Antwerp Maritime Academy

Navale Engineering

Marine Electrical Knowledge

Author:Willem Maes

October 17, 2012

Contents

0.1 Electrical Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.1.1 Power Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.1.2 Insulated And Earthed Neutral System. . . . 60.1.3 Significance of Earth Faults . . . . . . . . . . . 70.1.4 An Electric Power System’s Reliability . . . . 8

0.2 A Ship’s Electrical System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1 Auxilliary Electrical services. 111.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.2 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.2.1 Incandescent lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.2.2 Discharge Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.2.3 Navigation and Signal Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.2.4 Emergency Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.3 Cathodic Protection For Ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.3.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.3.2 A litle electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.3.3 What is cathodic protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251.3.4 Cathodic protection in human language . . . . . . . . . 26

2 Rules, regulations and guidelines regarding high volt-age systems 322.1 Competence requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.1.1 International Maritime Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.1.2 IMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.1.3 SOLAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.1.4 STCW Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.2.1 Scope of classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.2.2 Assignment, maintenance, suspension and withdrawal

of class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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2.2.3 Classification surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.3 Equipment standardisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.3.1 International standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 High Voltage. 383.1 High Voltage On Ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.1.1 High voltage versus low voltage in practice . . . . . . . 393.1.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.2 H.V. Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.3 H.V. Insulation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.4 High Voltage switchboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4.1 H.V. Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.4.2 Circuit breakers and contactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.4.3 Isolation media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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List of Figures

1 Insulated and earthed neutral systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 circuit faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 circuit faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1 Incandescent lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.2 Tungsten-halogen lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.3 Low pressure mercury fluorescent lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.4 A fluorescent lamps filament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.5 Ballast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.6 The preheat starter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.7 The preheat starter circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.8 Germicidal lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.9 Mercury-vapor lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.10 HP mercury-vapor lamp and circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.11 SOX lamp and circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.12 SON lamp and circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.13 Ship’s navigation lights requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.14 Navigation Light Panel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.15 Ship’s navigation lights arrangement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.16 Navigation lights circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.17 Xmas tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.18 Signal lights switchboard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.19 anodic reaction and cathodic reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.20 No protection at all. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261.21 Propeller shafting may require bonding to the hull. . . . . . . 271.22 Sacrificial cathode system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.23 sacrificial anodes on a ship’s hull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.24 Impressed current system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291.25 Ships anodes and impressed current control system. . . . . . . 301.26 Impressed current system on a tanker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.27 Impressed current anode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.28 Sacrificial anodes in a ballast tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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2.1 Leading the way: dedicated to safe ships and clean seas, IACSMembers make a unique contribution to maritime safety andregulation through technical support, compliance verificationand research and development. More than 90% of the world’scargo carrying tonnage is covered by the classification design,construction and through-life compliance Rules and standardsset by the Member Societies of IACS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 Cruise ship with High Voltage network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3839figure.3.240figure.3.33.4 IEC 61892-2 recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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List of Tables

0.1 Electrical Distribution.

0.1.1 Power Distribution

The function of a ship’s electrical distribution system is to safely convey elec-trical power to every item of equipment connected to it. The most obviouselement in the system is the main switchboard. The main board suppliesbulk power to motor starter groups (often part of the main board), sectionboards and distribution boards. Transformers interconnect the HV and LVdistribution sections of the system. Circuit breakers and fuses strategicallyplaced troughout the system automatically disconnects a faulty circuit withinthe network. The main switchboard is placed in the engine controlroom andfrom there engineroom staf monitor and control the generation and distri-bution of electrical power. It is very important that every engineer has aprofound knowledge of the electrical distribution of the ship’s power. Theonly way to aquire this knowledge is to study the ship’s power diagrams.Almost all oceangoing ships have an A.C. distribution system in preferenceto a direct current D.C. system. Usally a ship’s electrical distribution schemefollows shore pratice. This allows normal industrial equipment to be usedafter being adapted and certified where and if necessary, so it can withstandthe conditions on board of a ship (e.g. vibration, freezing and tropical tem-peratures, humidity, the salty atmosphere, etc. encountered in various partsof the ship). Most ships have a 3-phase A.C., 3-wire, 440V insulated-neutralsystem. This means that the neutral point of star connected-generators isnot earthed to the ship’s hull. Ship’s with very large electrical loads havegenerators operating at high voltages (HV) of 3.3KV, 6.6KV, and even 11KV.By using these high voltages we can reduce the size of cables and equipment.High voltage systems are becoming more common as ship size and complexityincrease. The frequency of an A.C. power system can be 50 Hz or 60Hz. Themost common power frequency adopted for use on board ships is 60Hz. Thishigher frequency means that generators and motors run at higher speeds with

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a consequent reduction in size for a given power rating. Lighting and lowpower single-phase supplies usually operate at 220 V. This voltage is derivedfrom a step down transformer connected to the 440 V system.

0.1.2 Insulated And Earthed Neutral System.

An insulated system is a system that is totally electrical insulated from theearth (or the ships hull). An earthed system has the supply neutral pointconnected to the earth. Shipboard main low voltage systems are normally in-sulated from earth (ship’s hull). Similar systems ashore are normally earthedto the ground.The priority requirement on board ship is to maintain continuity of the elec-trical supply to essential equipment in the event of a single earth-fault oc-curing. The priority requirement ashore is the immediate isolation of earth-faulted equipment wich is automatically achieved by an earthed system.A circuit consists essentially of two parts:The conductor, the part wich carries current trough the circuit;Insulation, the part wich keeps the current inside the conductor.Three basic faults can occur:An open-circuit fault is due to a break in the conductor, as at A, so thatcurrent can not flow.An earth fault is caused by loss of insulation, as in B, allowing the conductorto touch the hull or an earthed metal enclosure.Earth faults are typicallybreakdown or wear of insulation. Earth faults are usually small fault cur-rents, that is why they are difficult to detect.A short circuit fault is due to a double break in the insulation, as in C, allow-ing both conductors to be connected so that a very large current by-passesor short-circuits the load.The size of the fault current that will occur depends on the overall impedanceleft in the circuit under fault conditions.Short circuit currents are often ac-companied by an explosion in the fault location.

