mapping-work processes asq

7/29/2019 Mapping-Work Processes ASQ

1/92

MappingWork Processes


2/92

Also available from ASQ Quality Press

LearnerFirstT" Process Manage men t softwarewith Tennessee Associates InternationalProcess Reengineering: The Ke y to Ac hie vin g Breakthrough SuccessLon RobertsReengineering the Organization: A Step-by-Step Approach to Corporate Re vitalizationJeffreyN. LowenthalPr inciples an d Pract ices o f TQMThomas 1. CartinThe ASQ Total Quality Management Series

TQM: Leadership for the Quality TransformationRichard S. JohnsonTQM: Manage ment Processes for Quality OperationsRichard S. JohnsonTQM: The Mechanics o f Qu ality ProcessesRichard S. Johnson and Law rence E. KazenseTQM: Q uality Training PracticesRichard S. Johnson

To request a complimen tary catalog of p ublications, call 800-2 48-19 46


3/92

MappingWork Processes

DIANNE GALLOWAY

ASQ Quality PressMilwaukee,Wisconsin


4/92

Ma ppin g W ork ProcessesDianne GallowavLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in -Publica tion DataGalloway, Dianne

Map ping w ork processes1Dianne Galloway.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.iSBN 0-87389 -266-6 (alk. paper)1. Work design. 2. Flow charts. I. Title.T60.8.G35 1994658.5'42--dc20 94-13349CIPO 1994 by Dianne GallowayAll rights resewed. N o part of this boo k may be rep roduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mech anical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, w ithou t the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 0-87389-266-6Acquis itions Editor: Susan WestergardProject Editor: Kelley CardinalProd uction Editor: Annette WallMarketing Administrator: Mark OlsonSet in Franklin Goth ic and Optim a by Linda I . ShepherdCover design by Montgo mery Media, Inc.

ASQ Missio n: To facilitate continuous im prove men t and increase customer satisfaction by identifying, comm unicating, andprom oting the use of qua lity p rinciples, concepts, and technologies; and thereby be recognized through out the w orld as theleading auth ority on, and cham pion for, quality.For a free cop y of the ASQ Quality Press Publications Catalog, includ ing ASQ membership information, call 800-248-1946Printed in the United States of America

@@ Printed on acid-free recycled paperAmerican Societv for Q ualitv


5/92

Contents

Preface v i i1 Introduction to mapping 1What's a map? 1 Organization of book 2 Materials 3 l im e requirements 3Your objective 3 Meeting roles 3 Getting organized 4

2 Select a process 7What's a work process? 7 . ample processes 8 How many processes? 9From whose point of view? 9 . he customer's process 11 Inventing newprocesses 11 ' n summary 11 Criteria for judging your selection 143 Define the process 15Output 16 Customer(s) 16 Requirement($)16 Process participants 16Process owner 17 ' takeholders 17 . rocess boundaries 17 Inputs andsuppliers 17

4 Map the primary process 19Steps, activities 19 In summary 21 Setting a table (primary process) 22Getting gas for your car (primary process) 24 Getting ready for work (primaryprocess) 26 Map the primary process 28 Modified block format 30 Blockdiagram format 30 Answers to the exercises 32

5 Map alternative paths 33One diamond, mult iple paths 35 - Multiple diamonds 36 Specificity, objec-tivity 36 In summary 37 Setting a table (alternative paths) 38 Getting gasfor your car (alternative paths) 40 . etting ready for work (alternative paths) 42Map alternative paths 44 Answers to the exercises 45

6 Map inspection points 47Specificity, objectiv ity 49 In summary 51 Setting a table (inspectionpoints) 52 Getting gas for your car (inspection points) 54 Getting readyfor work (inspection points) 56 Map inspection points 58 Answers to theexercises 59

MAPPINGWORK PROCESSES v


6/92

7 Use the map to improve the process 61Techniques in this chapter 61 . liminate or minimize nonvalueadded steps 62 .Develop and apply standards 63 Move inspection points forward 64 .Eliminate the need for inspection points altogether 66 Chart and evaluateinputs and suppliers 67

8 More ways to improve the process 71Techniques in this chapter 71 Do a cycle-time study 71 Move steps intoanother process 73 Design a parallel process 74 Automate or mechanizestep(s) 76 Map subprocesses 78 Use a map to train or retrain process par-ticipants 79 . et feedback on map; learn from customers, suppliers, stake-holders, and other process participants 80 . se the map as a benchmarkingtool 81 A final word 82

Glossary of terms 83Index 87

MAPPING WORK PROCESSES


7/92

Preface

More than a decade ago--when my quality library occupied just a fewinches of bookshelf-my colleagues and I knew that a key to trans-lating quality values, philosophy, and principles into measurable resultsrequired, in part, a broad and profound understanding by employees ofthe work within their organizations. In hundreds of classroom hours wetried dozens of techniques to help groups of people document whatthey knew about their jobs-to commit the details of work sequencesto paper.

Mapping, a methodology Flowcharting, with its large-scale visual format, seemed to hold themost promise. So over the years, a step-by-step method has evolved-a method for getting what's in people's heads onto paper in a way that1 ) can be quickly learned, 2) is appealing and energizing, and 3) resultsin a usable product. Early on I dubbed this method mapping. Thoughtraditional flowcharting is its inspiration, mapping abandons some ofthe tradition to better serve the goal of simplicity and directness.

