138and syntax 278verb focalization 139and word order 278

Fon 35‘foot’/‘leg’ polysemy 24Frajzyngier, Zygmunt 86–315fricatives, absence of voiced fricatives 217

Fur 285Furan languages 158

Gbe 48, 71, 79Gender–number agreement 123gender or noun class systems 19gender systems 115–16, 119Generative Grammar 274genetic relationships among languages 1, 308Gensler, Orin D. 161Gidar 110–11, 124, 314Gilman, Charles 15, 18Gisamjanga 198, 208Gisamjanga Datooga 203, 204, 208Givon, Talmy 282glottalization 55, 63goal orientation 320Gogo 212, 214Gokana 48–9, 144goose-file model of spatial orientation 23Gorwaa 188, 219, 220grammar 20–4, 86–102

case marking 87–91indefinite objects 96–7indirect objects 97–102subjects and objects 86–7, 91–6

grammatical replication 3, 4, 5grammaticalization processes 25–6, 235

from ablative to comparative 235–6from ablative to ‘since’ temporal to real

conditional 237–8demonstrative – definite article 117from exist to possession to obligation 245–7involving verbs for ‘say’ 25metaphorical use of body-part terms for

spatial concepts 25–6of nouns for ‘body’ to reflexive markers 26,

191from past to apodosis of an irrealis

conditional clause 247–50from simile to comparative to purpose 239from ‘since’ temporal to real conditional 238use of nouns for ‘man’ and ‘woman’ as

attributive or derivational markers 26Greenberg, Joseph H. 15, 183, 317

Africa as a linguistic area 27areal patterning in Africa 1, 17, 18, 35Benue-Congo languages 288–90contribution to areal linguistics 17definite article 117distribution of areal properties 18division of Africa into linguistic phyla 1ELA 38, 229genetic classification of languages 2, 17,

173, 177, 183, 310

Index 359






Greenberg, Joseph H. (cont.)implosives 57Khoisan languages 281labial flaps 41‘meat’/ ‘animal’ polysemy 17, 310method of dynamic comparison 273, 308‘‘nuclear African area’’ 172–3super-groups 39, 151, 175, 176, 184verb-final languages 272, 301word order 274

Gregersen, Edgar A. 18, 173, 175Grimes, Barbara F. 175Gula Sara 169Guldemann, Tom 2, 12, 105, 151Gulmancema 74Gumar 234, 250

ablative marker 238agreement markers 243irrealis condition 247past 247subordinate clauses 244

Gunnan-Gurage languages 238, 241Gur languages 117, 132, 158

word order 161, 163Guthrie, Malcolm 66, 311

Hadza 187, 191, 224classification of 8, 309contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 195ejective stops 193, 217hunting and gathering 188language contact 186, 193lateral consonants 193, 319lateral fricative 192, 195past and future tenses 213–15preverbal clitic clustering 203–5preverbal hortative laa 214ventive marking 211and West Rift 226

Hagman, Roy S. 281–2Hajek, John 41, 46‘hand’/‘arm’ polysemy 24Haro 96, 120, 278–9, 304Haspelmath, Martin 16, 237Hausa

construct form of nouns 122dative 102implosives 57prepositions 313question intonation 79representation of goal orientation 110verbs of giving 99

‘have’ possession 245–50Hayward, Richard J. 228, 229, 269

grammatical features of the ELA 232, 233lexical features of the ELA 233–4phonological features of the ELA 231

Hdi 147Heine, Bernd 1, 15–33, 240, 274

type B languages 8type D languages 274–5, 284word order 128–9, 274

Hetzron, Robert 238Highland East Cushitic languages 230, 234,

265–9, 279Higi 41human vs. non-human distinction 117hunter-gatherers 188

ideophones 21, 126–7Igbo 118, 125Ijo 305Ijoid languages 152, 273, 288–90, 301

ATR vowel harmony 158compound verb forms 304gender system 288labial-velar stops 157verbs 291, 307word order 162