The majority of earth faults occur within electrical equipment due to aninsulation failure or a loose wire, wich allows a live conductor to come intocontact with its earthed metal enclosure.To protect against the dangers of electric shock and fire that may result fromearth faults, the metal enclosures and other non-current carrying metal partsof electrical equipment must be earthed. The earthing connector connectsthe metal enclosure to earth (the schip’s hull) to prevent it from attaining adangerous voltage with respect to earth. Such earth bonding of equipmentensures that it always remains at zero.

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Figure 1: Insulated and earthed neutral systems.

Figure 2: circuit faults

0.1.3 Significance of Earth Faults

If a single earth fault occurs on the live line of an earthed distribution sys-tem it would be the equivalent to a schort-circuit fault across the generatortrough the schip’s hull. The resulting large current would immediatly causethe line protective device (fuse or circuit breaker ) to trip out the faultycircuit. The faulted electric equipment would be immediately isolated fromthe supply and so rendered safe. However, the loss of power supply, couldcreate a hazardous situation, especialy if the equipment was classed essen-tial(ABS part 4 chapter 8 table 1 and 2), e.g. steering gear. The large faultcurrent could also cause arcing damage at the fault location. In contrast asingle earth fault occuring on one line of an insulated distribution systemwill not cause any protective trip to operate and the system would continueto function normally. This is the important point: equipment continues to

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operate with a single earth fault as it does not provide a closed circuit so noearth fault current will flow. More important is that if a second earth faultoccurs on another line of the insulated system, the two faults together wouldbe equivalent to a short- circuit fault (via the ship’s hull) and the resultinglarge current would operate protection devices and cause disconnection ofperhaps essential services creating a risk to the safety of the ship.An insulated distribution system therefore requires two earth faults on twodifferent lines to cause an earth fault current to flow.In contrast, an earthed distribution system requires only one earth fault tocause an earth fault current to flow.An insulated system is, therefore more effective than an earthed system inmaintenance continuity of supply to essential services. Hence its adoptionfor most marine electrical systems.Note: Double-pole switches with fuses in both lines are necessary in an in-sulated single-phase circuit.

0.1.4 An Electric Power System’s Reliability

Reliability of an electric system is obtained by sectioning of the distributionsystem and providing multiple power sources, by providing an emergencypower system, subsectioning of the circuits, the choice of the earthing systemand the selectivity of the protections.

Sectioning of the distribution system and providing multiple powersources

Providing multiple transformators can protect certain users against partic-ular problems. An example can be computer systems wich are sensitive toharmonics.

Emergency power systems

Two independant high to low voltage power stations, emergency generators,UPS, independant emergency lighting a.o. have to be placed in well protectedarea’s enabling them to function in case of an emergency and or accident.

Sectioning of circuits

Essential equipment can take there power from the main or emergency switch-board. This way a fault wich affects a secondary circuit doesn’t influence acircuit with high priority. Sectioning of circuits is done as demanded by The

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Rules and the demands of exploitation, providing at least two power sourcesfor all essential equipment.

Selectivity

If a fault occurs at any point in an electrical distribution circuit, it is essentialthat it does not interrupt the supply to essential services. This obviousrequirement leads to the necessity of rapidly isolating the defective sectionwithout depriving the other users of electrical energy; this is in fact theprinciple of selective tripping.The protective element (circuit breaker or fuses) wich is placed immediatelyup-stream from the part of the circuit where the fault has occured, andthis alone element, must then operate; the other protecting elements mustnot trip. Conventional selectivity processes (overcurrent and time lag) fullfilthese requirements to a more or less satisfactory degree.

Figure 3: circuit faults

Overcurrent Selectivity

This makes use of protective equipment operating instantaneously (rapidcircuit breakers or fuses). The selectivity is based on the fact that the short-circuit current decreases with increasing distance from the power source. Itis thus especially for low voltages where the connecting impedances are notnegligible.

Time lag selectivity

This can make complete selectivity by delaying the tripping of each circuit-breaker for durations all the higher as the circuit-breaker is nearer the sourceof energy.

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0.2 A Ship’s Electrical System.

0.2.1 Overview

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Chapter 1

Auxilliary Electricalservices.

1.1 Introduction

todo

1.2 Lighting

1.2.1 Incandescent lighting.

Figure 1.1: Incandescent lamp.

For a long time the incandescent lamp was the most common lamp forgeneral lighting. On board of ships they are still used for certain applicationsas there are navigation lights, indicator lamps, battery operated emergency

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lights a.o. A simple filament type is shown in the next figure, a current passestrough the tungsten filament wire of wich the temperature raises to a 3000 ◦Cat this point the wire becomes incandescent, it glows. The glass bulb is filledwith an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen wich helps to prevent filamentevaporation. Numerous variations on the ordinary filament lamp are made,to prolong the expected lifetime, ore to give the lamp special properties.A popular variation of the incandescent lamp is the tungsten-halogen lamp.

Figure 1.2: Tungsten-halogen lamp.

This lamp has a gas-filled quarts tube or bulb wich also includes a halogenvapour such as iodine or bromine. When the filament is heated, evaporatedtungsten particles combine with the halogen vapor to form tungsten-halide.At the high filament temperature the tungsten vapour reforms on the fila-ment. This regenerative process continues repeatedly creating a self cleaningaction on the inner surface of the glass tube or bulb.Linear tungsten-halogenlamps must be used in the horizontale position otherwise the halogen vapourwill concentrate at its lower end wich results in rapid blackening of the tubeand a reduced operating life.