Mapping is merely an enabler-a means to a more important end. It isa vehicle for expressing and releasing the knowledge, creativity, andenergy that lies within every group, regardless of it s position or levelwithin an organization. And while the mapping activity is valuable byitself, the second challenge was (and continues to be) to compile andvalidate specific ways to use the visual map to inspire meaningful, cre-ative change. There are a baker's dozen improvement ideas listed andsummarized in the last two chapters. They are extracted from ourlonger list of 25 improvement techniques, but these 13 have as theirprerequisite a completed process map.While other excellent books in the area show detailed flowcharts ofbusiness processes, this book itemizes the process of mapping-thehow-to, step-by-step. Its purpose is to help groups avoid some of theprocedural errors that typically occur when they invent their own waysof flowcharting. For example, most groups inevitably step into the"should be" before analyzing the "what is." Individuals within a groupoften discover that they do parts of the job differently from oneanother. How then, can the group accommodate and display these dif-ferences?The easy solution is to make premature decisions about whatthe one best way should be. The method presented here encouragesgroups to separate the "what is" from the "should be" so that develo-ping improvements gains the careful, focused consideration it deserves.

MAPPING WORK PROCESSES v i i


8/92

Examples and illustrations A second aspect o f his boo k needing some explanation is my selectionof examples. Thre e examples (setting a table, getting gas for you r car,and getting ready for work) illustrate the methodology. I am alwaysasked, "Why not use generic, business-related examples, such asprocessing paperwork, a simple assembly process, or a custom erservice ex amp le? Wo uldn't readers relate to business examplesbetter? W hy insult their intelligence w it h vacuo us examples!"The answer i s grounded in learning theory. If acquiring knowledge(facts and theo ry) is the objective, the business-related example worksbest because it s content is the source for learning. Bu t whe n learning askill-how to do something-the reader's focus must be dire ctedtoward what is being done w ith the example (the actions and opera-tions), and away from its subject matter. Using business examples todeve lop skill inv ariably m isdirects a learner's a ttention. We kno w thisfrom long, sometimes painful, experience. A skill-building examplemust be:

Familiar to everyone; n o study should be required to understand itwel lSufficiently complex to offer a substantial platform for applicationInconsequential; it should not generate arguments from authoritiesor experts who can assert superior knowledge about its content

Unfortunately, even the broadest business examples are too special-ized to m eet these requisites. B ut examples from e veryd ay lif e can. Thecontent of the examples is purposely irrelevant but familiar. Ignore theconte nt and focus on th e process of ma pping and the issues that arisefrom its applica tion to spe cific work processes. That's what's reallyimportant.

Intended audience, users Further, use of co mm on examples permits learning of the m etho d bya much wider audience. The methodology has been successful in arange of organization s from service (banking, h ealth care, utilitie s) toma nufac turing (engineering,. assembly, m aintenance), to pu bli c sector(education, government groups) at all levels of edu cation.W hile most organizations recognize the need for workforce training ifthey are to m eet the quality challenge, they are also searching for m orecost-effective alternatives to facilitator-led, classroom delivery. Thesematerials w il l provide, I believe, one such alternative.M y hanks to the scores of classroom participants wh o s ubmitted to myconstant tinkering-who chee rfully (usua lly) tried new materials, chal-lenged the taxonomy and examples, and invented better ways of see-ing. Because of them, I am able to document the ma pping methodologyin a do-it-yourself format for teams committed to improving the qualityand efficiency of their own work processes.Dianne GallowayJanuary1994

liii MAPPINGWORK PROCESSES


9/92

Introduction toMapping

What's a map? The map o f a work process is a picture of how people do their work.A town map (Figure 1.1) shows many p ossible paths from a chosenstarting point to the desired destination and may show various fea-tures-such as shop or schoo l locations-along the way .

Service

Figure 1.1. Alternative paths.

PROCESS MAP' Different drivers wi ll plot their cross-town journey over different routesA graphic representation of a process, showing based o n their varying needs to f ill the gas tank, bu y a donut, a voidthe sequerzce of tasks: uses a modified version o f roadwork, or p ick u p the kids at school. Work processes are similar tosta~zdardflowchnrri,tg ymbols. road networks in that different people choose differen t routes to thesame destination for different reasons. This book will show you, stepby step, ho w to draw an accurate map of your work process showingalternative paths and methods. A good map is the foundation for con-tinuous quality improvement efforts in which you analyze and agreeon the most efficient routes to take under various circumstances. Thetechnique we'll use is a mod ified flowchart.

*Ke y definitions appear in the margins.MAPPING WORK PROCESSES 1


10/92

1 INTRODUCTION TO MAPPING

Although this book is intended for self-directed groups of people whoshare a work process, it's possible (but more difficult) for an individualto complete a good process map. Why more difficult? Because mappingis an exercise in looking for alternatives and-later-judging which arebest under certain conditions. Individuals are more likely to chart theirown familiar path and declare it "best" without considering all the dif-ferent circumstances and alternatives.

Organization of book

Chapters2 through 6 The next five chapters are devoted to showing you how to create amap of your process as it now exists. Within each of these chapters,you'll find:

A briefsegment o f nformation about the topic, new terms, and/orillustrations o f flowcharting symbols a nd conventions. Begineach chapter by reading the information segment. Either read i taloud together or assign the reading to be done before the meetingbegins.

.....,, , Sample process maps i n progressive stages o f completion. Theseexamples show you what you're aiming for with your own processat each step along the way. There are some questions for you towork through-just to make sure you've understood the key con-cepts before starting to work. Answers to the questions follow. Werecommend that you work through the questions together, as agroup.

Step-by-step inst ructions on how to proceed. Sometimes moreinformation will be included to help you complete the instruction.Follow these instructions fair ly closely-they're based on ourexperience helping dozens of teams map their work processes.

MAPPING < Because quality improvement has its own specific language madeThe activity of crearbtg a detailedflowchun of up of familiar words used somewhat differently, you'll find keya work process showing its inpurs, rusks, and definitions highlighted in the margins for quick reference. There i sacrivih'es, in sequence. also a glossary of these terms at the end of the book on page 83.

