marine reserve management in developing nations: mida creek—a case study from east africa

Ocean & Shoreline Management 14 (1990) 105-132

Marine Reserve Management in Developing Nations: Mida CreekmA Case Study From East Africa

A n d r e w D. K e n n e d y

Department of Biological Sciences, Hatherly Laboratories, Exeter University, Exeter EX4 4PS, UK

(Received 19 July 1989; accepted 15 August 1989)

A B S T R A C T

Mida Creek, part of the longest established marine national reserve in Africa, is used to illustrate contemporary problems facing coastal zone managers in developing nations. Activities performed in the creek by tourists, expatriates and indigenous people are described and their deleterious effects categorised. It is shown that despite management policies designed to protect the creek's resources, considerable overexploitation and associated damage is still occurring. Suggestions are made for improved management techniques, and for reconciliation of the conflicting needs of conservation, exploitation and recreation. It is recognised that, despite strong economic pressure, the future of the area lies in the conservation of its biotic resources. Long-term interests are stressed.

1 I N T R O D U C T I O N

As human populations grow in coastal areas across much of the developing world, it is not surprising to learn that natural resources, both biotic and abiotic, are being placed under increasing pressures from exploitation: the harvesting of fish, shrimp and oyster stocks together with the extraction of oil and minerals are inextricably linked to the demands of human population. Inevitably, such demands clash with the interests of recreation and conservation, and coastal managers are confronted with a difficult problem. How do they reconcile the three objectives, and what priority should they attach to each?

105 Ocean & Shoreline Management 0951-8312/90/$03-50 © 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England. Printed in Northern Ireland

106 Andrew D. Kennedy

Most research into the solution to this problem has, of necessity, taken place in the developed world. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park off the east coast of Australia is an example of an area protected by well-designed legislation, thereby integrating the demands of exploitation, recreation and conservation: here the only activity banned completely is mining, with different zones being devoted to specific uses such as research, education, recreation and fishing, but only after consultation with local users. 2,3 But for developing nations, where budgets are often negligible, facilities are inadequate and staff non- existent, the task is far more complex. Comparatively little research has been performed in these areas, despite the fact that biologically they would benefit from it most significantly: their distribution is almost exclusively tropical where biological diversity is known to be greatest :

This paper describes the increasing burden placed by local population expansion and a growing tourist industry on the biotic resources of the Mida Creek region of the Malindi Watamu Marine National Reserve in Kenya. Human activities in the creek are listed, and their probable effects on the environment described. In this way, the area is used as a case study to illustrate a variety of contemporary problems facing shoreline managers in developing nations.

The IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) recognises that in the field of marine conservation, there is more untested theory than practised technique) The implementation of effective management policies is as much a question of constant revision of existing legislation as of initial establishment on a theoretical basis. Accordingly in the second half of this paper, proposals are made for modifications to management practices that should render them more effective. Although specific to Mida Creek, it is felt that the suggestions will be of interest to coastal managers in other parts of the world, notably those experiencing similar problems.

2 THE LOCATION AND ECOLOGY OF MIDA CREEK

Mida Creek is situated 88 km to the north of Mombasa on the Kenyan coast (Fig. 1). Lying between latitude 3'20"S and 3'24"S, and with a planigraphic area of 31-6km 2, it has long been recognised for the quality of its scenery both above and below the water, and as a habitat for a diverse flora and fauna. 6

The climate of Mida Creek may be described as 'tropical coastal'. Mean annual air temperature is 26°C, ~ with the monthly rainfall varying from 2 to 390 mm, with the greatest precipitation occurring in

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Fig. 1. Mida Creek: location.

May. Humidity is always high. Sea temperature outside the creek varies from 25 to 29 °C, and salinity from 34.5 to 35.5%0.

Mida Creek supports a diversity of ecological zones (Fig. 2). On an area basis, these are dominated by mangal, sand flats, rock outcrops, seagrass beds, coral growths and deep water. Localised patches of agricultural land also exist.

Mangroves occupy by far the greatest area of the creek. Four main species are recognised: Rhizophora mucronata, Lam., Avicennia officinalis, L., Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lam., and Ceriops candolleana, Am. These exhibit the zonation typical of a fringe forest 9 and support a diversity of animal life, including monkeys, pied- and malachite-


Fig. 2.

