marine environmental issues in maritime education and...
TRANSCRIPT
Proceedings of the 2"d General AssemЫy of 1АМИ 2-5 October 2001, КоЬе, JAPAN
Marine Environmental Issues in Maritime Education and Training
ABSTRACT
Sue LEWEY, Malek POURZANJANI Southampton lnstitute
East Park Terrace, Southampton, S014 OYN sue. [email protected] .uk malek.pourzanj an [email protected]. uk
and
Peter WYBROW PL W Associates
Currie House, Herbert Walker Avenue, Southampton, S015 IНJ plw.associates@btinteгnet . com
In recent times there has been an increasing interest the impact of shipping апd ports on the marine environment. Paradoxically, while shipping and Ports are seen as contributing to pollution, the industry is also seen as an environmentally ассерtаЫе form oftransport, particularly when compared to road and air. Environmental legislation, for ships and ports, at the local , regional , national and intemational level is set to increase in the next ten years . An awareness of this legis\ation and the environmental issues should have а higher profile in maritime education and training.
This paper will outline:
• current environmental issues associated with shipping e.g. aпtifouling
• environmental and socio-economic impacts ofthe issues, and
• important environmental legislation as it affects shipping
Shipping апd Port operations exert pressures on the marine environment.
1. Introduction
Shipping and Port operations exert pressures on the marine environment. Shipping is seen Ьу some as а
contributor to marine pollution. In 1990, while being non-specific, marine transport is estimated to contribute some 12% of marine pollutants. Laпd based inputs were estimated as making the largest contribution. Others see marine transport as being the most environmentally ассерtаЫе mode of transport, particularly when compared to road апd air (GESAMP, 1990).
Shipping safety and marine pollution are inextricaЫy linked and in addition to \egislation regarding ship safety, environmental legislation, for ships and ports, at the local, regional, national and intemational level is set to increase in the next ten years. An awareness of this legislation and the environmental issues should have а higher profile in maritime education and training.
Shipping and port activities can impact on the marine environment in two main ways:
• Accidental impacts: - e.g. oil spill resulting from collision or grounding/straпding, loss of deck cargo. The incidents tend to Ье unique апd сап Ье only aпticipated Ьу scenario setting. Legislation can help to minimise risk апd mitigation ofthe effects ofthe accident сап only Ье approached from а "toolbox" perspective
• Operational impacts e.g. toxic effect of antifouling paints, discharge of Sox and Nox emissions. The impacts, from ship and port operations, generally tend to Ье chronic and are often controlled Ьу legislation . Mitigation of effects of operational impacts can Ье planned and controlled.
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2・EnvironmentalisstleSaSSOCiatedwithshipping
2.1AcddentalRisb
Marineaccidents,grOundingsorstrandingsmayresultinlocaliseddamageanddistu血anCetOtheseabed,but
mayalsoleadtolossoft
2・1・10il,eitherascargOOrbunkeringfuel,OrHazardouscargo,includingnoxiousliquidsubstanCeSand
harmfu1substanCeSCarriedbyseainpackagedforme・g・peSticides,lique頁edgas・Theefrtctswillbeun1quetO
thesituationbutthefuelorcargowillhaveawiderangeOftoxicorphysicale飴ctsonmarinehabitats.Themainimpactsofbothoilandchemicalspi]lsareeitherphysical,e・g・SmOtheringbycrudeoil,Or,tOXic,e・g・lethal
e飴ctsofspiltoilorchemicalS・ItisthoughtthatBirds,mOlluscsand丘sheggsandlarvaeareparticularlyatrisk
舟omaccidentalspills.
GESAMPdata,COllectedbetween1973and1981,SuggeStSthat400-300thousandtonnesofoilenteredthe
WOrld’soceansbytankeraccidentsduringthatperiod(GESAMP,1993).
2・1・2CoIlisionwithmarinemammals-Whilenotcorrmon,COllisionsdooccurandareparticularlyassociatedwithhigh-SpeedcraR.AIsopropellerirtjurieshavebeenreportedonmarinemammals.
2.20perationalRisks
2・2・10perationaloilspiIIscargoandbunkeringfue1-0perationalspillsareusual1ysmallbutrepetitive・The
e飽ctsofthesespillsarcchronicandlocalised・Impactsonmarinehabitats,include,physicaldisturbanCe,tOXic
tosensitivespeciesandorganicenrichmentofthesediments.Annualoperationalspillsofoil(intonnes)havebeenestimatedas:-
Non-tankeraccidents-750-200
0perationaldischarge1080-600
Representingthesecondlargestinputofoilintothemarineenvironment(GESAMP,1993).