Chapters 7 and 8 These two chapters are devoted to listing and describing a number oftechniques showing how to use the map once you've created it. Thusyou'll use the map to improve your process.Chapter 7 discusses five techniques you should apply to every process,without fail. Chapter 8 lists and describes eight other techniques thatare optional but recommended.

2 MAPPINGWORK PROCESSES


11/92


Materials Figure 1.2 is a very simple map (or agenda) listing all the steps formap ping a work process (it is keyed to the chapters and activities inthe book). As you begin your first session, check the agenda for thematerials you'll need for the se ction you'll be working on. Then, find alarge, flat work space-like a wa ll, wh ite board, or table. You 'll coverthe space with flip ch art paper on to wh ich you'll attach stick-on notesor index cards. You'll also need an assortment of m arkers, pencils, anderasers. (Yes, you 're going to make mistakes-no doub t about it.)

Time requirements I f it's your first time mapping it'll take you at least a day-perhapstwo-to create the map, dep end ing o n your tolerance for detai l .Applying and using the im proveme nt techniques w ill take anywherefrom a week to a decade or more (we're talking continuous improve-ment, remember).Mapping is demanding work. Where possible, we recommend thatteams work in ha lf-day sessions-about the right leng th to sustain agroup's attention. Shorter, two-hour sessions work well for somegroups, but others swear by the intensive, two-day workshop format.

Your objective The map you create w il l represent the process as it is now, with all itsflaws and inefficiencies. It w il l be a working document-a means forgetting to other, valuable improvement activit ies. Therefore, don'thave as your chief ob jective a gorgeous documen t that wi ll impress alot of people-a doc um ent you won't wan t to change, mark up, andrevise often.

Last, many people have said that, while the final map is a great tool,the real value of the exercise is in its creation. The discussions requiredto create the m ap h elp team relationships and increase the participants'understanding of ho w other peop le do things. So don't rush. Keep youreye on the final output, bu t don't shortchange what the exercise itselfcan do for you.

Meeting roles Effective, efficient meetings are those that involve all participants andachieve the tasks or objectives in a reasonable amount of time. Toensure good results, we recomm end that three roles be assigned foreach meeting.Facilitator The facilitator leads the meeting. He or she ensures that discussionsstay on track, that a ll mem bers participate, and that the activities m ovealong at a pace that is comfortable for the group. The facilitator ro lecan be assumed by anyone in the group.

Scribe The scribe records ideas on a f lip chart or w hite board and makes surethat ideas are not lost. The flip chart is usually the focal point as thegroup works throu gh various tasks. We don 't recomm end com biningthe roles of facilitator and scribe because it slows the group's pace.

MAPPINGWO RK PROCESSES


12/92

1 I N T R O D U C T IO N T O M A P P IN G

Timekeeper The timekeeper helps the team estimate the time required for eachagenda item and monitors the group's progress against the estimate.From time to time, he or she may announce that there are just 10 (or20 ) minutes remaining. If the group requires more time, the timekeeperhelps i t set a new target. The timekeeper should record target andactual times on a posted flip chart so that teams can learn to estimatemore accurately as they proceed.

Getting organized Use the "Team Roster," to record names and telephone numbers ofteam members along with meeting dates and attendance information.We've also included a few points about selecting the right people forthe team.

Team Roster

4 MAP PING W ORK PROCESSES


13/92


Questions and answers about team selection:. OW large should a work team be? The ideal size is five to eight participants. Fewer than five limits the rangeof ideas. More than eight leaves some people standing around, unable toparticipate ful ly.

Wh o should be on the team?

What if there are a lot of people whodo the same work? Wh ic h of themshould w e select for the team?

The people who do the work-the people who know the detail of the joband how it is done. W hi le managers may participate, they often don't haveenough knowledge (or desire) to get down into the murky details of theday-to-day work. O f all the recommendations on this page, this is the mostimportant, and ignoring it is the number one reason for mediocre results.

Ask for volunteers. That makes it clear to everyone what the selection criteriaare and avoids speculation about the politics of selecbon. Also, volunteersare less likely to grumble about the time away from their regular dutiesbecause people tend to find the time to do the things they want to.

What level of education is required todo a good job mapping?

None that we've found. It helps to be able to read English of course, butwe've watched groups without high school education, groups of English-as-a-second-language speakers, andgroups of Ph.D. scientists. Adequatelymotivated and supported, they all do a fine job-different, but fine.

. ow about including suppliers andcustomers on the team?

Will people really do all this stuff?

Great idea! It's probably best, though, to wait un til you have a good starton the map, then ask them to react to it and help you f inish i t off . The earlypart of the mapping process is likely to be excruciat ing for those notclosely involved in the work steps.

Absolutely. People ust love talking endlessly about how they do the irjobsand hearing how others operate. So long as team members believe thatwhat they're doing matters and that they're not under pressure to producetoo fast, few teams bail ou t before finishing.

Don't w e need an "expert" to facilitate? No. The real expem are the workers. This book wi ll provide enough struc-ture to allow groups to work quite independently. Part of empowerment ishaving faith in people's ability to use their heads. Introduce an expert, andteam members w il l believe it's the expert who has the best answers. Not so.

MAPPING WORK PROCESSES 5


14/92


AGENDA MATERIALS:H Meeting 1: O Flip chart pad, standSetting Up O Markers(allow four hours) O Masking tape

Prework: O "Mapping Work Processes"Read chapters 1-3 (one for each team memb er)-.n>00P

H Meeting 2 : O Flip chart pad, standMapping O Markers(allow four hours) O Masking tape and clear tapePrework: O 3x5 an d 3x3 stick-on notesRead chapters 4 6 O Pencils, erasers

Improving Chapter 7

1 h p t e r 1o r e Ways t o l m p r o v e . . .& #$i&*f~sgi$;$~2i~~vsg2:$~*y*ze$;:,.:t::?;;)e ..,*., *" .=-< **;>>,.,,.&.%>*J .~>?x~~~w:~.