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Primary habitats of Mida Creek.

kingfishers (Ceryle rudis and Alcedo cristata), black migrans) and African fish eagles (Haliaeetus vocifer).

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3 PROTECTION OF MIDA CREEK

The Malindi-Watamu Marine National Reserve, incorporating Mida Creek, was one of the first parts of the Kenyan coast to be declared a protected area. Established as a reserve in 1968, it was gazetted under the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act in 1976. In May 1979, along with the adjoining part of the coast, it was awarded the status of a biosphere reserve.

The marine parks and reserves of Kenya are administered by the Wildlife Conservation and Management Department of the Ministry of

Marine reserve management in developing nations 109

T o u r i s m and Wildl i fe . T h e gene ra l rules an d r egu la t ions for t e r res t r i a l pa rks and r e se rves are e n f o r c e d with modi f ica t ions i m p l e m e n t e d w h e r e

neces sa ry for a m a r i n e sys t em (Tab l e 1). As par t o f the M a l i n d i - W a t a m u M a r i n e N a t i o n a l R e s e r v e , Mid a

C r e e k fits in to a la rger m a n a g e m e n t p lan w h e r e b y the who le a rea is d iv ided into segments . T h e m a r i n e pa rks cons t i t u t e the co re a reas and the ma r ine r e se rves f o r m the buf fe r layer . T h r e e zones are ident i f ied wi thin these: a pa rk service z o n e ( land) , a r e c r e a t i o n z o n e (water -

TABLE 1 Regulation of Activities in Marine Parks and Reserves

1. Activities free of charge a. Passage and anchorage of boats. b. Swimming, water-skiing just off the beach. c. Sailing. d. Walking, sunbathing and picnicking on beach. e. Snorkeling for children under 12 years, just off beach.

2. Prohibited activities in Marine Parks and Reserves a. Snorkeling, scuba diving without appropriate permit. b. Excursions in Mida Creek without appropriate permit. c. Using any seagoing vessel for sightseeing on coral reefs or Mida Creek without

appropriate permit. d. Non-traditional forms of fishing. e. Collecting shells. f. Collecting corals.

3. Prohibited activities in Marine Parks

a. Entering or residing in the Marine Parks without authorisation. b. Convey into, or possessing within the area of the Marine Parks, any weapon,

ammunition, explosive, trap or poison. c. Possessing any animal or trophy without lawful excuse within or without the

Marine Parks. • d. Cutting, injuring or setting alight to any vegetation in the Marine Parks. e. Knowingly introducing any animal or domestic animal or vegetation into the

Marine Parks. f. Deliberately disturbing or stampeding any animal. g. WilfuUy damaging any object of geological, prehistoric, archaeological, marine or

other scientific interest within the Marine Parks, or knowingly removing or attempting to remove any such object or any portion thereof from the Marine Parks.

h. Wilfully damaging any structure lawfully placed in the Marine Parks. i. Clearing, cultivating or breaking-up for cultivation any land in the Marine Parks. j. Catching or attempting to catch any fish in the Marine Parks. k. Collecting or attempting to collect any honey or beeswax in the Marine Parks.


based) and a natural environment zone (mixed). Mida Creek falls within the latter category.

The reserve is managed by a 45-person staff, made up of a warden, an assistant warden, a junior assistant warden, 2 park assistants, 2 corporal-level rangers, 25 rangers, 4 boatmen, 4 carpenters, 3 labour- ers, an office messenger, and a driver)

4 THE STUDY

Although the natural history Of Mida Creek has now been protected for over two decades, little research has been performed to assess how effective the existing management techniques have been. Base-line data to allow the detection of perturbations in the quality or quantity of the natural communities is scarce, as are schemes for management ap- praisal. Reports from local people, both expatriate and indigenous, suggest that the wildlife of Mida Creek is suffering as a result.

Realising the inadequacy of this situation, staff at Jomo Kenyatta University (Nairobi) requested that a study be performed to assess the state of the ecology of the region. In February/March 1988, the author was invited to visit the area to try and establish links between deleterious human practices and visible damage to the environment. To achieve this, a series of detailed explorations around the creek were made by boat and on foot, in order to produce a report on the condition of its biological communities. Supplementary information on human activities and temporal changes was obtained by interviewing members of the local population.