2・2・2Emissions-Sox,Nox,CFC’sandVOCsareallregardedascontributingtoatmosphericpollutionleadingto
globaIwarming,pOOrairqualityandacidrain・TheinputofSulphurandNitrogenOxidebyshippingissmalIin
globalterms・HoweverinreglOnSwithalargevolumeofshippingtra餌C;theremaybe signiGcantreglOnalproblems(lmarE,1996).
2・2・3Antifbulingtoxins-Thebiocidese・g・TBT,Triazines,insomeantifoulingcoatingscanleachintothe
SurrOtmdingwaterandaccumulateinbenthicorganismsandsediments・Thesebiocides,bytheirnature,areharmfultoarangeofmarineorganisms.Thenatureofthetoxicityischronicandcane脆ctsuchfunctionsas
morphology,grOWthandreproductionofarangeOfmarinespecies.
2・2・4Dischargeofballastwaterandassociatednon-nativespecies-Theintroductionofnon-nativespeCiesViathedischargeofballastwateriswelldocumented.ThesespeciescanbedetrimentaltolocalspeCiesthroughCOmpetitionforspaceornutrientsortheycanbetoxicanda飴ctlocal貝sheries.
2・2・5Noise-Someevidencethatvesselnoisecandisturbmarincmammalsand鮎h・ThereisparticularCOnCem
OVerCetaCeanSthatmayexperiencedistutbanCetOfeedingandbreeding.CargOhandlingnoisemayalsodisturb
mammalse.g.sealSandwaterfowl.
2・2.6Shipatld boatwash-Shipwashmayresultincrosionofintertidalandshallowwaterhabitats.The
resuspenSionofsedimentmayalsoleadtoresuspensionoftoxinSinthesediment・CurrentlytherelSgreatCOnCem
regardingtheimpactwashgeneratedby血st-CraR.
2・2・7WastedisposalatSea/inport-MarinemammalsandbirdscanSWalldworbecomeentangledinplastic
litterformships,0Renleadingtofhtalities・Distinguishingbetweenshiporlandgarbageisdifncult.
Beachwatch96(UK)estimatedthatshippinggeneratedsome17.4%ofthetotaldebriscollectedonUKbeaches.
2・2・8DredginganddisposalofspoilJMaintenanCeandcapitaldredgingdisturbstheseabedleadingtodamage
Ofbenthicecosystems(physicalandsmotheringbysediment),inCreasedlevelsofsuspendedsediments and
attendantpOllutants/nutrientsinthewatercolumn.Inaddition,thedisposalofdredgespoilcanalsodamageOther
benthic communities by smotheringand/orincreasingthe uptake ofcontaminants or nutrients by being
resuspendedintothewatercolumnfromthe dredgedsediment(ABP,1999,ANON,1998,DeJong,1997,
GESAMP,1990,ICS,1993).
3・Environmentalandsoci0-eCOnOmicimpactsoftheissues
3・lSoeio-eumOmicimpaeb
InadditiontothedirectbiologlCal,eCOloglCalandenvironmentalimpactsofshipping,thereareindirectimpacts
Ontheeconomicsandsociologyofmaritimereg10nS・Thesearegenerallylessobvi0usthanthedirectimpacts・
HoweverthereisevidenceemerglngthatthegeneralpublicarebecomlngmOreaWareOftheissues.Astudy
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CarriedoutbytheEuropeanCommissionin1999(ESPO,2001)basedontheviewsofrepresentativesamplesof
thepopulationineachofthe15memberstatesthrewlightontheattitudesofthegeneralpublictowardstheenvironment.Itfoundthat:
・ 80utOflOEuropeanSbelievetheyliveon‘aplanetindanger’;
・ 50utOflObelievethatitisnecessarytO’fundamentallychangeourwayoflifeanddevelopmentifwe
WanttOhaltthedeteriorationoftheenvirorLment’andthat‘makingregulations stricter’isthebest
meansofdeljvermgthisdlange.
But
・ 80utOflObelievethatanenVirorLmentalprotectionpolicymusttakeintoaccoumt‘socialandeconomic
e庁bcts’.