Ik 8, 110, 125, 133, 259Ikwere 47–8, 56Ilwana 3–4, 9imperative sentences 133implosives 20–1, 41, 55, 81

bilabial 60definition of 55–6distribution of 57–9ejective stops and 61glottalized 56languages that lack implosives 58–9laryngealized 57outside Africa 60sonorants and 56voiced 56, 57voiceless 312

inclusory constructions 23–4information structure 22, 272, 278intentional constructions 241interrogative sentences 133–4Iraqw 188, 189

construct form of nouns 122language contact 193subjunctive suffix in the poetic register

218verbal plural stem formation 207word order 219

Iraqw/Gorwaa languages 215–16, 226irrrealis conditional clauses 247–50Isansu 224

Index360






isopleth mapping 30–1, 32results of application to Africa 30, 34

Izon 273, 292–3

Jessen, Michael 61Johanson, Lars 3Joseph, Brian D. 309Ju 161junctures 300Jur-Luwo 264

Kaado Songay 54K’abeena 234, 250

ablative markers 235, 237, 238agreement markers 243benefactive focus 243comparative constructions 236dative 241existence 246experiential perfect tense 244hypothetical conditional 248intentional constructions 241irrealis conditional 248language contact with Amharic 250obligation 246possession 245, 246prospective constructions 241subordinate clauses 244

Kabyle 100Kado languages 158Kadu 115Kako 117Kalabari 288–90

adverbial phrases 289complementation 289compound verb forms 304–5nominal modifiers 289postpositional phrases 289pronouns 289, 290word order 288

Kalahari Basin 2, 290, 291Kalenjin 5, 50, 321Kanuri

applicatives 110, 282case suffixes 121complementation 143mixed construction dative 102non-verbal predications 130postnominal relatives 142sequential constructions 140word order 285

Kastenholz, Raimund 274Kera 154Kerewe 200–1Khoe see also Central Koisan

clause chaining 299–301comparative constructions 299compound verb forms 305declarative sentences 132dependency marking morphemes 300lateral consonants 192lexicalization 305person–gender–number markers 205ventive marking 211verb serialization 299verbal derivational markers 292word order 283, 322

Khoekoe see NamaKhoisan languages 39, 309; see also Central

Khoisan languages North Khoisanlanguages, South Khoisan languages

absence of voiced fricatives 217aspirated stops 61case marking 88clicks 63consonants 64ejective stops 60gender systems 115, 116language contact 186languages that lack P-sounds 67nasal vowels 45person–gender–number markers 205phonological complexity 19question intonation 77subject/object pronouns 94tone languages 72

Khwe 291, 309, 313Kießling, Roland 12, 186Kikuyu 53, 65Kimbu 201, 212Kisi 163, 164Kohomuno 61Koman languages 158Konig, Christa 13, 86, 250Koranko 160Kordofanian languages 153

labial-velar stops 43minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169pronominal markers 96voicing contrast 67word order 127, 162

Kposo 98–9Krongo 156Kru languages

ATR vowel harmony 158labial-velar stops 157negation 135question intonation 78–9word order 161, 163

Kuliak languages 8, 23, 59

Index 361






Kunama 285Kuteva, Tania 240Kwa languages 8

ATR vowel harmony 158case marking 88complex predicates 113consonant systems 48focus 139labial-velar stops 157phrasal affixes 103word order 128, 130, 161, 162

labial flaps 20, 40, 41–2, 81, 166distribution of 165in the Macro-Sudan belt 165, 167, 169outside Africa 41

labial stops, voiceless 65–7labial-velar stops 20, 42, 81, 311

distribution of 40, 42–4, 157, 179geographic distribution 43in the Macro-Sudan belt 156–8, 169origins of 35, 44Sudansprachen 172types of 42

labial-velar trills 42Ladefoged, Peter 55, 56, 63Langi see RangiLango 269language classification, diachronic 2language contact 2–4, 12, 13, 16, 174–9, 280

change induced by 6, 178, 280in the Macro-Sudan belt 176, 180in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 186

language families 177–8, 293areal 151genealogical 152super-group NKNS 173–4

language shift 205, 224language transfer

contact-induced 6global copying 3selective copying 3transfer of structure 4

languagessynchronic and diachronic variation

between 273typological characterization of 86universal principles of 7

languages that lack P-sounds 66Larochette, J. 17lateral affricative 192–5, 194–5‘‘lax’’ question markers 75–80, 169Lefebvre, Claire 35Lele 123–4, 134, 143Lendu 56, 312