15/92

What's a work process?

PROCESSA sequence of steps, tasks, or activities that CO I I -"errs irzputs to an ourlJut. A work process addsvalue to the inputs by clrattging theri! or usingrl~ern o produce sometliing new.INPUTThe ,rlaterials, equipnle,rf, nformatiorr, people,rnorzey, or environnteritnl co,tditions ,reeded tocan? out the process.OUTPUTTl~eroduct or service rlrar is created by the pro-cess: tlrat wlriclr is harro'ed off to tlre custon?ec

Select a Process

MAPPING WORK PROCESSES

Your first agenda item i s to select a process to map and-ultimately-to improve. But even if you've been handed a process to work on bysomeone else, you'l l need to know a li ttle about the nature of workprocesses and how they may differ from one another.

A work process i s made up of steps, tasks, or activities (we'll use thesethree terms interchangeably) and has a beginning and an end. Usinginputs, i t produces either a tangible product or an intangible service asits output. The process adds value to the inputs. At its simplest:

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUTApplying the model, our drive across town might look something likeFigure 2.1.

INPUTS- ROCESS- UTPUTSteps, activities:Start car...~,*---: >> . ..-.,,.Drive south to Park St.Figure 2.1. Inputs to outputs

,,

Turn left,L>--:--aA - ,

You can probably think of other important inputs to this process.Likewise, the number of steps could be far greater. The output of thisprocess i s a service rather than a tangible product. Tangible products

-~-&-" ,*" ..,- ~ ."-.~.-::

:

:+


16/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

are those that occupy space--they have height, weight, color, smell-and you can ship them off to a customer. Services are things you do forsomeone, such as drive them somewhere, solve a problem for them, orfix something for them.Figure 2.2 shows another familiar example of a process with its inputsand (tangible) output:

OUTPUT1MEXlCALl H O T CHOCOLATE(makes two cups)i CUD (8 oz.1 milkI re .i cup (8 OZ.) strong coffee I@i z. sweetened baker's chocolateI N ~ U T S ~2 t. cinnamon4 drops Tabasco sauce PROCEm

combine the first three ingredients.' i$Ptwo heatedm. erve immediately. $4

Figure 2.2. Recipe as a process.

Sample processes The following i s a laundry list of typical processes found wit hinorganizations. Browse through the list and check those processesthat are found in your organization. Typically there are hundreds ofdifferent processes wi thin a single organization.

For external customers 0 Selling a product or service0 Repairing or maintaining a product0 Processing warrantiesO Delivering or distributing products0 Billing0 Answering customer inquiries0 ManufacturingR Entering ordersO Managing projects0 Preparing annual report

Internal, support processes 0 Filing patentsO Conducting basic research0 Cleaning0 Maintaining grounds, facilities12Conducting training classes0 Distributing the mail0 Answering telephones

8 MAPPING WORK PROCESSES


17/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

Management Processes 0 Budgeting0 Approving travel0 Coaching/appraising0 Developing peoples' skillsCl Setting objectivesCl CommunicatingCl Hiringlfiring0 Obtaining resources: people, money, materials, equipment0 Creating reports and memos

EXTERNAL CUSTOMER Some processes deliver their outputs to external customers, while othersUser of an organization b overall producr or produce for customers who are other employees in the organization.sen, ice wh o is nor a member of the organizatiort. Probably you checked more processes toward the end of the preceding

list than at the beginning. This is because most organizations haveINTERNAL CUSTOMER similar processes internally, but differ in processes to external cus-User ofprodu cts o r senrices who is a member tomers-which is what distinguishes one organization from another.of rlze oganizariorz.

How many processes? Most people can identify about three to eight different processesthat they're a part of. Some managers will find that they work with adozen or more processes. More than likely, you can identify two orthree that occupy most of your time or that are the most important.Where you have a choice, you may want to select a process thatserves your organization's external customer-because that's thesource of customer satisfaction.

From whose point of view? One of the first puzzles presented to groups of employees is how theirlevel in the organization affects what they believe their processes to be.For example, Figure 2.3 represents a large auto repair shop. If we askthe owner (or top executive) to list processes, the list might look likethe functional (departmental) organization of the business.

. "funcriortal boundaries (f or example, the cam-municariorts process o r the accounting process)

~Several ro many members of the organization are - nrequired t o acconzplish the process.

Sales, Hiring REPAIR Billing Accounting,marketing process PROCESS process payrollprocess processFigure 2.3. Functional view from the top

But if you ask the manager or supervisor in the repair shop what thebusiness processes are, he or she might look at i t as in Figure 2 . 6 t h erepair function made up of a number of different, smaller processes.



18/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

MI C RO PROCESSA narrow process rnnrie up of detailed steps a i dactivities. Cou ld be accor,~plished y a singleperson.

REPAIR rmM A C R O 'hr---.={

PROCESS -4.---...-","

State ENGINE,inspection EXHAUSTprocess SYSTEMSPROCESS

Diagnostic, Bodyestimate workprocess

Figure 2.4. View from the middle

Ask a senior mechanic about processes, and he or she will list evensmaller blocks of work as shown in Figure 2.5-what we call microprocesses.

REPAIRM A C R O

PROCESS

Replace Tune-up Replace Enginemuffler process belts overhaulprocess process process

Figure 2.5. View from the micro level

In other words, there are macro (big) processes that can be broken intosmaller and smaller micro processes as various levels of specializationare accounted for. Thus a process i s defined by the person whoseprocess it is-the person who creates the output. So long as a group orindividual has responsibility for the process-from start to finish-itcan be considered a self-contained process regardless of its magnitude.