ItalsofoundthatindustryspokespersonsaretheleasttruStedonmattersofthe environment(environmental
protectionorganizationsarethemosttruSted),
3・1.1Sustainability
TheIntemationalYearOftheOceansin1998focussedattentionontheneedforsustainablemanagementofthe
OCeanreSOurCeS.Muchattentionhasbeenplacedonthesustainabilityofmarineecosystems,particularlycoastal
areas.TheinCreaslngeXploitationofthe coast continuesonaglobalscaleandtheneedforthe sustainable
developmentofhumanaCtivitiesbecomesincreaslnglmpOrtantinEurope aswellasthe restoftheworld・
Shipping represents one ofthe humanaCtivitiesthat exert apressure onthe coastalmarine environment・
Paradoxically,WhileshippinglSSeenbysomeasacontributortomarinepollution,inotherareasitisseenasbeingthemostenvironmentallyacceptablemodeoftransport.ThemanyglobalShortSeaShippinginitiatives
recognisethisfact・
3.1.2Soci0-ccOnOmicimpactaSSeSStnent
Theassessmentofsocio-eCOnOmicimpactofshippinglSmultifhcetedandnoteasytoassess.Theinterestsof
maritimereglOnSthatcouldbea飴ctedbyshippingare:Ports,harboursandmarinas
Healthofresidentsandvisitorstomaritimecitiesandenvirons
Fisheries
Shelはshbeds
Tourism
Namrereserves,
Alloftheabovehaveahighsoci0-ccOnOmicvaluetomaritimeregions・Ironically,tOurismミpOrtS,harboursand
marinasarenOtOnlyimpactedbyshippingoperations,butmaythemselvescontributetosoclO-eCOnOmicimpacts
(Tait&Dipper,1998,Viles&Spencer,1995)・
3.2Themainactivitiesassociatedwithshippingthatareknowntohveasocio-eCOtIOmicimpct.
3.2.10ilSpills-Operationaloraccidentalspills ofoilorotherhaZardous cargo cana飴ctallthe named
SenSitiveareas,thepreviouslydiscussedphysicalandtoxica飴ctscana飴ctthereglOnS鮎heries,bysmothering
She11航shbedsanditstoxicnaturetofisheggsand丘y.Inaddition,thetaintingof且shandshell丘shfkshbyoilis
knowntOimpacton鮎hsales,fbllowlnganOilspill.Fishinggroundsandshell鮎hbedsmaybecomesu叫ecttoClosureorders.Thiswillhaveadirecta飴ctonthe丘sherieseconomicsofthearea.
Thephysicala飴ctsofanoilslickwi11impactdirectlyonthenaturereservesandindirectlyontourism,reSulting
inalossoftourismincometothereglOn.Exampleswouldbethelossofamenitiesductooilcover,withthese
areas becomlngunattraCtivetovisitors.Thelossofbirdormarinemammals,duetooiling,1eadingtothenature
reserveSbeinglessattractivetovisit.
Harboursandmarinasthatareoiledmaybethemselvesclosedorseenasalessattractivetovisitleadingtolossof
incomeinhabourandmarinaduesandtheindirectlossofincomegeneratedinassociatedareaS.
3.2.2Emissions-ThereissomeevidencethattheinputofSulphurandNitrogenOxidecanleadtolocalised
poorairquality,Whichcouldhavehealthimplicationsforlocalresidents・
VOC,S魚・OmCargO,mayCauSeenVironmentalandhealthdamageatalocallevel・
3.2.3.JlaJJastWater-DischargeofbaHastwatermqyleadtotheintroductionofnon-nativespeCiestHistoricallymanyoftheestablishedintroducedspecieshaveanimpactonshellnshbeds.Thesetakethefbrmofcompetitive
Or pathogenic species,either ofwhich canhave a detrimental affbct on the commercial shellfish beds・
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AdditionaHy,SometoxicorharmfulspeciesareknowrtObetransportedinballastwater.Toxinsaccumulatedby
Shellfishcanbeharmfultothehealthofhumanandmarinemammalse.g.PSP.
ThevibriobacteriumcausingCholera,Salmonellasp.andfaecalcoliformsarealsoknowntobetranSpOrtedin
ballasttanksandrepresenthumanhealthhazards(Rawlingsetal.,1999,Knightetal.,1999)3・2.4Garbage-Marinedebrisisgenerallyunsightlyandnotattractivetovisitors,thusimpactingontourism・Medicalproductsassociatedwithdebrismayposeahealthrisk,Asstatedbefore,itisdifnculttodistinguishbetweenlandandmarinedebris.
3.2.5Gencralcontamination-Asoutlinedpreviously,therearemany50urCeSOfcontaminantsassociatedwith
Shipping,e.g.antifouling,dredgingactivities.Anycontaminantthatisbio-aCCumulatedinmarine organisms,
particularlyshe11鮎h.mayposeeconomiCandhealthrisks(BarrOW,1997,DeJong,1997).
4.EnvironJnentalLegislationasitAffbctsShippingandPorts.