lenis stops 57Leslau, Wolf 230, 275Leyew, Zelealem 15–33Libido 234, 250

benefactive focus 243existence 246intentional constructions 242obligation 246possession 246prospective and intentional forms 241, 242purpose clauses 240similative marker 239

linguistic areas 1, 2, 10, 15–17, 27, 228in Africa 2characterization of 16, 35, 310

linguistic interference 158linguistic material, kinds of 3linkers, relative 142logophoricity 23, 144–5, 151, 154, 174

anti-logophoric marking 145in the Macro-Sudan belt 154–6

Longacre, Robert E. 273, 293Lowland East Cushitic languages 279Luhya (Luyia) 4Luo (Dholuo) 4–6, 131Luyia see Luhya

Ma’a 118–19, 194, 319Maa 256, 268Maale 275

adpositions 277case marking by tonal differences 89case suffixes 88converbs 107, 294, 295dative markers 100, 301declarative sentences 132dependent clauses 276double object constructions 313flexibility in word order 278focus structure construction 276gender system 294locative complements of verbs of motion

148locative nominals 277postpositions 279prenominal relatives 140pronominal markers 92variations at the noun phrase level 277verb-final order 277word order 276

Maasai 92, 96Mabaan 145Maban languages 158, 285Macro-Sudan belt 151–85, 183–5

areal ‘‘hotbed’’ 167, 169, 170, 179, 180

Index362






areal profile of 177–8, 178–9areal explanations 174–9ATR vowel harmony 158–9, 179defining linguistic features 178–9distribution of linguistic features 176–7eastern limit of 181genealogical diversity 175–6genealogical explanations 174–5geographical factors 180historical emergence of 179–82independence of linguistic features 179isolate languages 176justification for 180labial flaps 165, 169, 179labial-velar stops 156–8, 169, 179language contact in 176, 180language families in 152, 176linguistic features of 153–70, 178–9, 183logophoricity 154–6, 179, 182minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169NKNS super-group 173–4research on 170, 183–5word order 159–63, 163–5, 179

Maddieson, Ian 63, 312Mande languages

ambitransitivity 108ATR vowel harmony 158double object constructions 102labial-velar stops 157logophoricity 155minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169predicative marker 95pronominal markers 92split predicate case 274tone levels 74word order 161, 162, 163

marked-nominative languages 13, 21, 90,251–321

accusative systems 253areal diffusion and 269areal distribution 265–9case expressed by suffixes 263case expressed by tone 263characteristics of 253–5definition of 254–5distribution of 263, 264–70Dhaasanac 257–62ergative systems 253evidence for areal relationship 265–8extended ergative systems 252genetic distribution 263–4, 265, 270,

271history of 269–70language contact 270nature of 252

‘‘no case before the verb’’ 262outside Africa 251, 264subtypes of 254, 263, 264, 265–9Turkana 255–7typological features 252, 262–4word order 264

Masica, Colin P. 302Mbugwe 219, 220, 224‘meat’/ ‘animal’ polysemy 24, 35Me’en 136Meeussen, A. E. 15, 18–27method of dynamic comparison 273, 308Meyer, Ronny 321micro-areas 9–10Mina 144, 147, 314minimal-augmented pronoun systems 170Moba 74Moru-Mangbetu languages

ATR vowel harmony 158features of the Macro-Sudan belt 167labial flaps 165labial-velar stops 157, 158word order 161, 162, 164

Mous, Maarten 12, 186Muher 234, 250

ablative marker 238intentional constructions 241possessive suffixes 241purpose clauses 240similative marker 239

Mupun 71, 94, 113, 144–5Mutahi, Karega 15

Nama (Khoekhoe) 281, 282Nande 50–1Narrow Bantu languages 152; see also Bantu

languageslabial-velar stops 157logophoricity 155in the Macro-Sudan belt 177word order 162, 165