Although a study period of only six weeks was possible, preliminary data collected during this period allowed the compilation of a report which was subsequently circulated to the Kenyan authorities. This paper summarises the contents of this report.

5 HUMAN UTILISATION OF MIDA CREEK

Ray, in his paper on 'Ecology, Law and the Marine Revolution', 1° describes the sea as 'a huge plum which man is ready to pluck but towards which he gropes in a quandary'. Mida Creek can be similarly envisaged, with the qualification that here, man's groping is well underway and the quandary more apparent.

Like most coastal areas of the developing world, Mida Creek supports a human population which relies on its biotic resources for


food and income. Activities can be broadly divided into 'traditional' (i.e. those that have occurred for a significant number of years) and those with more recent origins (mostly related to tourism).

Human activities are responsible for the increasing pressure placed on the biotic resources of the Creek. A brief description of the major categories follows.

5.1 Fishing

Hand-tines, nets, basket-traps and fence-traps constitute the four main fishing techniques used in Mida Creek (Figs 3-10). Spear guns are occasionally carried by local people, but this is rare. The quantity of fish caught and their size distribution is a function of both the fishing technique used and the part of the creek fished. Smaller fish are caught

Fig. 3. Fishing technique: (1) local man using a hand-line.


Fig. 4. Collecting bait (polychaete worms) for hand-lines.

around the edges and at the creek's head, while larger ones (e.g. parrotfishes, Scarus spp.) are restricted to the deep water channel at its mouth.

Some seasonality governs the catch. The months of June and July are considered to be best, as it is then that the waters of the creek are coolest. This allows juveniles of the large ocean-going fish to enter the creek in search of food. At other times of the year, the warm water deters them. April to May is considered the worst time for fishing, since the lengthy rainy season and the south-east monsoon ('kasi') make for poor fishing.

Large fish (>1 kg) are sold to the Watamu hotels at a current cost of Kshs 16/= (c. 50p) per kg. Intermediate-sized fish are kept by the fishermen as food, while the smallest are dried and sold in the markets of local villages.

Marine resert, e managemen t in deve lop ing nations 113

Fig. 5. Fishing technique: (2) nets being cast in the creek.

5.2 Crab hunting

Although it occurs on a much smaller scale than fishing, crab-hunting nevertheless represents an important source of income for a small number of people living around the creek. Two techniques are used to catch crabs. The first involves seeking out their burrows (which are normally located beneath tree stumps), and using a wooden stick with a hook on the end to scoop out the animals. For the second technique, a lump of fish meat is attached to a length of string which is thrown into the creek at a place where the bank drops off steeply into the water. The other end of the line is tied to a stake driven solidly into the ground. If a crab is nearby, it is attracted to the odour of the meat and attempts to drag it into deeper water, thus causing the string to straighten. The meat is then hauled slowly back to the bank with the crab following, whereupon it is caught.

The crab-hunter interviewed for this study knew the location of more than 300 crab-burrows, and in an average day's work would expect to catch between 2 and 9 crabs. These would sell in the Watamu hotels for a price of Kshs 40 /= (c. £1.40) per kg.

5.3 Oyster collecting

Whereas fishing and crab hunting are predominately male activities, the collection of oysters is performed by both men and women.

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Fig. 8. Fishing technique: (3) basket trap.

Fig. 9. Fishing technique: (4) fence trap.

116 Andrew D. Kenne@

Fig. 10. The inside of a fence trap---note asphyxiated fish.

Three kinds of oysters are taken, two of which grow on the roots of mangrove trees (primarily Rhizophora), while the third develops on rocks. The technique used to harvest them depends on the location: those which grow on roots are collected whole, including the shells, while only the meat is extracted from those which grow on rocks.

Oysters are collected for their meat only, with no attempt being made to use their shells. The local people rarely eat the meat themselves, but rather sell it to the Watamu Hotels at Kshs 22/= per full glass (c. £3.50 per kg).

5.4 Mangrove timber extraction

Mangrove swamps are gradually being destroyed for building poles ('boriti') and charcoal, all along the Kenyan coast. 6 Around Mida


Creek, the mangroves are subject to two types of exploitation. The first is on a small scale, and is performed by the local people who cut poles for use in building their houses and enclosures. The second, of greater importance, involves the commercial exploitation of mangrove trees by the sailors of ocean-going dhows which visit the creek and export timber to other parts of the coast (Figs 11 and 12).