1.2.2 Discharge Lamps

Low pressure fluorescent lamps

A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas-discharge lamp that uses elec-tricity to excite mercury vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producingvisible light.A fluorescent lamp tube is filled with a gas containing low pressure mercuryvapor and argon, xenon, neon, or krypton. The pressure inside the lamp is

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Figure 1.3: Low pressure mercury fluorescent lamps.

around 0.3 percent of atmospheric pressure. The inner surface of the bulb iscoated with a fluorescent (and often slightly phosphorescent) coating madeof varying blends of metallic and rare-earth phosphor salts.The bulb’s cathode (filament) is typically made of coiled tungsten which is

Figure 1.4: A fluorescent lamps filament.

coated with a mixture of barium, strontium and calcium oxides (chosen tohave a relatively low thermionic emission temperature).Fluorescent lamps are negative differential resistance devices, so as morecurrent flows through them, the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lampdrops, allowing even more current to flow. Connected directly to a constant-voltage mains power supply, a fluorescent lamp would rapidly self-destructdue to the uncontrolled current flow. To prevent this, fluorescent lamps mustuse an auxiliary device, a ballast, to regulate the current flow through thetube.

The simplest ballast for alternating current use is a series coil or choke,consisting of a winding on a laminated magnetic core. The inductance ofthis winding limits the flow of AC current. Ballasts are rated for the size oflamp and power frequency. Where the mains voltage is insufficient to start

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Figure 1.5: Ballast.

long fluorescent lamps, the ballast is often a step-up autotransformer withsubstantial leakage inductance (so as to limit the current flow). Either formof inductive ballast may also include a capacitor for power factor correction.Fluorescent lamps can run directly from a DC supply of sufficient voltage tostrike an arc. The ballast must be resistive, and would consume about asmuch power as the lamp.To strike a fluorescent tube, its gas filling must be ionised by a voltage be-tween its cathodes that is slightly higher than that required to maintain thenormal discharge. Two common methods are used to strike the tube:The preheat starter.

Figure 1.6: The preheat starter.

The automatic glow starter consists of a small gas-discharge tube, contain-ing neon and/or argon and fitted with a bi-metallic electrode. The specialbi-metallic electrode is the key to the automatic starting mechanism.

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When starting the lamp, a glow discharge will appear over the electrodes

Figure 1.7: The preheat starter circuit.

of the starter. This glow discharge will heat the gas in the starter and causethe bi-metallic electrode to bend towards the other electrode. When theelectrodes touch, the two filaments of the fluorescent lamp and the ballastwill effectively be switched in series to the supply voltage. This causes thefilaments to glow and emit electrons into the gas column by thermionic emis-sion. In the starter’s tube, the touching electrodes have stopped the glowdischarge, causing the gas to cool down again. The bi-metallic electrode alsocools down and starts to move back. When the electrodes separate, the in-ductive kick from the ballast provides the high voltage to start the lamp.The starter additionally has a capacitor wired in parallel to its gas-dischargetube, in order to prolong the electrode life.Once the tube is struck, the impinging main discharge then keeps the cath-ode hot, permitting continued emission without the need for the starter toclose. The starter does not close again because the voltage across the starteris reduced by the resistance in the cathodes and ballast. The glow dischargein the starter will not happen at the lower voltage so it will not warm andthus close the starter.Tube strike is reliable in these systems, but glow starters will often cycle afew times before letting the tube stay lit, which causes undesirable flashingduring starting. (The older thermal starters behaved better in this respect.)If the tube fails to strike, or strikes but then extinguishes, the starting se-quence is repeated. With automated starters such as glowstarters, a failingtube will cycle endlessly, flashing as the lamp quickly goes out because emis-

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sion is insufficient to keep the lamp current high enough to keep the glow-starter open. This causes flickering, and runs the ballast at above designtemperature. Some more advanced starters time out in this situation, anddo not attempt repeated starts until power is reset.Rapid startNewer rapid start ballast designs provide filament power windings within theballast; these rapidly and continuously warm the filaments/cathodes usinglow-voltage AC. No inductive voltage spike is produced for starting, so thelamps must be mounted near a grounded (earthed) reflector to allow theglow discharge to propagate through the tube and initiate the arc discharge.In some lamps a ”starting aid” strip of grounded metal is attached to theoutside of the lamp glass.High frequency ballastsSince introduction in the 1990s, high frequency ballasts have been used witheither rapid start or pre-heat lamps. These ballasts convert the incomingpower to an output frequency in excess of 20 kHz. This increases lamp ef-ficiency. These are used in several applications, including new generationtanning lamp systems, whereby a 100 watt lamp can be lit using 65 to 70watts of actual power while obtaining the same lumens as magnetic ballasts.These ballasts operate with voltages that can be almost 600 volts, requiringsome consideration in housing design, and can cause a minor limitation inthe length of the wire leads from the ballast to the lamp ends.Disinfection lampsMercury fluorescent tubes are also used as disinfecting devices for drinking

Figure 1.8: Germicidal lamp.

water and sanitation water. These so called germicidal lamps produces an

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ultraviolet light which kills germs. The most common form of germicidallamp looks similar to an ordinary fluorescent lamp but the tube containsno fluorescent phosphor. In addition, rather than being made of ordinaryborosilicate glass, the tube is made of fused quartz. These two changes com-bine to allow the 253.7 nm ultraviolet light produced by the mercury arc topass out of the lamp unmodified (whereas, in common fluorescent lamps, itcauses the phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light). Germicidal lampsstill produce a small amount of visible light due to other mercury radiationbands. If looking straight into one of these lamps your eyes can be burned inseconds, similar to arc welding. You will only notice the burns a few hourslater.

High pressure mercury-vapor lamps

Figure 1.9: Mercury-vapor lamp.

Figure 1.10: HP mercury-vapor lamp and circuit.