Narrow Niger-Congo languages 182, 316, 317see also Niger-Congo languages

ATR vowel harmony 159logophoricity 155, 182word order 163

nasal consonants 46–9distribution of 48languages that lack them 46, 47, 49outside Africa 49

nasal vowels 45–6, 49, 81, 168geographic distribution 45outside Africa 46

Ncam 78Ndut 159

Index 363






negation 135–7clause-final negation 136existential quantification negation 137focalized 137in the Macro-Sudan belt 164negation markers 9, 104negation reinforcement 165negative auxiliaries 135negative copulas or existential verbs 136negative particles in clause-final position

135predicate negation 135–7

Nen 54Ngiti 56, 114, 118, 135, 140Nichols, Johanna 175, 272Niger-Congo languages 8; see also Narrow

Niger-Congo languagesauxiliary verbs 106case marking 88, 89coding of location at / movement towards /

movement from 147consecutive of sequential verbs 107construct form of nouns 122double object constructions 101–2focus marking 104gender–number agreement of the genitive

modifier 123gender systems 115, 117, 313grammatical coding of spatial relations 145,

146human vs. non-human distinction 117implosives 59, 60indirect object (dative) 102labial-velar stops 43, 44masculine vs. feminine distinction 117morphologically marked valency changes

109nasal vowels 45negation 135noun class systems 116, 120, 313pluractional verbs 114plural number system 120question intonation 80sequential constructions 140in the Sudanic belt 38tone languages 69, 72, 73verb affixes 109verb-final languages 273word order 128, 129

Niger-Kordofanian languages 18, 151, 175, 177Niger-Kordofanian þ Nilo-Saharan super-

group (NKNS) 173–4correspondences in sound and meaning 174genealogical explanation 174–5

Nigeria, northern region 31, 33

Nilo-Saharan languages 8, 18, 151, 153, 175ablative case affixes 147accusative case 286adpositions 124and Afroasiatic languages 285, 308ATR vowel harmony 158auxiliary verbs 106case marking 88, 251, 291, 301clause-chaining 107compound verb forms 304converbs 295, 299, 304dependent marking 292directional morphemes attached to the

verb 148distribution of 285gender systems 115ideophones 127implosives 57, 59, 60labial-velar stops 43language contact within 177marked-nominative languages 263, 264, 265nasal vowels 45nominative case 286pluractional verbs 114plural noun markers 118, 119–20postnominal relatives 140relative isolation of 284‘say’ constructions 304structural diversity 269tone languages 72verb-final languages 273, 275, 284–8verbal derivational suffixes 293

Nilotic languages 152; see also Eastern Niloticlanguages, Southern Nilotic languages,Western Nilotic languages

applicatives 218ATR vowel harmony 158, 181case marking 89, 264, 269, 292contact with Bantu languages 4contact with Cushitic languages 270gender systems 115labial-velar stops 43, 44, 157, 158logophoricity 155marked-nominative case marking 91minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169preverbal clitic clustering 198tense categories 4verbal derivational suffixes 208

Nilyamba 224absence of voiced fricatives 217cognate preverbal Near Past 201degree of similarity index 224future tenses 212persistive morphemes 201preverbal clitic clustering 198, 201

Index364






shared features 220–4nominal modifiers 22, 35nominative/accusative case systems 251non-Bantu Bantoid languages 155non-obstruent stops 20–1, 55non-verbal predications 130–2Northeast African Language Macro-Area 228North Khoisan 110, 116North zone, phonological features 81Northern Swahili 199–200nouns 115, 301, 307

case inflections 21, 120‘child’ used to express a diminutive 34classification of 115–17collective entitites 119complex number marking 119construct form of 122coordination 124definiteness 117–18gender systems 119genitives 27, 115, 123–4grammaticalization of body-part nouns as

spatial concepts 215–16inflection of 131, 132lack of plural noun markers 118linkers 121–2linkers and construct forms 121–2nominal class affixes 315noun class systems 116, 145noun phrases 120–1, 124, 315number 118–20, 190numeral classifiers 27, 115paucal number systems 120phrasal affixes 120plural markers 119possessive affixes 123–4predicative inflection of 131reduplication of 21referentiality 117–18types of number systems 119–20ways of combining with genitive modifiers