The state of the seas governs the second activity. Between April and June, when the kasi monsoon makes shipping conditions dangerous, the dhow sailors tie up their vessels and engage in extensive mangrove tree felling. The poles thus assembled are exported to other parts of the coast, such as Kilifi and Malindi, at other times of the year.

The mangrove species felled depend on the type of wood required. The majority of building poles come from Rhizophora mucronata, though Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Ceriops candolleana are sometimes used. These trees also supply firewood to the local people. A t,icennia officinalis is used neither for building nor fuel, but Graham '~ reports on its use in Kenya for limestone burning, though whether this still occurs is not known.

5.5 Tourism

During the first half of this century, the only tourists to visit the coast of Kenya were white settlers who came down from the highlands around

Fig. 11. Dhow waiting to collect mangrove poles harvested in Mida Creek.

118 Andrew D. Kenned,;

Fig. 12, Trees felled for timber.

Nairobi. Not until the 1950s did tourism as an industry begin to really develop, attracting visitors from South Africa and what was then Southern Rhodesia. By the early 1970s, these had been replaced by a steady flow of Europeans and Americans.

In the vicinity of Mida Creek, the main resort for tourists is at Watamu Bay. Four hotels ( 'Watamu Beach', 'Ocean Sports', 'Sea- farers' and 'Turtle Bay') have expanded in recent years, and there are reports of new hotels being planned.

With the entrance to Mida Creek lying less than 2 km from these hotels, it is inevitable that watersports and viewing excursions should occur within its reaches. Expatriates living in Kenya use it mainly for boating and wildlife safaris, while tourists from other countries perform waterskiing, sailboarding, scuba-diving and picnicking. The level of all these activities is reported to have increased in recent years.

Marine reserve management in developing nations

6 D E L E T E R I O U S EFFECTS

119

Reference to the official guide to the Marine National Parks of Kenya,'-" and to papers describing the biotic diversity of the coastlands of Kenya (e.g. Ref. 11), make it clear that much of the fauna and flora to be expected in Mida Creek no longer exists.

It is unlikely that such changes are a consequence of non-human causes. According to local sources, the decrease in biotic diversity coincides with the increase in human population around the creek and the advent of tourism. Thus, it is necessary to address the human practices occurring in the creek, as the probable cause of damage. A description of the more important effects follows.

6.1 Direct loss of wildlife

Hunting (here taken to include shooting, fishing, crab hunting and oyster collecting) has had a significant effect on the fauna of Mida Creek. Hunting for animals on land no longer occurs as, according to the local people, there are no longer any animals to hunt. Fish and crabs are increasingly hard to catch, and even with modern technology (e.g. guns, barbed-steel hooks and nylon nets), net return for effort has declined significantly. The local fisherman, when interviewed, suggested a timespan of some 15 years.

6.2 Indirect loss of wildlife

Primarily, this is the product of disturbance. Outboard motors, groups of tourists, dhow activity and the felling of mangroves all produce significant noise and unrest. Inevitably, fauna is frightened away, often into the mangroves (mammals, reptiles etc.) or to other parts of the coast (birds).

Loss of habitat also contributes to the reduction. Both the vegetation within the reserve and that surrounding it are subject to erratic clearance; the demand for crops to feed the expanding human population around the creek inspires the destruction of natural habitat to create fields for farming (Fig. 13). Island biogeographic theory states that biological diversity is related to the area and degree of isolation of suitable habitat, thus clearance can be expected to have a significant effect on the wildlife in Mida Creek. Additionally, the isolation of the cover around the creek from the Aruboko-Sokoke forest further inland, a habitat to which it was formerly connected, has segregated Mida from


Fig. 13. Natural habitat cleared to make way for fields.

its faunal reservoir, a major factor behind the fact that the creek is now rarely visited by big game.