On board of ships often used as flood lights for the illumination duringcargo operations and as primary ilumination of the engineroom (top). Of-ten used are mercury-vapor lamps wich have a better color spectrum than

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the sodium based lamps. A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas discharge lampwhich uses mercury in an excited state to produce light. The arc discharge isgenerally confined to a small fused quartz arc tube mounted within a largerborosilicate glass bulb. The outer bulb may be clear or coated with a phos-phor; in either case, the outer bulb provides thermal insulation, protectionfrom ultraviolet radiation, and a convenient mounting for the fused quartzarc tube.The mercury vapor lamp is a negative resistance device and requires auxil-iary components (for example, a ballast) to prevent it from taking excessivecurrent. The auxiliary components are substantially similar to the ballastsused with fluorescent lamps.Also like fluorescent lamps, mercury vapor lamps usually require a starterwhich is often contained within the mercury vapor lamp itself. A third elec-trode is mounted near one of the main electrodes and connected through aresistor to the other main electrode. When power is applied, there is suffi-cient voltage to strike an arc between the starting electrode and the adjacentmain electrode. This arc discharge eventually provides enough ionized mer-cury to strike an arc between the main electrodes. Occasionally, a thermalswitch will also be installed to short the starting electrode to the adjacentmain electrode, completely suppressing the starting arc once the main arcstrikes.When a mercury vapor lamp is first turned on, it will produce a dark blueglow because only a small amount of the mercury is ionized and the gaspressure in the arc tube is very low, so much of the light is produced in theultraviolet mercury bands. As the main arc strikes and the gas heats up andincreases in pressure, the light shifts into the visible range and the high gaspressure causes the mercury emission bands to broaden somewhat, produc-ing a light that appears more-white to the human eye, although it is stillnot a continuous spectrum. Even at full intensity, the light from a mercuryvapor lamp with no phosphors is distinctly bluish in color. The pressure inthe silica glass tube rises to approximately one atmosphere once the bulbhas reached its working temperature. If the discharge should be interupted(e.g. by interuption of the electric supply), it is not possible for the lamp torestrike until the bulb cools enough for the pressure to fall considerably.All mercury vapor lamps (including metal halide lamps) must contain a fea-ture (or be installed in a fixture that contains a feature) that prevents ultra-violet radiation from escaping. Usually, the borosilicate glass outer bulb ofthe lamp performs this function but special care must be taken if the lampis installed in a situation where this outer envelope can become damaged.If lamps with the outer envelope damaged are not replaced, people exposedto the light risk sun burns and eye inflammation. Special ”safety” lamps

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are made which will deliberately burn out if the outer glass is broken. Thisis usually achieved by using a thin carbon strip, which will burn up in thepresence of air, to connect one of the electrodes.

Sodium-vapor lamps

Figure 1.11: SOX lamp and circuit.

High pressure sodium (HPS) lamps contain additional elements such asmercury, and produce a dark pink glow when first struck, and a pinkish or-ange light when warmed. Some bulbs also briefly produce a pure to bluishwhite light in between. This is probably from the mercury glowing before thesodium is completely warmed. Colors of objects under these lamps cannotbe distinguished.High pressure sodium lamps are quite efficientabout 100 lm/Wwhen mea-sured for photopic lighting conditions. They have been widely used for out-door lighting such as streetlights and security lighting.End of life At the end of life, high-pressure sodium lamps exhibit a phe-

Figure 1.12: SON lamp and circuit.

nomenon known as cycling, which is caused by a loss of sodium in the arc.Sodium is a highly reactive element, and is easily lost by combination withother elements, and migration through the arc tube walls. As a result, theselamps can be started at a relatively low voltage but as they heat up duringoperation, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises and more and

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more voltage is required to maintain the arc discharge. As a lamp gets older,the maintaining voltage for the arc eventually rises to exceed the maximumvoltage output by the electrical ballast. As the lamp heats to this point, thearc fails and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc extinguished, thelamp cools down again, the gas pressure in the arc tube is reduced, and theballast can once again cause the arc to strike. The effect of this is that thelamp glows for a while and then goes out, repeatedly.

1.2.3 Navigation and Signal Lights

Figure 1.13: Ship’s navigation lights requirements.

Navigation lights specifications are described by the the InternationalMaritime Organisation in their International Regulations for Preventing Col-lisions at Sea.By far the most common arrangement is to have specially designed naviga-tion running lights referred to as Foremast, Mainmast,Port, Starboard andStern. Two anchor lights, fitted forward and aft, may also be switched fromthe Navigation light panel on the bridge. For ship’s longer than 50 metres,the masthead lights must be visible from a range of six nautical miles andother navigational lights from three nautical miles. To achieve such visibility,special incandescent filament lamps are used with a typical power rating of65 W. Due to the essential safety requirements all navigation lights have twofittings at each position, or two lamps and lampholders with a dual fitting.Each light must be seperately supplied, fused, monitored and switched fromthe navigation light switchboard on the bridge. The main 220V supply is

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Figure 1.14: Navigation Light Panel.

Figure 1.15: Ship’s navigation lights arrangement.

provided from the essential services section of the main switchboard. Thestand-by power supply is fed from the emergency switchboard.On the Navigation light panel we can switch over from main to stand-bypower, we have indicator lamps for each navigation light and an audiblealarm in the case of lamp failure. The signal mast or xmas-tree has a com-

Figure 1.16: Navigation lights circuit.

bination of various signal lights in red, green, blue and white colors. Theselights can be switched in certain patterns to signal states relating to inter-national and national regulations. Pilotage requirements, health, dangerouscargo conditions, etc., are signalled with these lights. White Morse-Code

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lights may also be fitted on the signal mast. The NUC (Not Under Com-

Figure 1.17: Xmas tree.

Figure 1.18: Signal lights switchboard.

mand) state is signalled using two all-round red lights vertically mounted atleast 2 meters apart. Such important lights are fed from the 24V batteryemergency power, but may be doubled by a pair on the 220V emergencypower supply.