19/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

A n important distinction When executives embark upon process improvement, it's not sur-because. . prising that they tend to identify large, cross-functional processes forexamination; that's how they see things. Without a commitment toreengineer the entire business, they can fin d the results o f such effortsdisappointing because of the size and comp lexity of the task. An alter-native i s to beg in with smaller, m icro processes which, when improved

one by one (by the level of people who know the details best), addup to sign ificant cross-functional macro improvements. Perceiving thedifference between macro and micro processes allows you to breakdo wn broad ideas for improvem ent into their smaller, m ore manage-able parts.As you might imagine, every organization is comprised of hundreds-even thousan ds--of interlock ing processes. And this i s the power ofprocess improv em ent. To the e xtent that every emp loyee i s empoweredto improve his or her process, the en tire business can be op timized , b itbv bit.

The customer's process Sometimes it's helpful to map a process from a customer's point ofview rather than that of the em ployee. An exam ple: a team at a largehospital selected the admissions process for improvement. Instead ofmapping the tasks performed by the hospital personnel to admit apatient, they mapped the routes, tasks, signatures, and other require-ments the pa tie nt needed to perform. The team was ho rrified to findmore than 40 steps and a half-mile walk was required of each patient!

Inventing new processes Finally, we're often asked i f mapping metho dology can be used to planand create n e w processes. Absolutely. Everything applies and con -tributes to a thorough planning effort.

In summary Work processes convert inputs to outputs. They add value to theinputs.Some outputs are delive red to ex terna l customers, others to inte rnalcustomers. Many of the processes that produce outputs to internalcustomers are the same, organiza tion to organization.Large, cross-functional processes that involve lots of people may b ecalled macro processes. Executives and top managers tend to seeand identify macros for impro veme nt.

Smaller, loc al processes can be ca l led m ic ro processes. Lineemployees tend to see the work as micro processes.Every orga nizat ion has hundreds-even thousands-of wo rkprocesses.On e way to tackle large macros is to break them into their comp o-nent micro processes and improve the micros, one by one.

MAPPING W O R K PROCESSES 11


20/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

CONSENSUSAgreement, harmony, conzpromise. A groupdecision tlmt all rnemberx agree to support,even thouglt i f ma y nor rorally reflect ind ividualpreferences. Corrrensus is possible when diversepoints of view have beer1 heard and examinedthoroughly and openly.

Now, follow these steps to select and/or judge the process you willwork on.

@ Using the following Process Selection Matrix (Figure 2.6), enter thekey business objectives of your co mpan y or dep artment (dependingon what's available) down the left side of the matrix. Typically,business objectives have to do wi th increased customer satisfac-tion, increased market share, a financial objective, and perhapsan employee satisfaction objective. Others may include safety,prestige, grow th, and others.

Q O n a flip chart, brainstorm a list of processes for whic h you haveresponsibility. After you've finished brainstorming, make sure eachfits the definition of a process. Adjust, revise, and rew ord each ideaun til you have between four and 10 processes.@ Enter your l ist of processes across the top of the matrix

Rate each process against each business objective by assigningeach a value from 5 (process has a very high impact on businessobjective) to 1 (process has little impact on business objective).Work by rows, horizontally. Sum each column.69 Two or three o f the processes w il l p op ou t as having the greatestimpact on the business. Using any of the consensus techniques,select one of the processes to map. To help yo u make this finalselection, consider the following l ist of criteria.

12 WPPINC WORK PROCESSES


21/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

MAP PING WO RK PROCESSES 13


22/92

2 SELECT A PROCESS

Criteria for judging your Once you've narrowed your processes down to just a few, here's aseledion short checklist of criteria for selecting a process that is most likely tolead to a successful outcome. If you must answer "no" to two or more

criteria, you should consider selecting another process that gets a bet-ter score.

yes noThe process fits the definit ion o f a process; i t has an output,a customer, a beginning, and an end.

yes noThe process is small/simple enough i n scope to be appro-priate for a firs t project. For example, if you select "worldhunger" as your first project, you can get hopelessly boggeddown and abandon your efforts. The "customer satisfactionprocess" is a "world hunger" kind of topic because it reachesinto every department, every office, and every desk in theorganization. More appropriate would be "customer com-pla int resolution," "measuring customer satisfaction," or"employee training in customer satisfaction."

yes noThe output or process has an impact on external customers.Ask yourselves, "If thisprocess were abolished, would it have anyeffect on the organization's customers!" Process improvementsthat create a better place for you to work should have lowerpriority-after external and internal customers are attended to.

yes noManagers and executives wi ll be sufficiently interested in theresults o f your work to give support. Management usuallycares most about budgets, safety, and customer satisfaction.Few of them lose much sleep over topics such as long lines inthe cafeteria or the clarity of photographs in the newsletter.

yes noThe process is something this group knows about and hasthe authority to change. If you find yourselves talking aboutwhat other people should do (". . . if only they'd change thisor that . . ."), you're targeting someone else's process. Youcan't improve other people's processes for them. They'll tellyou-with some justification-to go jump in the lake. Even ifyou come up with sensible, elegant improvements, you'llhave trouble implementing them.

yes noThe process is not a solution to some problem. Someone(such as your manager) may have requested that you implementa ready-made solution. While fixing the problem may be impor-tant, the activities in this book wi ll confuse rather than help you.



23/92

Define the Process

Your next agenda item is to define your process. In a broad sense,this means understanding where your process fits into the largerorganization/division context. Specifically, it means naming your cus-tomer and the output of your process-two concepts you're alreadyfamiliar with.In addition, you'll learn some new terms and definitions that wil l helpyou sort out important links between your work group and other peo-ple and processes within your organization: process owners, processparticipants, stakeholders, process boundaries.