6.3 Pollution

An inevitable consequence of human presence in an area is the accumulation of litter in the form of plastics and other non- biodegradable materials. Mida Creek is no exception, and around its shores, this form of pollution is highly visible (Fig. 14). In places, the volume of litter is so great that a proport ion of it being flotsam brought in from the open sea is a distinct possibility. Casual observations of exposed beaches on adjacent parts of the coast show a much lower level of pollution, however, and it is unlikely that the litter distributed around Mida Creek could all have passed through the narrow channel at its entrance. Thus the local people, and particularly tourists on sightseeing excursions, are the most probably cause.

Other forms of pollution, including oil and tar deposits, are not present in Mida Creek.

6.4 Siltation

According to members of the local population, the distribution of sand banks in the creek has increased during recent years, whilst the depth

Marine rese~,e management in developing nations 12!

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Fig. 14. Litter, such as this plastic bag, is widespread in the creek.

of water has decreased. These changes are particularly noticeable in the uppermost part of the creek.

Although the accuracy of these reports is difficult to gauge, such a consensus of opinion indicates that the problem is real. If so, its significance cannot be overemphasized. At low tide, much of the upper part of the creek is covered by less than 2 m of water, and any decrease in this figure will not only affect fish directly through decreased availability of space but also indirectly because of the effect of increasing temperature on aquatic food cycles.

The creek siltation problem requires urgent research, since using current knowledge, only tentative explanations can be advanced. Although deposition of silt carried by the Sabaki River from inland Kenya (primarily the Ukambani hills) occurs further north in the Malindi area, Mida Creek is sufficiently far south to escape from this


particular effect. Instead, it seems probable that felling of mangrove trees for timber, combined with heavy tree mortality induced by the careless collection of oysters, is likely to be the underlying cause. The relationship between plant density, speed of water run-off and sediment loading is well documented in other habitats, however, little research has been performed in mangrove systems. For example, the fact that timber harvesting activities increase streamflow has been demonstrated. ~3 Reduced mangrove fringes might thus allow the passage of silt unhindered into the creek. In support of this hypothesis, Salm s states that mangroves probably function as silt traps, slowing the flow of silt-laden streams and enabling the particles to settle out.

Around Mida Creek, the conversion of natural grassland and palm communities into plots for agriculture will have destroyed much of the soil's stability, thus making it easier for soil particles to be transported towards and into the creek.

6.5 Damage to mangroves

At an early stage in the study, it became apparent that the mangrove fringes were being subjected to a variety of natural and artificially- imposed stresses. The effects of these were numerous and their implications difficult to assess without performing a detailed survey of the complete periphery of the creek. The location of assessment sites is shown in Fig. 15 and results of the survey are summarised in Table 2.

The fact that only one site in pristine condition was discovered says little for the value of Mida Creek as a biosphere reserve: such reserves are supposed to be baseline areas where interference by man is kept to a minimum. ~4 At other sites, felling of trees for timber and the clearance of beaches to enable boats to land were common phenomena. At Site A (Fig. 15), clearance of mangroves to provide an aesthetic view for an Italian villa occurred during the six-week study period: what was a good stand of undisturbed mangroves at the start of the study had been completely destroyed by its completion.

Careless extraction of felled timber from within the mangrove forests is responsible for the deaths of many young trees. The dragging of heavy poles through the vegetation snaps seedlings and scars the trunks of developing plants. For this reason, the effects of felling are not restricted to mature trees of harvestable size.

Most worrying of all is the widespread collapse of whole margins of mangrove trees around the creek. Urgent research is needed to find the cause of this phenomenon, but two possible explanations seem likely. Firstly, siltation, as described above, is both directly--through smothe-


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Mangrove assessment sites in Mida Creek.

ring of aerial roots--and indirectly--through altering water currents-- causing the destabilisation of mangrove trees; and secondly, the careless collection of oysters from mangrove root systems using machetes to sever the wood is killing many of the trees (see Section 7).

Mangrove communities are recognised by the IUCN as important agents in reducing coastal erosion, flooding, and storm surges; and dampening waves and high winds generated by tropical storms. Like coral reefs, they provide low-cost, self-repairing, natural 'breakwaters'. Their destruction around Mida Creek is thus of grave concern to the park authorities.


TABLE 2 Condition of Mangrove Communities at Assessment Sites"

Extent of mangrove damage

Clearance to Clearance for Mint create aesthetic beaches to land Felling for

condition views boats timber Collapse

N A B B C F C F G E I H G J

H K J M K P M R Q R U

"See Fig. 15 for location of assessment sites.