1.2.4 Emergency Lighting

Depending upon the ship’s classification,e.g.,tanker,roro,passenger,etc.,andtonnage the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention prescribes minimum

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requirements for emergency lighting troughout the vessel.Most emergency light fictures are continually powered by the 220V emergencyswitchboard, emergency light fittings are specially identified, often with a reddisc, ore the complete base is painted red to identicate their function.A few emergency lights may be supplied by the ship’s 24V battery eg. themain machinery spaces the radio telephone in the wheelhouse and the steer-ing gear room.A new trend is emerging to place battery supported lighting fixtures wherethe battery takes over immediately after a power failure.Boat station emergency lights are switched on when required. They usu-ally have there own battery wich will provide power only for a limited timedepending on regulations.

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1.3 Cathodic Protection For Ships.

1.3.1 History.

Cathodic protection was succesfully applied even before the science of elec-trochemistry was developed. It is particular to the shipping industrie to notethat Humprey Davey first used cathodic protection on British navale shipsin 1824.

1.3.2 A litle electrochemistry

The basis of corrosion in general:

• Hydrogen evolution2H+ + 2e −→ H2 (1.1)

• Oxygen reduction

O2 + 2H2O + 4e −→ 4OH− (1.2)

• Metal ion reductionM3+ + e −→M2+ (1.3)

• Metal depositionM+ + e −→M (1.4)

Figure 1.19: anodic reaction and cathodic reaction.

Metal ion reduction and metal deposition are less common reactions. Allof the above reactions have one thing in common they use electrons. In

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addition, these reactions can largely be used to interpret most corrossionproblems.Consider what happens when iron is immersed in seawater that is exposedto the atmosphere - corrosion occurs. The anodic reaction is:

Fe −→ Fe2+ + 2e (1.5)

Since the seawater is exposed to the atmosphere it contains dissolved oxygenand is nearly neutral, where the cathodic reaction is:(1.2)

O2 + 2H2O + 4e −→ 4OH−

Keeping in mind that sodium and chloride ions do not perticipate in thereaction, the overall reaction is obtained by adding (1.2) and (1.5):

2Fe + 2H2O + O2 −→ 2Fe2 + 4OH −→ 2Fe(OH)2 ↓ (1.6)

In an oxygenated environment ferrous hydroxyde that precipitates from so-lution is unstable and further oxidises to the ferritic salt:

2Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O +1

2O2 −→ 2Fe(OH)3 (1.7)

The final product is known as rust.

1.3.3 What is cathodic protection.

Cathodic protection is achieved by supplying electrons to the metal structureto be protected. The addition of electrons to the structure will tend tosuppress metal dissolution and increase the rate of oxygen evolution.In conventional electrical theory current is considered to flow from (+) to (-)and as a result a stucture is protected if current enters it from the electrolyte(seawater). Conversely accelerated corrosion occurs if current passes fromthe metal to the electrolyte (seawater). Cathodic protection of a structurecan be achieved in two ways, namely:

• by application of an external power supply (impressed current)

• by application of an appropriate galvanic system (sacrificial anode)

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Figure 1.20: No protection at all.

1.3.4 Cathodic protection in human language

When two dissimilar metals are immersed in sea water and connected to-gether a current will flow through the water from the more reactive (anodic)to the less reactive (cathodic). Due to the electrochemical action the anodicmetal will tend to go into solution (ie corrode) whilst the cathodic metal willremain stable (ie protected by the anodic metal).Similar reactions occur at numerous places on a steel structure due to thepotential difference between areas (anodic cathodic) for a veriety of reasonseg lack of chemical uniformity of the steel, breaks in paint coating. The re-action also occurs in the presence of a different (coupled) metal (eg welds;brackets). Variations in sea water flow and aeration can also give rise topotential differences on a plate surface causing current flow which will resultin corrosion.The principle of cathodic protection is to swamp these localised corrosioncurrents by applying an opposing current from an external source. (Eitherthe sacrificial anode system or impressed current system may be used). Forthe structure to be adequate protected the potential of all areas of metalmust be depressed to a value more negative than any natural anodic area.This potential may be measured against a standard reference electrode in seawater.The current density required to protect a ship’s hull will depend on a numberof variables such as, speed of ship, condition of outer bottom paint, salinity,temperature of sea water etc. Currrent density requirements are based onthe following assumptions:

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• About 32 mA/m2 is needed for adequate protection of painted steel.

• About 110 mA/m2 is needed for adequate protection of unpainted steel.

• About 150 mA/m2 is needed for adequate protection of non-ferrousmetal.

• About 540 mA/m2 is needed for adequate protection of propellers.

To determine wether complete protection of the underwater structure hasbeen achieved it is necessary to measure the potential difference against areference electrode. For adequate protection the painted steel must have apotential of 750 to 850mV negative with respect to a silver/silverchloridereference electrode. Below 750mV the risk of corrosion is increased. Above850mV there is a danger of damage to paint coating caused by hydrogenevolution from protected surface.To ensure protection of rudders and stabilizer fins it is necessary to provideeach with a low resistance connection to the hull. This bonding is achievedby means of a flexible cable fitted between rudder (or stabiliser) stock and aconvenient point on the hull.The propeller shafting may require bonding to the hull.

Figure 1.21: Propeller shafting may require bonding to the hull.

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Figure 1.22: Sacrificial cathode system.

Sacrificial anode cathodic protection

1.3.4 shows sacrificial cathode protection applied to a ship’s hull. Galvaniccoupling is shown between the ship’s hull and a zinc anode. The zinc is anodic(+) with respect to the steel and corrodes preferentially when coupled withsteel.Corrosion takes place all over submerged steel. But, if the steel has beencoated, the corrosion attack is concentrated at points of paint breakdownand takes the form of deep pits weld grooving ore even complete penetrationof the plate.

Figure 1.23: sacrificial anodes on a ship’s hull.

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Impressed current protection system.

Figure 1.24: Impressed current system.