123Nubian languages 158, 159, 285Nurse, Derek 1, 12, 15, 186Nyamwezi 217, 218Nyang’i 8Nyanja languages 41Nyaturu 203

absence of voiced fricatives 217aspect prefixes 199Bantu influences 199characteristics in common with West Rift 205cognate preverbal Near Past 202contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 196

future tenses 212, 213, 319preverbal clitic clustering 198, 201, 202, 205secondary tense system 198shared features 220–4ventive marking 211verbal inflectional system 198–9

Nyimang 285case marking 285–7, 286–7‘say’ constructions 304similarity to Nubian languages 287–8similitave case 287tense–aspect–mood markers 287

objectsdiscourse dependent 93indefinite or non-referential 96–7indirect (dative) 97–102

obligatory applicatives 121Ohala, John J. 75Olson, Kenneth S. 41Ometo languages, 265–9Omo-Tana 218Omotic languages 38

ATR vowel harmony 158, 159case systems 120, 264converbs 294crossreferencing system 300dative case 100, 102, 301in Ethiopia 229gender systems 294implosives 55, 57, 59lateral fricative 192, 227locative complements of verbs of motion 148logophoricity 155, 156marked-nominative languages 265, 270and Nilo-Saharan languages 285suffixing 301switch-reference marking 144tone languages 72verbs 294, 307

Orma 3Oromo 9, 234, 235, 246–7, 250

conjunctions 237existence 246experiential perfect tense 244intentional constructions 242irrealis condition 248obligation 247past 247possession 246prospective and intentional forms 241,

242purpose clauses 239, 240similative marker 239stage II subject markers 92

Index 365






Osu, Sylvester 56Owere Igbo 56, 61

P-sounds, languages that lack 65–7an African feature 65–7distribution of 65–7explanation for 67outside Africa 67

Pari 89, 90–1, 96, 264Pasch, Helma 115pharyngeal fricatives 231phoneme database 83phonological zones 36–9, 40, 81

Center zone 38–9East zone 38micro-areas 39North zone 38Rift Valley 39South zone 39Sudanic belt 38

phonology 10, 36, 39–68, 68–80phrasal affixes 103prosodic features of phonology 68–80segmental features of 39–68

pidgin languages 30place names 147plural noun markers, ‘we including you’ and

‘we excluding you’ 313polysemy 24–5

‘foot’/‘leg’ 24and grammaticalization 24–6‘hand’/‘arm’ 24‘meat’/‘animal’ 24, 35outside Africa 25

possessives 132, 234, 245posterior durative markers 237postpositional languages 279power 188predicate negation 135–7predicative inflection of nouns 131

outside Africa 132predicative markers 313prepositional languages 279prepositions 94–6, 169, 258, 289, 290, 320

dative 100development from body-part nouns 216reinforcement of 215

prestige 188preverbal clitic clusters 197–206

historical interpretation 205internal development of 199, 202origins of 202

preverbal hortative laa 191, 213–14pronominal markers 87

characteristics of 91–2

obligatory versus discourse dependent 93–4stage I 92, 93stage II 92stage III 92types of 91–3

pronouns 94, 313first person inclusive dual 316logophoric markers 154minimal-augmented pronoun systems 169,

170, 316relative 142

prosodic features of phonology 68–80‘‘lax’’ question markers 75–80number of tone levels 70–4

prospective and intentional forms 241–2Proto-Bantu 162, 211, 217Proto-Berber 269Proto-Khoe 62, 64Proto-Omotic 269Proto-West Rift, preverbal clitic clustering

197Przezdziecki, Marek A. 52

questions 133–4affirmative answers to negative questions 24breathy termination 77, 78, 79cancellation of penultimate lengthening 80constituent questions (‘‘wh-questions’’)

133–4distribution of markers involving H pitch or

raising 76final L tone (falling intonation) 76–7, 78final lengthening 77‘‘lax’’ question markers 75–80, 169markers involving H pitch or raising 75–6markers not involving H pitch or raising

76–80open vowels 77–9polar tone 76question intonation database 85reduction or suppression of downdrift 76rising intonation 75suppression of final lowering 76yes/no questions 133

Qwadza 188

Rangi (Langi) 217, 220, 224word order 219, 220

Rangi-Mbugwe community 186, 189, 212referentiality 117–18, 279regional patterning 13register in tone languages 69, 76relativization 140–3

head-internal relatives in the mainclause 141

Index366






origins of 143postnominal relatives 140, 141, 142prenominal relatives 140, 141relative linkers 142relative pronouns 142