6.6 Fishery depletion

As described in Section 6.1, the local people around Mida Creek have noticed a marked decline in their fish catches over the last fifteen years. While the possibility exists that this is simply a product of over- exploitation, the possibility of other, more complex, factors must also be considered.

A fundamental product of recent ecological research has been an appreciation of the inter-dependence of biological communities. It is now realised that in order to manage animal or plant populations, attention needs to be paid to all aspects of their environment--even subtle exogenous influences.

Such is the case with ocean fisheries. To quote BrekeP 5 in his contribution to the Workshop on Aquatic Resources of Kenya: 'Fish populations under exploitation cannot be studied as isolated u n i t s . . , fisheries research must be defined broadly to encompass studies of fundamental biological processes in reefs, creeks and estuaries, as well as the open sea.'

Much research has been performed on the role of mangrove swamps in providing food and protection for fish in their juvenile stages (e.g. MacNae16). Studies in Central America have shown that mangroves have a high rate of gross photosynthesis, in the order of 8 gcm -2 year-~; 17 and that much of the carbon fixed ultimately becomes


available to marine life. Several scientists have found direct relation- ships between the area of mangrove forests and prawn catches in adjacent waters (e.g. Refs 18 and 19). Damage to the mangrove communities of Mida Creek can thus be expected to have a highly deleterious effect on fish populations, both of local distribution and those further out to sea.

A 'grace period' is likely to occur, whereby material released through the destruction of mangrove forests provides a temporary food surplus. As exploitation continues, the net availability of nutrients will decrease, however, and it is only then that fish populations will be affected. People living far away from Mida Creek could thus find their livelihoods affected by over-exploitation of the creek's resources.

7 A LESSON FOR SHORELINE M A N A G E M E N T

Mida Creek forms part of the first marine national reserve to be declared in Africa. 6 Despite legislation designed to control the occurrence of detrimental activities in the area (Table 1), extensive loss of wildlife and damage to the natural habitat has occurred during the twenty years since its declaration. This loss threatens both the livelihood of the local people and the prospects of the growing tourist industry centred around Watamu Bay.

The problems faced by Mida Creek need to be addressed, and lessons from them learned if other reserve areas established more recently, both in Africa and elsewhere, are to avoid a similar fate.

Boaden and Seed 2° suggest that four sources of such problems exist: First, that some resource uses are incompatible; second, that it is difficult to determine the priority of use; third, ignorance; and fourth, previous wrong decisions.

Each of these sources can be recognised in the case of Mida Creek. Conservation, recreation and exploitation of biotic resources all seek different goals, and currently little initiative has been taken to reconcile their needs. The park management has as yet allocated few priorities to different uses, with the result that conflicting uses all operate freely. The ability to formulate effective management policy is hampered by lack of research into the needs of the local people, and also the aspirations of tourists. Prospects for the park are not improved by existing management practices.

So, how might management policy be altered to minimise these problems? Although the suggestions made are specific to Mida Creek, it is felt that many will be of relevance to coastal managers in other parts of the world who are experiencing similar difficulties.


The existing legislation governing practices in Mida Creek allows 'traditional forms' of activities (fishing, timber extraction etc.) to occur. Through these, it is felt that over-exploitation will not arise since supposedly this is a problem of 'modern' times. Although the term 'traditional forms' begs clarification, it is evident that for such legislation to be effective, two assumptions need to be fulfilled: first, that the quantitative use of such techniques does not increase; and second, that the balance between exploitation and natural production is in a steady-state situation before the legislation is enforced. Around Mida Creek, the growing human population has led to a significant increase in the use of such practices, thus invalidating the first assumption. Additionally, there is little evidence to suggest that the second criterion was ever fulfilled. Thus the first measure needed to slow the destruction of biotic resources is a qualification to existing legislation: traditional activities should be permitted, but only to a carefully monitored extent, ideally a measure of that performed in the days before over- exploitation occurred. Beyond this level, any type of exploitation should be banned. Resource partitioning, a concept totally new to the local people around Mida Creek, might represent the easist way to implement such a policy. Alternatives include the introduction of permits, closed seasons, closed areas and additional restrictions on the type of equipment used.