Impressed current cathode protection systems fitted in ship’s consist of anumber of anodes (lead or platinised titanium) fitted to the hull at selectedplaces below the waterline, and control equipment wich automatically regu-lates the anode current to the required value. Direct current is supplied tothe anodes, after transformation and rectification, from the ship’s 440 V 60Hz 3-phase a.c. distribution system. The control equipment comprises refer-ence electrodes, an amplifier assembly and one or more transformer rectifierunits.Current control is usually regulated by electronic thyrister controllers and

the diagram in the next fig. outlines a typical scheme.The control equipment automatically monitors the size of anode current re-quired wich will vary with conditions as there are; sea water temperature,ship’s speed, condition of the coating and salinity. Typical anode currentdensity range from 10 mA/m2 to 40 mA/m2 for the protection of paintedsurfaces and 100 to 150 mA/m2 for bare steel surfaces. The total impressedcurrent for a hull in good condition may be as low as 20A. Maximum con-troller outputs may be up to about 600 A at 8 V.Measurements should regularly be logged together with the ship’s operating

conditions as there are; sea water temperature and salinity, draught, speedat sea or berthed.

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Figure 1.25: Ships anodes and impressed current control system.

When the ship is stopped at sea, voltage reading can be taken between areference anode and the ship’s hull. Check the manufacturer’s instructionsregarding the manipulation of the reference electrode.

Safety

It is always wise to turn of the impressed current cathodic protection systemwhen divers have to work in the vincinity of the hull.

applications

Cathodic protection on ship’s is not only used to protect the outer hull,we can find sacrificial anodes in seawater systems, bun coolers, fresh waterheaters, coolers and even in ballast tanks.

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Figure 1.26: Impressed current system on a tanker.

Figure 1.27: Impressed current anode.

Figure 1.28: Sacrificial anodes in a ballast tank.

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Chapter 2

Rules, regulations andguidelines regarding highvoltage systems

When a ship is built an manned, various associations defining the rules andregulations should be followed. The same goes with the use of high voltageequipment and training requirements of the crew. There are several laws,rules and regulation that define the requirements for safty and training ona ship with an HV system. First we need to define the definition of highvoltage onboard of a ship. In chapter 8 of the ABS rules point 7 Definitionsstates,

• 7.3.1. Low VoltageLow Voltage in these Rules refers to voltages up to and including 1000V AC and 1200 V DC.

• 7.3.2 High VoltageHigh Voltage in these Rules refers to voltages above 1000 V up to andincluding 15 Kv AC.

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Figure 2.1: Leading the way: dedicated to safe ships and clean seas, IACSMembers make a unique contribution to maritime safety and regulationthrough technical support, compliance verification and research and devel-opment. More than 90% of the world’s cargo carrying tonnage is covered bythe classification design, construction and through-life compliance Rules andstandards set by the Member Societies of IACS.

2.1 Competence requirements

2.1.1 International Maritime Law

2.1.2 IMO

2.1.3 SOLAS

2.1.4 STCW Convention

2.2 Classification

Each ship has been build according to some classification society’s rules.Classification society’s set technical rules, confirm that design and calcula-tion meet these rules, survey ships and structures during the proces of con-struction and commissioning, and periodically survey vessels to ensure thatthey continue to meet the rules. This means that all equipment installed andde ship itself needs to fullfill the class requirements. In general all electri-cal equipment is designed built and tested according to some internationalstandards prescribed by the classification society.

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2.2.1 Scope of classification

Implementing the published Rules, the classification process consists of:

• A technical review of the design plans and related documents for a newvessel to verify compliance with the applicable Rules;

• Attendance at the construction of the vessel in the shipyard by a Clas-sification Society surveyor(s) to verify that the vessel is constructed inaccordance with the approved design plans and classification Rules;

• Attendance by a Classification Society surveyor(s) at the relevant pro-duction facilities that provide key components such as the steel, engine,generators and castings to verify that the component conforms to theapplicable Rule requirements;

• Attendance by a Classification Society surveyor(s) at the sea trials andother trials relating to the vessel and its equipment prior to delivery toverify conformance with the applicable Rule requirements;

• Upon satisfactory completion of the above, the builders/shipowners re-quest for the issuance of a class certificate will be considered by therelevant Classification Society and, if deemed satisfactory, the assign-ment of class may be approved and a certificate of classification issued;

• Once in service, the owner must submit the vessel to a clearly specifiedprogramme of periodical class surveys, carried out onboard the vessel,to verify that the ship continues to meet the relevant Rule requirementsfor continuation of class.

Class Rules do not cover every piece of structure or item of equipment onboard a vessel, nor do they cover operational elements. Activities which gen-erally fall outside the scope of classification include such items as: design andmanufacturing processes; choice of type and power of machinery and certainequipment (e.g. winches); number and qualification of crew or operatingpersonnel; form and cargo carrying capacity of the ship and manoeuvringperformance; hull vibrations; spare parts; life-saving appliances and main-tenance equipment. These matters may however be given consideration forclassification according to the type of ship or class notation(s) assigned. Itshould be emphasized that it is the shipowner who has the overall responsi-bility for the safety and integrity of a vessel, including the manner in which itis operated and maintained. The effectiveness of classification depends uponthe shipbuilder, during construction, and the shipowner, once the vessel en-ters service, cooperating with the Class Society in an open and transparent

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manner on all issues which may affect its class status. For the shipowner, thisparticularly requires acting in good faith by disclosing to the Class Societyany damage or deterioration that may affect the vessels classification status.If there is the least question, the owner should notify class and schedule asurvey to determine if the vessel is in compliance with the relevant class stan-dard. A Class surveyor may only go on board a vessel once in a twelve-monthperiod. At that time it is neither possible nor expected that the surveyorscrutinize the entire structure of the vessel or its machinery. The survey in-volves a sampling, for which guidelines exist based upon empirical experienceand the age of the vessel which may indicate those parts of the vessel or itsmachinery that may be subject to corrosion, or are exposed to the highestincidence of stress, or may be likely to exhibit signs of fatigue or damage.