Rendille 218Rialland, Annie 20–1, 36Rift Valley 8, 44, 59, 60, 186Rift zone, phonological features 82Rottland, Franz 192, 195Rundi 307Ruvu Bantu languages 212

Saharan languages 31, 152, 158Saho-’Afar 279Samburu 118–19Sandawe 187, 191

absence of voiced fricatives 217connection with Central Khoisan 187contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 195degree of similarity index 224ejective stops 217first person optative 219iterative marker 210language contact 186lateral consonants 192–3, 195, 319number of nouns 190past and future tenses 213–15person–gender–number marker 205plural noun markers 209preverbal hortative laa 214shared features 220–4suppletive verb stems 210tone system 189ventive marking 211verb stems 209–10and West Rift 226word order 127, 220, 318

Sapir, Edward 272Sarwat 188Sasse, Hans-Jurgen 97, 230, 269Savanna Bantu languages 214; see also Bantu

languagesSawas 188segmental features of phonology 39–68

ejectives, aspirated stops and clicks 60–4features of the eastern Sudanic belt 67–8implosives 55labial flaps 41–2labial-velar stops 42–4languages without P-sounds 65–7nasal vowels and nasal consonants 45–6vowel systems and vowel harmony

49–55

semantics and syntax, correspondencebetween 87

Semitic languagesaccusative languages 267construct form of nouns 86in Ethiopia 229laryngeals 219word order 129

sentence types 132–4declarative sentences 132imperative sentences 133interrogative sentences 133–4; see also

questionssequential constructions 140serial verbs 22, 112–13, 298, 299, 314serializing languages 98, 108Shamba(l), 9Sherzer, J. 16Shilluk 115, 263Shona 41simile, grammaticalization to purpose 240‘since’ temporal clauses 237‘‘slack voice’’ phonation 63So 8Somali

case marking by tonal differences 89complementation 143double object constructions 102focus marking 105inflection of verbs 95prepositions as applicative markers 111tonal accent languages 69

Sommer, Gabriele 10, 15Songhay languages 8, 92, 152, 155

word order 161, 163Sotho-Tswana languages 54–5sound shifts 59South Khoisan 116; see also Khoisan

languagesSouth zone

clicks 62–4consonant types 60, 61phonological features 82

Southern Bantu languages 314; see also Bantulanguages

Southern Cushitic languages; see also Cushiticlanguages

ejective stops 217language contact 186lateral consonants 194lateral fricative 192and preverbal clitic clustering 205in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 188verbal derivational suffixes 206verbal plurality 206, 210

Index 367






Southern Nilotic languages 8; see also Niloticlanguages

linguistic history of 186role of tone 189in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 188ventive marking 211verbal plurality 206voicing contrast 67

spatial concepts of ‘in’ and ‘under’ based onthe model of a quadruped 145–8, 215–16,320

spatial relations 145–8, 215–16sprachbund 1, 2, 12, 15, 228, 311

definition of 16outside Africa 15–16

spread zones 152, 183Stewart, John M. 48, 50, 59stop consonants, voiced and voiceless 63, 169Storch, Anne 15storyline 273, 293sub-Saharan Africa

as an areal unit 184distribution of typological properties 31as a linguistic area 151–318

subject/object case marking 87–91, 91–6distinctions in the shape of markers 96double object constructions 92obligatory versus dependent subject/object

markers 93–4types of pronominal markings 91–3weak pronouns attached to a word other

than the verb 94–6subject–verb order, inversion of 276subjects and objects, recognition of 86–7subjunctive suffix 218–19subordination 294; see also coordination and

subordinationsubsecutive verb forms 273Sudanic belt

consonant types 68coronal stops 68features of the northeast sector of 67–8languages that lack P-sounds 66‘‘lax’’ prosody 79phonological features 82question intonation 80

Sudanic database 83Sudanic languages 310

characteristics of 67contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 67ejective stops 61implosives 57question intonation 77tone languages 69, 72

vowel systems 51Sudansprachen 170–4

areal nature of 172definition of 171labial-velar stops 172

Sukuma 200, 201Sukuma/Nyamwezi

auxiliary structures 202–3past and future tenses 212, 319preverbal clitic clustering 201preverbal hortative laa 214reduction processes 202