The next measure required for successful management is a total, or near-total, ban on certain highly deleterious activities. For example, in the case of Mida Creek, the careless collection of oysters from Rhizophora whereby whole roots are severed, and the careless extraction of felled timber by which numerous mangrove seedlings are damaged, are practices that fall within this category. Collapse of whole margins of mangrove trees because of damage suffered by these means poses a serious threat to the shoreline of the creek. The long-term effect of such mortality is likely to be felt by the local community for many years to come.

A policy needs to be implemented controlling the occurrence of 'high profile' activities within the creek. It is suggested that tourist activities be graded on a 1-5 scale, category '1' embodying those activities that produce little disturbance, and categories '2' to '4' those of increasing noise and visual impact. A fixed number of permits should be issued for each category, the number being kept well within the bounds of low disturbance to wildlife. Activities in category '5' (including waterskiing, powerboating and other very noisy practices) should be totally banned.

To encourage the return of large mammals to the reserve it is suggested that a corridor of land connecting Mida Creek with the


Aruboko-Sokoke forest be declared protected and left to natural colonisation. Possibly, the Malindi-Watamu reserve area itself could be amalgamated with one or both of the two reserves that already exist in this forest. Whichever, game should be encouraged to make use of the habitats surrounding Mida Creek as it did before the intervening land was cleared.

To control the felling of mangrove trees, it is proposed that a licence and quota system be established to limit the export of timber from the creek. Local use of mangroves should still be allowed, since this represents only a small proportion of the total number of trees felled. The establishment of areas where mangroves may be harvested would protect other areas of comparatively pristine condition. Likewise, other already-damaged parts of the coast should be allocated to the dhow sailors as sources for their timber.

Such control measures will inevitably provoke opposition from the local people if they put their livelihood at risk. This socio-economic problem should be recognised rather than ignored, however, and an attempt made to provide an alternative source of income. In Section 5, the financial returns of specified human activities were quoted, and from these it can be seen that fishing, oyster-collecting and crab-hunting are only valuable in terms of the Watamu hotels' demands for food. Yet this is only one way in which tourism is of importance to the people of Mida Creek; the potential exists for much greater integration, with local people acting as safari guides and hotel staff. Cash generated by timber felling and other harmful activities could thus be replaced with wages from the hotels. Alternatively, the construction of oyster farms, such as those established by the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute south of Mombasa at Gaza, represent an ecologically-safe option, with good financial potential. Three such farms have already been established in the creek, with promising results (Fig. 16). As a last resort, and if alternatives cannot be found, payment of compensation for lack of use should be considered.

Needless to say, legislation, however well designed, will not be effective without adequate enforcement, and it is here that another alteration to the management of Mida Creek is required. At present, existing resources allocated to the Malindi-Watamu Marine National Park and Reserve are almost exclusively concentrated on the coral gardens around the Watamu hotels and at Leopard Point, Malindi; and it is here that fees can be levied from tourists visiting the park. Little attention is paid to Mida Creek itself, with the result that human practices (both legal and illegal) occur freely side by side. Better distribution of existing resources, such as park wardens and boats,


Fig. 16. Oyster farming could provide an alternative income for local people.

needs urgent attention. To quote from the UNESCO Coral Reef Management Handbook: 2~ 'Implementation (of management policy) on a day to day basis is the most critical part of management. Without effective imp lemen ta t i on . . , a plan is likely to have adverse effects by focussing attention on the area in question and through creating a false impression that protective action is being undertaken. '

In the same context, the need for surveillance must be stressed. Continual monitoring of the effects of human practices is required to allow the design and implementation of corrective measures. Yet during the six-week study-period a patrol boat was seen operating within the creek only once. Without surveillance patrols, it is impos- sible to detect restricted activities.

To allow the detection of changes in the ecology of the creek, a system of monitoring the wildlife and physical parameters of the area


should be implemented. The invitation received by the author to study human impacts on the area is a move in this direction. In developing countries, sophisticated biological survey techniques are often prohibi- tively expensive or, because of inadequate facilities, logistically impos- sible. However, monitoring procedures need not be curtailed for this reas6n, since rudimentary techniques, such as transects performed by undergraduate biologists on field courses known to visit Mida Creek, could be used to provide useful data. This was demonstrated when Exeter University students monitored the Budleigh Salterton Salt Marsh Reserve in Devon, UK. Course indicators of environmental health are usually all that is required.