Asstatedear1ier,Shippingsafbtyandmarinepollutionareinextricablylinked.Someenvironmentallegislation
dealsdirectlywithenvironmentalprotectionegMARPOL,WhileotherinstrumentSareprlmarilyaimedatatship
andhumanSafety,egSOLAS,butindirectlyhaveaninnuenceonenvironmentalsafbty.
4.1IJ)ternatiomalLegislation
TheMarineEnvironmentalProtectionCommittee(MEPC)oftheIntemationalmaritimeOrganisation(IMO)are
COmmitted toimplement regulationinorder to mltlgatethe efftcts ofshipping on the environment・The
MARPOLConventionwas adoptedin1973andcoverstheregulation ofpoIJution ofthe seas byshipping.
Originallyintendedtocoveroilpo11utionasOILPOLandsubsequentlyMARPOL,itnowcoversmanyotherCOntaminantS:
AnmeXトOil
AmexII-NoxiousLiquidChemicalsAmexlII-HarmfuIGoods(PaCkaged)AnnexV-Garbage
AnmexIV-Sewage
AmexVI-AirPollution(Nox,Sox,&omshipexhaustsandemissionofozonedepletingsubstances
InadditionIMOarecommitted,bymeansofnew AnnexestoMARPOLorbynewconventions,
- to:GlobalprohibitionofTBTinAntifbulingcoatlngS,applicationbanby2003,withtotalbanby
2008,amd
- ControlandmanagementofShips’Ballastwaterto minimisethetranSfbrofHamfulAquatic
Organisms(IMO,2000)
Also ofInterest toIMOare,dumping at sea,double hulls,PreVention ofaccidentalpollution(SOLAS),
COmpenSationforpollutionandthedesignationof”specialareas”(IMO,1998,a,IMO,1998,b)
4.2NationaIlegislatiom
ManyCOuntriesandreglOnSarenOWadoptingtheirown1egislationwithregardtotheprotectionofthemarine
environment.Examplesinclude:
FromlJuly2001,AustraliahasnewmandatoryballastwaterrequlrementS.Anyship arrlVlnginAustralianWaterSWillberequiredtoLmdergoaballastwaterriskassessmentandthenundertakeanaPPrOVedmanagement
OPtion.hterestinglythelegislativeframework fbrthe newrequirementsisunderthe Quarantine Act,1908
(AFFA,2001)
TheEurOpeanUnionhasrecentlylegislatedonairemissionsandportwastereception・IncreaslnglytheEUis
lookingatshippinglnSuStainabletermswithintheframeWOfkofintegratedcoastalzonemanagement・
Increaslngly,reglOnalgovernments andindividualPortsimplementlegislation or guidelineswithrespeCt tO
marineenvironmentalprotection.
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5.EducationandTraining
WithinSTCW,theprotectionofthemarineenvironmentandthepreventionofpollutionarereCOgnisedasbeing
lmpOrtantwithintrainingfornavlgationalwatchkeeping.hladdition,thespeCialrequrrementsfortankersare
alsom相即ised.
TheISMCodeprovidesaninternationalstandardforthe safemanagementandoperation ofshipsandfbr
pollutionprevention.
EducationandtrainingtoSTCWandtheISMcodewi11glVeabasisofknowledgeandunderstandingofthe
maritimeenvironmentalissueヲ・ManyIAMUinstitutionseducatetheirstudentstoahigherlevel,SOmeO飴ring
POStgraduatecotms.inenvLrOTnentalissues・However,mOreCOuldbedonetoeducateseafarerstotheenvironmentaland oclO-eCOnOmlCimpactsofshippingandportoperations.
6.Conclusions
TherearemanyenvironmentalissuesasociatedwithShippingandPortoperations.Someoftheseissueshave
SOCi0-eCOnOmiCimpactsonthecommunitiesinmaritimeareaS.However,ShipplnglSSeenaSanenVironmentally
acceptal)1emethodoftranSpOrt.
hternational,nationalandlocallegislationandguidelineshelpcontrolandregulatetheimpactofshippingand
portoperationsonthemarineenvirorLment.
lncreasedtrainingisneededintheenvironmentalandlegalissuesandisrecognisedwithinSTCWandtheISM
COde・Educationandtraininginenvironmentalissueswi111eadtoabettereducatedworkfbrcewithadeeper
umderstandhgoftheenvironmentalandsocio-e∽nOmicimpactsofshipping・ThisbetterawareneSSShouldhelp
inthefurtherdevelopmentoflegallycompliantandultimatelyasustainableindustry.
ThechallengeremainstoreduceenvironmentaldamagebymaritimeoperationstoaleveJthatisacceptableandSuStahable.
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