O Complete the blocks on the following pages. Use the accompanyingdefinitions to help you arrive at answers. To judge each of yourconclusions, ask "Does our response conform to the definition inevery way?"

O You may work on the elements in any order. We suggest you trythem in the order presented, but feel free to skip around.

O Work on each element until the group is able to reach consensus.O D o not rush to decisions. Part of the value of this item is the thought-

ful discussion it can generate--leading to a deeper understanding ofthe impact your process has on the rest of the organization.

43 Record your work; post it in a visible spot



24/92

3 DEFINE THE PROCESS

+ State the OUTPUT of the processOUTPUTThe product or service that is created by the process; thatwhich is handed off o the customer:Outp uts shou ld be expressed in a nou nlverb format-forexample, "machines serviced," "orders logged," "reportssubmitted." Othe r descriptors may be added that clarify andlimit, such as "quar terly outlo ok report submitted." Thereason for expressing the ou tput in n oun lverb format is thatit forces you to con sider both that which is produced andthe action vou take.

+ List the CUSTOMER(S) for your outputCUSTOMER(S)The person or persons who USE your output-the next in line.Whether your customers are internal or external, they use youroutput as an input t o their work process(es).List them by name where possible. In some cases, it'shelpfu l to identify the c hain of customers that receivesyour output.

n o u n

verb

+ List your customer's REQUIREMENTS of @ayour outputREQUIREMENTW ............................................................What your customer needs, wants, and expects of your output.Customers generally express requirements around the charac- ............................................................teristics of timeliness, quantity, itness for use, ease of use,andperceptions of value.

............................................................

+ List the PROCESS PARTICIPANTS @aPROCESS PARTICIPANTS ............................................................The people who actually do the steps of the pmcess-asopposed to someone who is responsible or the process, such ............................................................as the process owner/manager:For example, ify ou use sub-contractors to produce the product, and you don't do the work ............................................................ourself: the subcontractor is the process participant and youare the owner/rnamge,:

............................................................Process participan ts can be listed by nam e or by jo b title,provid ed all employees wi th the job title pe lform the process. ............................................................



25/92

3 DEFINE THE PROCESS

4 List the PROCESS OWNER 6PROCESS OWNERThe person who is resporlsible for the process and its output.The owner is rhe key decision nmker and can allot organization ..........................resources to the process participants. He or she speaks for thepmcess in the organization. That is, ifsomeone says, "Howcome those California people arerl'r selling enough equipmenr?"rhe process owner-probably a District Sales Manager on theWest Coast-would have to come fonvard to answer: .........................

4 List the STAKEHOLDERSSTAKEHOLDERA process stakeholder is someone who is nor a supplier,cusrornec or process owne6 but who has an interest in rheprocess and stands ro gain or lose based on the resulrs oftheprocess. Most processes hove a number ofstakeholders-suchas sertior managers rom other depart,>tenrsor even govenonentagencies.List stakeholders either by name or by function, or both

4 Agree on the PROCESS BOUNDARIESPROCESS BOUNDARIESThefirsr and last steps of the process. Ask yourself; "What5the first thing Mwe do fa stan thisprocess? WhofS the lasr step?"The lasr step nmy be delivery of the output to the curtonter.No te that you may come back and change the boundarieslater, based on your flowcha rting work.

'% First step (an a ction )ryINPUTS and their SUPPLIERS You'l l be l isting suppliers and their inputs later, bu t hereare the definit ions.INPUTThe materials, equipf~rent,nformation, people, motley, orenviron,nenml co,rdirions thot are required to carq out theprocess.SUPPLIERThe people (furtcrio~n r organizations) who supply the processwith its inputs.

MAPPING W O RK PROCESSES 1 7


26/92

Map thePrimary Process

PRIMARY PROCESS The primary process is the backbone of your complete work process.The basic steps or.acri~,iriesl~a r 'illpraduce rlze It consists of the essential steps or activities that must occur to produceoutput--the esse~lrials. ~ i tl ~ o ri the "~~ice-to-haves." your output. From the following activities, you'll begin a flowchart ofEveryorze doe s rhese stel~s+lo aqr tnzen t. your primary process.

Steps, activities Each step, task, or activity within a flowchart is depicted as a rec-tangle. Figure 4.1 shows three steps of the "cleaning up after dinner"process.

Figure 4.1. Various after-dinner steps

Then, as shown in Figure 4.2, activity rectangles are placed in thesequence in which they occur.

Firs t . . . I Wash dishes.,,..,,.- ~.~


27/92

4 M A P THE PRIMARY PROCESS

Arrows s howing the direction (sequence) of the tasks are dotted torepresent lightly penciled, temporary lines. We'll want to move thingsaround an d erase before we're finished. Inked lines are less flexible.Inputs, shown in Figure 4.3, are drawn as parallelograms linked to the stepwhere they are used. Likewise, the output appears in a parallelogram.

INPUTS

PARALLEL PROCESSA process executed by someone (o r sometlzhzg)else lhat occu rs simultaneously (concurrently) witlfthe primary process. May or may not be par? ofthe pr im aq process.

Sponge

OUTPUT

Figure 4.3. Inputs and outputs.

Sometimes the tasks in a primary process are shared by two or morepeople, creating a par al le l process, sho wn i n Figure 4.4.

Both people1 Clear table 1

r....-....L..-.....

Sweep floorTake out trashczl

Figure 4.4. A parallel process.