Finally, and of equal importance to all the above measures put together, is the concept of education. Without gaining the understand- ing of the people who use the creek, it is unlikely that any management policy will ever succeed. Education should be directed at both local people and tourists, and seek to achieve the greatest possible user cooperation and support for the management plan and its objectives 5 (Table 3). It is proposed that educational visits be made to local villages by members of the park staff, in order to disseminate information concerning the interdependance of the people on the creek's biotic resources and the need for controlled exploitation. Likewise signs and displays in the Watamu hotels, and at the park entrance, would serve the same purpose for tourists. An overall shift in emphasis is envisaged, with increasing responsibility for the behaviour and activities of visitors to the reserve being placed on the hotels which accommodate them, as well as for the levy of park fees. Such a shift would release park wardens from policing around the hotels, thus making them available for duties in conservationally more sensitive parts of the park.

TABLE 3 Education Strategy for Park Management a

Target group Message

Tourists and visitors

Local people

Hotels

Nature of reserve and its communities need for protection

Economic benefit of proper management Nature of management plan: objectives Suggested tourist activities in area Requirements of management legislation

Adapted from: UNESCO Coral Reef Management Handbook (1984), Kenchington & Hudson. 2°


8 CONCLUSIONS

Mida Creek displays, as if in a microcosm, many of the problems facing shoreline managers in contemporary times; the demands made by local population increase, recreation for tourists, and the conservation of wildlife. These constitute three corners of a triangle, apparently incompatible one with the other and each displaying different needs. Efforts to reconcile these objectives, although substantial, have so far been inadequate. Pollution, over-exploitation, loss of wildlife and the destruction of natural habitat are all visible consequences.

The question arises as to whether the declaration of Mida Creek as a marine reserve serves any protective role; the damage visible in the area suggests that the opposite may be true. Local people who lived in the area before the reserve's establishment believe that such destruction only commenced subsequent to the opening of the Watamu hotels. They believe that the declaration of a reserve, with its calculated appeal for residents and tourists alike, could not have been more harmful.

On a purely scientific basis, it is generally considered that marine parks and reserves are important assets both to the countries in which they occur and to the world as a whole. Brekel 6 summarises their functions as follows:

1. as a source of eggs and larvae for the repopulation of damaged, disturbed or overexploited areas;

2. as centres for scientific research into the biology of marine organisms;

3. as undisturbed baseline areas necessary for comparison in the monitoring of pollution and environmental degradation in other areas of the coast; and

4. as enclaves to protect and preserve biological communities of great aesthetic value to visitors and residents alike.

It is doubtful whether Mida Creek qualifies as a source for baseline comparisons, since so much of its wildlife has already been disturbed. Of the other three functions, it still plays an important role, however, and it is towards the maintenance of these that the emphasis on its conservation must be placed.

In an increasingly competitive world, there is a growing need to justify protected areas in economic terms. National parks and reserves are expected to show that the income which they generate exceeds their cost of maintenance or alternative land use. In many parts of the world, this argument causes the removal of parks and reserves from the protected list, but in the case of Mida Creek it should do the opposite:


in financial terms, the area holds the potential not simply to provide food and raw materials for the local population but also to generate substantial revenue for the Republic of Kenya. Tourism is already the country's second largest source of foreign income,Z2 and coastal holidays are rapidly becoming more important than inland safaris. If the country is to benefit from this trend, arrangements should be made to provide for them. Comparison with the Virgin Islands National Park, which currently generates in excess of US$23 million each year at costs of only US$2.1 million, 23 shows how profitable this industry can be.

To attract tourists, and to continue to provide for the needs of the local people, Mida Creek needs first and foremost to be protected as a reserve for wildlife. Only with its biotic resources intact can their needs and aspirations be met. It follows that conservation must be seen as the primary objective for any long term management policy.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

The author wishes to thank Barbara Simpson of Watamu for her assistance in the conduct of this project; and Joyce Halliday and Tegwyn Harris (Exeter University) and Mike Gee and Richard Warwick (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) for helpful comments on this manuscript.

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marine reserve management in developing nations: mida creek—a case study from east africa

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