2.2.2 Assignment, maintenance, suspension and with-drawal of class

Class is assigned to a vessel upon the completion of satisfactory review ofthe design and surveys during construction undertaken in order to verifycompliance with the Rules of the Society. For existing vessels, specific pro-cedures apply when they are being transferred from one Class Society toanother. Ships are subject to a through-life survey regime if they are to beretained in class. These surveys include the class renewal (also called specialsurvey), intermediate survey, annual survey, and bottom/docking surveys ofthe hull. They also include tailshaft survey, boiler survey, machinery surveysand, where applicable, surveys of items associated with the maintenance ofadditional class notations (see Appendix 1). The surveys are to be carriedout in accordance with the relevant class requirements to confirm that thecondition of the hull, machinery, equipment and appliances is in compliancewith the applicable Rules. It is the owner’s responsibility to properly main-tain the ship in the period between surveys. It is the duty of the owner, orits representative, to inform the Society of any events or circumstances thatmay affect the continued conformance of the ship with the Societys Rules.Where the conditions for the maintenance of class are not complied with,class may be suspended, withdrawn or revised to a different notation, asdeemed appropriate by the Society when it becomes aware of the condition.

2.2.3 Classification surveys

A classification survey is a visual examination that normally consists of: anoverall examination of the items identified in the Rules for survey; detailedchecks of selected parts, on a sampling basis; witnessing tests, measurements

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and trials where applicable. When a surveyor identifies corrosion, structuraldefects or damage to hull, machinery and/or piece of equipment which, basedon the Societys Rules and in the opinion of the surveyor, affects the shipsclass, remedial measures and/or appropriate recommendations/conditions ofclass are specified in order to retain class. Recommendation and conditionof class are different terms used by IACS Societies for the same thing i.e.requirements to the effect that specific measures, repairs, request for surveysetc., are to be carried out within a specified time limit in order to retainclass. Each classed vessel is subject to a specified programme of periodicsurveys after delivery. These are based on a five-year cycle and consist ofannual surveys, an intermediate survey and a class renewal/special survey(held every 5 years). The rigour of each specified survey increases with theage of the vessel. The class renewal surveys/special surveys include exten-sive in-water and, in most cases, out-of-water examinations to verify thatthe structure, main and essential auxiliary machinery, systems and equip-ment of the ship remain in a condition which satisfies the relevant Rules.The examination of the hull is supplemented, when specified, by ultrasonicthickness measurements and the witnessing of tests as specified in the Rulesand as deemed necessary by the attending surveyor. The survey is intendedto assess whether the structural integrity remains in conformance with thestandards contained in the relevant Rules and to identify areas that exhibitsubstantial corrosion, significant deformation, fractures, damages or otherstructural deterioration. Depending upon the age, size, type and conditionof the vessel, the renewal/special survey may take several weeks to complete.The intermediate survey (held approximately half way between special sur-veys) includes examinations and checks as specified in the Rules to determinewhether the ship remains in a general condition which satisfies the Rule re-quirements. According to the type and age of the ship, drydocking may berequired and the examinations of the hull may be supplemented by ultra-sonic thickness measurements as specified in the Rules and where deemednecessary by the attending surveyor. At the time of annual surveys, the shipis generally examined. The survey includes an external general inspection ofthe hull, equipment and machinery of the ship and some witnessing of tests,so far as is necessary and practical in order to determine whether the shipremains in a general condition which satisfies the Rule requirements. Olderships of certain types may also be subject to a general examination of somespecified internal areas of the hull. Depending upon the age, size, type andcondition of the vessel, an annual survey may take from several hours to afew days to complete.

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2.3 Equipment standardisation

In general all electrical equipment onboard of a ship is designed built andtested according to some international standard prescribed by the classi-fication society. Most common standards for equipment performance andconstruction are introduced below.

2.3.1 International standards

Mechanical standards

Electrical standards

IP Classification for enclosures

Thermal class for insulation

Themperature rise

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Chapter 3

High Voltage.

3.1 High Voltage On Ships.

Figure 3.1: Cruise ship with High Voltage network.

As the demand for electrical power on ships increases the supply currentratings becomes too high at 440 V.

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Why?

• At the moment the largest breaking capacity for a circuit breaker isabout 100KA RMS.

• 100kA breaking capacity equals about a nominal load current of 7500A.

• 7500A at 50Hz and 440V gives 5MVA at 60Hz about 6MVA.

• At 440V this could give an installation with three generators each2000A or 1500KVA.

• This is the maximum power we can produce with a low voltage systemand one network.

Figure 3.2: Ship without cranes has 3 generators of 500KW each.Harbour load 500KW/ sea load 1000KW

To reduce the size of both steady state and fault current levels it is necessaryto specify a higher power system voltage at the higher power ratings.In marine practice voltages below 1000V are considered LV (low voltage).HV (high voltage) is any voltage above 1KV to 15KV.Typical marine HV system voltages are 3.3KV and 6.6KV. 10KV Systemsare emerging with the still increasing power demands.

3.1.1 High voltage versus low voltage in practice

1. HV systems have more extensive and complex networks and connec-tions

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Figure 3.3: Cruise ship 6.6KV / 60HZ 8-9MW.Only up to 5000 to 7000KW is possible with 440V/60Hz

2. Acces to HV areas is often strictly limited and securely controlled

3. Isolation procedures are more involved and switching strategies haveto be formulated and recorded

4. Isolated equipment must be Earthed down

5. Appropriate test probes and instruments must be used

6. Diagnostic insulation resistance testing is necessary

7. Sometimes HV systems are Earthed neutral and use current limitingresistors

8. Special HV circuit breakers are installed

9. Current magnitude is used for discrimination

3.1.2 Example

By generating electrical power at 6.6 KV instead of 440 V the distributionand switching of power levels above about 6 MW becomes more practicableand manageable.If we consider a ship delivering 6 MW of electrical power at 440 V from three2 MW, 0,8 power factor diesel-generator sets. Each generator’s feeder cableand circuit breaker has to handle a full load current of:

I =2000000√

3× 440× 0.8 = 3300A

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Figure 3.4: IEC 61892-2 recommendations

If a short circuit fault occures on one of the outgoing feeder cables from themain switchboard the feeder circuit breaker would need to be rated to breaka prospective fault current of about 90 KA.For the same system at 6.6 KV the full-load current of each generator is:

2000000√3× 6600× 0.8 = 220A

Also, the fault level at the main board would be as low as 9 KA.