Surmic (Didinga-Murle) languages 8ATR vowel harmony 158, 181case marking 91, 269, 292distribution of 267verb-initial languages 322

survey of properties defining Africa as alinguistic area 28–34

data for 28–31genetic vs. areal distribution 31–4isopleth mapping 30–1

Swahili 9, 61, 93–4, 97, 189, 199–200syntax

and focus structure 278and semantics 87transfer of 7

Tama 120–1, 140–1, 287–8Tangale languages 52, 159Tanzanian Rift Valley 12, 186, 188

absence of voiced fricatives 217applicatives 218areal features 221Bantu inheritance 219bilingualism 189, 191, 199, 203clicks 189consonant systems 189contact-induced innovations 224–5contrast between voiced and voiceless

explosive stops 195–6convergences 186, 224degree of similarity index 222, 224diffusion of structural features 191distribution of features in 220economies in 188–9ejective stops 217gender systems 226goal orientation 320grammaticalization of body-part nouns as

spatial concepts 215–16historical interpretation 191, 220–7language communities in 188–9language contact in 186, 191, 205, 220, 224lateral fricatives and affricates 192–5

Index368






as a linguistic area 224linguistic features 192, 221, 222, 318morphological features 190past and future tenses 211–13phonological features 190pluractional verbs 209plural verb stems 206preverbal clitic clustering 197–206preverbal hortative laa 214semantic extension of ‘belly’ for emotional

concepts 216shared lexical items 190–1, 192, 224shared linguistic features in 189–91source of common features 224subjunctive suffix 218–19syntactic features 190tone systems 189trade in 189ventive marking 210–11verb finality 219–20verbal derivation 189verbal plurality 206–10, 226, 319verbal suffixes 189vowel systems 217–18word order 189, 219–20

Tem 65Tennet 136Teso 136Thomason, Sarah Grey 6Tigre 280, 313Tigrinya 65tone languages 20, 21, 69, 169

African 69contour tones 69East Asian 69floating tones 70geographic distribution according to the

number of tone levels 71–2, 72–4non-segmental markers for yes/no questions

70number of discrete tones 70–4origins of 69register 69segmental attrition and 74in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 189tonal accent languages 71, 72tone level database 84

Tosco, Mauro 194, 230, 268, 321, 322ELA 230, 275grammatical features of the ELA 233linguistic areas 2pharyngeal fricatives 231phonological features of the ELA 230verb-final languages 279word order 279

trade 189Treis, Yvonne 300Tsuge 269Tswana (Setswana) 10

ambitransitivity 108applicatives 109, 110auxiliary verbs 106compound verb forms 106–7consecutive of sequential verbs 107constituent questions (‘‘wh-questions’’) 134construct form of nouns 122decausative verb forms 314double object constructions 101focus 138linkers 121–2locative constructions 146–7, 148negation 137object markers 93relativization 143sequential verbs 108subject and object markers 96verbs of giving 98

Tucker, Archibald N. 284, 285Turkana 252, 255–7, 269

accusative case 255, 257adjectives 126dative 255distribution of 267impersonal active 256‘‘no case before the verb’’ 256nominative case 255, 257, 268passive clauses 256tones 255word order 255, 306

typological properties 4–6, 29, 31outside Africa 31

UPSID database 70, 82, 311

ventive marking 210–11verb copying 22verb-final languages 7, 13, 22, 272,

290–3Afroasiatic languages 275–81areal contact 273case marking 278Central Khoisan languages 281–4converbs 293–301crosslinguistic perspective on 272–3distribution of 274focus and 138genetic inheritance 273grammatical coding of constituency and

dependency relations 290–3head/dependent marking 290

Index 369






verb-final languages (cont.)head marking on verbs 292identification of 274, 275, 280Ijoid languages 152, 157, 158, 162, 167, 176narrative discourse 293–301negation markers 9, 309Nilo-Saharan languages 284–8self-organizing principles 273, 293, 301–6,