20 MAPPINGWO RK PROCESSES


28/92

4 MAP TH E PRlMARY P K O L t b )

CYCLE TIME Parallel processes have the advantage of reducing cycle time. But theyrile total arnount of cinte required to c o n d e te normally demand more resources--either people or machines. In theprocess,from hnu~zdar)~foo u f i h ~ ;ne measure previous example, an automatic dishwasher might replace one personof produc~iv io . but the tasks would need to be rearranged-since automatic dish-

washers cannot clear the table or stack dishes.We'll use rectangular, 3x5 stick-on notes to represent task rectangles.The advantage of using stick-on notes (or index cards) i s that they canbe easily moved around, resequenced, eliminated, reworded, or addedto without redoing the whole flowchart.Again, notice that for now we're using dotted lines to connect theboxes. Drawing the lines is one of the last steps of constructing a map,so in this book, we' ll use dotted lines to show temporary, erasablepencil lines. Later, solid lines wil l represent the final, inked lines.

In summary A process consists of steps, tasks, or activi ties (interchangeableterms).Each step is depicted by a rectangle.Inputs (and their suppliers) are depicted by parallelogramsThe primary process i s made up of those steps that everyonealways does.A parallel process is a series of steps accomplished by another,simultaneous to the primary process.Lines and arrows show the direction or sequence of the process

Now, before you begin creating your own map, examine the followingpartially completed maps of three common processes:r Setting a tabler Getting gas for your carr Getting ready for workYou'll see these processes at various stages of completion throughoutthe remainder of this book. We've used these three examples through-out because they're familiar. You'll be able to direct your attention tothe thought process that created the map, not the content. Answers (onpage 32) to the questions give additional information not found else-where in the text. Therefore, we recommend that you don't skip theseexercises.



29/92


Setting a Table (primary process)#Examine Figure 4.5 and answer the following questions

Background: This work group listed all the things it does to set thetable. One member insisted that she begins by developing a theme orcolor scheme. Other members thought this was fairly silly, but all i ttakes is one person to say he or she does something, and the item stays.For each task the group members asked, "How many of us always dothis when we set the table?" If everyone raised a hand, the item wasput in one stack. If even one person said "No, I don't always do that"the item was put in a different stack.1. How many tasks are always done by everyone?

2. What are the boundaries of the process, as shown?

3. What tasks from the right column would you have voted to placein the primary process?

4. Are any tasks that you do left out? Which ones?

5. What's a trivet?



30/92

4 M AP T HE PRIMARY PROCESS

Primary process(must occur)

process boundary

(These steps are thebare minimum tocreate a "set table. J

Other tasks(sometimes occur)

These are what some people dosometimes. They're "clumped"in broad, related categories foruse in a later step.

Develop theme or

each place

>teach olace

each place

Make, place

I;

in holders

OUTPUTNote: We're not yet sure ofthe last step (boundary). Wecan decide later.Figure 4.5. Setting a table, primary Process.

2 3MAPPING WORK PROCESSES


31/92


Getting Gas for Your Car (primary process)

This process loo ks different. There are a lot more tasks in the prima rypath and fewe r "sometimes occurs" tasks.1.Whe re did the g roup members set the bounda ries for this process?

2. What different boundaries might they have used (other tasks thatcom e be fore or after the selected b oundaries)?

3. D o you agree wi th the sequence of tasks? If not, how wou ld youchange it ?

4. Is the section of the ma p beginn ing w it h the task "Remove gas cap"truly a parallel process, according to the definition? W hy or wh ynot?

5 . Is there anything in the primary path that you never or seldom do ?

6 . Why can't we just throw out all those "other tasks" and considerthe map finished?



32/92

4 M A P THE PRIMAR Y PROCESS

Prima ry process(must occur)

Drive to open pumpc3Turn off motorI

ecide octane Prima ry processAt a full-service station.

Decide on amountIhese tasks are performedby the attendant. At aself-serve, move intoprimary process flow.You must do them.Flip switchi

nsert pump into tan

Fill tankIeplace hoseI th er tasks(sometimes occur)Add oil

OUTPUT

What you believe the output........................................R to be has an impact on theoptional tasks you w il l include.

FILLED

Figure 4.6. Getting gas for your car, primary process.



33/92

4 MA P THE PRIMARY PROCESS

Getting Ready for Work (primary process) #1. If someone did only the tasks in the primary path, could he or she

reasonably show up for work without embarrassment?

2 . Why aren't "Showerlbathe" and "Select clothes" in the primarypath?

3. Circle the tasks to the right that you always do without fail

4. Put an "X" through the tasks you never or seldom do.

5 . Add tasks you believe were omitted or forgotten.

. . . .6 . Why are "other tasks" grouped as they are?



34/92




Get upI xercycle............ ~ . , .. . . . .Go to bathroomI

rush teeth-Wash faceiComb hairI

ressIlean k~tchenEat breakfast 1Shave. . :......... , ... .".


35/92

4 M A P TH E PRIMARY PROCESSNt B r a i n s f ~ rm .O n a flip chart, brainstorm a list of tasks and ac-tivities-things you do. Don't be concerned with sequence, level ofsTE - $ detail, or accuracy at this point. Remember that brainstormingimplies no judgment. You should, however, keep in mind that youare listing the "as is " rather than the "should be." Don't forget toinclude the boundary steps created in the previous section.To save time, distribute rectangular, 3x5 stick-on notes and a pen totwo or three people. As itenis are listed on the flip chart, write eachtask or activity on a single stick-on note.Because you're recording what people do, each task should includea verb (such as "pay," "select," "wash") and its object (attendant,open pump, and so on). Thus, some typical task stick-on notesmight look like those in Figure 4.8.

Pay attendant. .* -... : .,Select open pump

..*"..,~..,,,, ~~ .~,..... .-Wash windshield 1Figure 4.8. Recommended wording of steps.

Most groups wi ll produce a list of between 30 and 60 items in 10or 20 minutes. You'll be able to add (and subtract) tasks as youwork-so don't be concerned if you don't think of everything.