3.2 H.V. Equipment

The principal items of a high voltage electrical system would be:The main generating sets.The main and auxillary HV switchboards with associated switchgear, pro-tective devices and instrumentation.

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High voltage cables.HV to LV transformers.HV to HV transformers typically step down or isolating transformers sup-plying propulsion converters and motors.HV motors for propulsion, thrusters, ballast-pumps, cargo-pumps and com-pressors.

3.3 H.V. Insulation Requirements

The winding arrangements for marine HV generators and motors are similarto those at LV exept for the need for much better insulating materials suchas Micalastic or similar.The windings of HV transformers are usually insulated with an epoxy resinand quartz powder compound. This is a non-hazardous material wich ismaintenance free, humidity resistant and tropicalised. Insulation for theHV conductors requires a more complicated design than is necessary for LVcables. Buth HV cables provide a significant saving in weight and space,leading to easier installation and a more compact result. Where air is beingused as the insulating medium between bare copper busbars and terminals,the creepage and clearance distances between live parts and earth are greateron HV systems.

3.4 High Voltage switchboard

A swichboard is a device in the distribution system that distributes powerto the network consumers and takes care of the network safety. Switchboardunits are equipped with appropriate types of circuit breaker or contactor,protection relay, measurement equipment and other safety devices. In themain switchboard each device is connected to the network with its own circuitbreaker or conductor. Protection relays supervise the fault condition of thesupplied equipment and the network.When a short circuit occurs it may be between two lines of the three phasesystem or it may involve al three. The fault current may pass betweeenphases as an arc, which has some resistance and limits the current, or theremay be metal to metal contact, a so-called bolted fault where the resistanceis zero.Circuit breakers and fuses must be able to deal with the most severe possiblecase so they must be specified to succesfully break a three-phase symmetricalbolted fault. Fault currents may also occur due to earth faults.

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In the event of a short circuit the switchgear must isolate the faulty circuitas quickly as possible to restore system stability, limit stress on the supplyequipment and reduce damage at the fault location. The protection sysytemmust provide discrimination so that only the faulty section is tripped andall other consumers continue to be supplied. Three different methods can beused, based on:

• Duration of the fault

• Current difference

• Current magnitude

Circuit breaker specifications are based on fault calculations using the fol-lowing assumptions:

• Each generator produces its nominal EMF wich remains constant dur-ing the fault.

• The reactance of each generator drops to one fifth of ots steady statevalue and remains constant during the fault. This reduced reactance isknown as the transient reactance X’and is often quoted in the genera-tor’s specifications.

• The fault has zero impedance so the total fault is made up of all theparallel generators plus any other impedance of transformers etc. Caremust be taken when operating generators in parallel because this cansignificantly increase the fault level and may exceed switchgear ratings.

The fault calculation can be based on a simple single phase Thevenin circuitwhere the short circuit current is given by

Isc =Vt

Z

It is usual to quote fault levels in FAULT MVA where:

FAULT MVA =√

3× V × Isc

where

• V=Nominal terminal voltage at the fault location (KV)

• Isc=fault current (KA)

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3.4.1 H.V. Switchgear

Switchboard example description

Test for switchboards

Maintenance of the switchboard

Safety instructions for the switchboard

3.4.2 Circuit breakers and contactors

Circuit breakers

Circuit breakers are able to make, carry continuously, and break electricalcurrents, both under normal circuit conditions and for a limited period un-der abnormal conditions, such as in the event of a short circuit they are usedto connect generators, transformers, bussections, bus-couplers and intercon-necting cables between switchboards. They are also used for the startingand running of large HV motors. Circuit breakers can make and break fullshort-circuit currents but are not designed for a large number of operations.

Contactors

are mainly used for motor control and occasionally for transformers. They aredesigned to make and break normal currrents and can break motor overloadcurrents but cannot handle full short-circuit currents. They are designedfor frequent operation. If a short circuit occurs back-up HV fuses are fittedwhich quickly take out the fault. Triggered fuses are often used so that ifone fuse operates, due to earth faults or fuse failure, it trips the contactor toavoid single-phasing the motor.

Types

There are for types of HV circuit breakers and contactors:Oil-breakAir-breakVaccuum-breakSulfur Hexafluoride(SF6)On board of ships we find mainly vaccuum-break and sulfur hexafluoridecontactor and or breakers.

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Sulfur Hexafluoride(SF6) breaker

SF6 circuit breakers use sulphur hexafluoride gas to extinguish the electricarc in the poles. This is the most common type of circuit breaker in marineapplications. SF6 gas is odourless, colourless and it has a high insulationstrength.This gas has an excellent ability to extinguish arcs. The gas islocated in breaker poles, which are sealed for life.

Vacuum circuit breaker

Vaccuum circuit breakers use vacuum interuption technique. It has vacuumpoles, where the main contact are located. Contacts are protected againstoxidation and contamination.Vaccuum contactor use vacuum interuption technique. The contactor is ableto break normal load current and specified abnormal current (overcurrent).The contacter has the capacity to carry short circuit current, but can’tbreak short circuit current. This is why contactors are always equippedwith fuses.

Circuit breaker and contactor tests

Circuit breaker and contactor maintenance

Circuit breaker and contactor safety

3.4.3 Isolation media

Oil

SF6

Vacuum

Air

Hard gas

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Bibliography

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