308in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 219–20typology of 274, 306–8

verb-initial languages 7, 8, 306, 322verb-medial languages 7, 22verb serialization 298verbal derivational suffixes 21, 34, 189verbs 22, 102–15, 301, 307; see also

compound verbsactive 96ambitransitive 108applicatives 146, 314, 315auxiliary verbs 105–7bare 108bivalent 98coding of location at / movement towards /

movement from 147complex predicates 112, 113decausative verb forms 314dependent verb forms 107–8directional morphemes attached to 148evidentiality 114–15focus marking 104of giving 97grammatical expressions of distinctions

102–4grammaticalization of ‘to say’ 143head marking on verbs 293inflection 102–4, 104–5, 189mood classifiers 95of movement 94, 100, 146, 148, 305negation 104–5number 114passives 314phrasal affixes 103pluractional 114, 206, 209, 319plurality 206–10, 319predicative marker 103selectors 103semantically bivalent 87, 98semantically monovalent 86, 87serial verbs 112–13, 314subsecutive verb forms 273TAM distinctions 104tenses 211–13, 244transitivity 108–12valency 57, 86, 87, 108–12

ventive marking 210–11verb focalization 139verbal derivations 234

Vossen, Rainer 45vowel systems 51, 54–5

2H systems 51–3, 81derivation of 52distribution of 52nasal vowels 45–6outside Africa 53in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 217–18types of 51

vowel systems and vowel harmony 49–55ATR vowel harmony 50–3Bantu vowel harmony 53–4raising harmony in Sotho-Tswana languages

54–5

‘we including you’ and ‘we excluding you’313, 316

Wedekind, Klaus 72, 73Welmers, William 18West Africa 8, 49West African languages 103, 129, 172, 290West Rift languages 186, 197, 215–16

absence of voiced fricatives 217applicatives 218diffusion from 191, 225, 226lateral consonants 192, 194–5nouns 318and Sandawe and Hadza 191, 192–3, 195,

226tense systems 212

Westermann, Diedrich 11, 170–2,184, 302

Western Benue-Congo languages 113, 139Western Nilotic languages; see also Nilotic

languagesantipassive 111case system 90, 91construct form of nouns 122ergative structures 91, 96, 129evidentiality in verbs 115pronominal markers 96word order 91, 283, 307

Witkowski, Stanley R. 24Wolaitta 273

adverbial clauses 298clausal cohesion markers 297compound verb forms 302–4converbs 302gender system 294lexical compounds of a verb ‘say’ 303symmetrical and asymmetrical

compounding 303, 304

Index370






verb serialization 298verbal suffixes 295–8word order 277

Wolane 234, 250ablative marker 236, 238experiential perfect tense 244intentional constructions 242possessive suffixes 241

Wolofantipassive 111applicatives 110ATR vowel harmony 159construct form of nouns 122focus marking 104–5noun class system 313use of bare verbs 108verbal suffixes 109

word classes 21word order 21–2, 127, 272, 273,

274, 275in Afroasiatic languages 275–81and adjectival modifiers 130and adpositions 130areal distribution and 6–9in Central Khoisan languages 281–4and dependent marking versus head

marking 291in the ELA 233flexibility in 278, 307and genitival modifiers 129in Ijoid languages 288–90in Nilo-Saharan languages 284–8OSV 276rigidity of 127, 277, 278, 284, 306, 307S-AUX-O-V-X 159–63, 167, 179SOV 127, 128, 275, 276SOVX 22, 103SVO 127, 128, 220in the Tanzanian Rift Valley 189–91type A 128

type B 128–9, 159, 283, 306type C 129type D 129V-O-NEG 163–5variations in 127, 129–30

!Xoo 39, 117, 125!Xun

complex predicates 113declarative sentences 132number system 119questions 133verbal plural 114

Yaaku 8Yaka 44Yei 10Yoruba 100–1, 113, 139

Zaborski, Andrzej 228, 229ELA 230grammatical features of the ELA

232, 233phonological features of the ELA 230subareas of the ELA 230

Zaghawa 295Zande 313Zarma 103–4Zay 234, 250

ablative case affixes 235ablative marker 237, 238comitative marker 237comparative constructions 236existence 245obligation 245possession 245present-tense copula 321subordinate clauses 244

Zayse 95, 277Zulu 54, 312

Index 371






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