Q Sort. You'll need a large, flat surface on which to lay out the notes.A large table will work fine. All participants should position them-selves to both read and move around the stick-on notes. Performthe following sorts in the order suggested.9 emove any tasks that have to do with "inspection," "revi-

sion," "rework," or "fix." If the task represents an inspectionthat really does occur, set i t aside. If i t represents somethingyou ought to do, but don't, discard it (you can reinstate it whenyou move to improvement activities).9 emove any tasks that may belong to another, administrative/

management process, such as "submit travel vouchers," "attendmeeting," or "prepare forecast." Most monthly, yearly, or othertime-defined activities are part of some other generic process.See the list o f management processes on page 9. If you can't



36/92

4 MA P TH E PRIMARY PROCESS

decidelagree if the activity belongs to the process, leave it in. Ifit's part of another process, you'll have trouble fitting i t into theflowchart later, and you can discard it then.

I7 Examine each remaining task a nd place it into one o f twostacks/categories:1 . Those tasks which absolutely must occur, every time in

order to produce your output (without this activity therecan be no output).

2. Those tasks which occur sometimes, based on the situationor depending on personal preference (these may add valueto the output, but are not absolutely essential to its creation).

The team must be unanimous to put a task in the must occurpile. The "must occur" pile represents your primary process. Ifyou think of tasks that ought to be added to either stack, createnew stick-on notes.Discard any duplicates o f tasks.Edit or rewrite any stick-on notes to achieve consistency ofwording, either adding or subtracting clarifying words (adjec-tives, adverbs).

0 ast, if different people, departments, o r functions performsome ofth e tasks, code the stick-on notes with a colored dot,keyed to the individual, department, or funct ion.Omit this step if it doesn't apply.

O Select flowchart format.Flowcharts may run either vertically or horizontally. Make this ver-ticalhorizontal choice based on the amount and nature of the wallor table space available to you. You can even use a carpeted floorif you're all under 40, wearing jeans, and have no knee problems.Tape blank flip chart pages-ne after another--either vertically 01horizontally as shown in Figures 4.9 and 4.10.

,Figure 4.9. Vertical format.

MAPPINGWO RK PROCESSES 29


37/92

4 MA P THE PRIMARY PROCESS

Figure 4.10. Horizontal format,

You're ready to go-unless you have a process that involves severalpeople or offices. Macro processes tend to wander from one person,department, or function to another and back. Micro processes tendto stay put and are completed by a single person or group.If you've selected a macro, wandering process, use the modifiedblock format.

Modified block format Divide each sheet into two, slightly uneven columns-the larger foryour primary process, the other for all the other people, functions, ordivisions as in Figure 4.11.

Your Other people's tasks Your steps,steps, taskstasks. l a 3 0OR..~~. ? . . .. .,..:

Other people's tasksVertical block Horizontal block

Figure 4.11. Example of modified block format.

Block diagram format To show a macro process with several concurrent or parallelprocesses, you'll need pairs of flip chart pages, side by side, withone larger column for your process and a narrow column for eachof the other functions/people as in Figure 4.12.If you select the block diagram format, you wil l win the prize formost paper used, hands down.

@ Prepare work field.Count the total number of task stick-on notes in your primaryprocess. Divide by two. This is how many flip chart pages you'llneed. Most groups don't believe they wi l l use this much paper.You will.Tape blanks firmly in place, according to your chosen plan



38/92


Yourprocess

Figure 4.12. Exampleof block diagram format.

If you're working in a room with a large white board or chalkboardand wish to take advantage of its erasability, check first to see thatthe stick-on notes will stick (often they don't). You could put tape oneach note to compensate. Remember too, that boards can't berolled up and carried away easily.

0 Place pr imary process notes.Place the first step o f the process (boundary) at the top o f the firstpage. Place the last step at the bottom of the lastpage. Boundariesare typically shown as ovals. You can use another color or draw anoval with a marker to show boundaries as in Figure 4.13.

(Boundary step)0Figure 4.13. Boundary shape.

Place the remaining steps, in sequence. Place no more than twoor three notes in any column, on any page. You'll be inserting lots ofother things later. Do not draw any lines or arrows yet. Save the"sometimes occur" notes.

@ Check fo r reasonableness.Consider each step o f yourprimary process; is i t necessary o producethe ou tput li f not, move it out of line to the stackof"sometimes occurs."Have you forgotten any important step? Add itDoes your work l ook something like the examples on the pre-ceding pages? f not, figure out why not and make adjustments.

MAPPINGWORK PROCESSES 3 1


39/92


Answers to the Exercises

Seffing a table I . Four: count places, place plates, place silvenvare, and place napkins.(page 22) 2. According ro rhe map, the process begins by counting the places and ends withputting napkins at places.

3. Any task you think eveiybody does.4. Again, your opinion. Any answer is okay5. Who cares? Ifyou do care, irk a hotpad with linle feet. The point: you have tobe tolerant of other people's "crazy" ideas of what happens within a process.

Getting gas for your car I . This group chose "Drive to open pump" and "Pa),attendnnr."(page 24) 2. They could have srarred by "Driving our of driveway" or ended with "Drivingout of the station. " The choice of boundaries is an important one, as you mapyour own process. Tilerek ojien disagreement among suppliers and customers

as to whok supposed to do what. Setting boundaries helps clarify rhese mis-urzderstandings.

3. Your experierlce may be dilferent. Any reasonable answer is okay.4. No, rechnicallj it's nor a parallel process because activities are nor happeningsimultaneously While the attendant is pumping gos, you're probably sitting in

your car doing norl~i~lg.f you got out and washed the windshield while theattenda~lt u,nped gas, you'd have a parallel process.5. We can't imagim anyone who doeslz't do the fou, steps to the lej .6. Because it's nor ver) . useful yet. It's the other tasks tltat represent the differentthings people do-the things you want to examine m greater derail.

Getting ready for work I . There's some room for argument here. Some might say they wouldn't be caught(page 26) dead nt work without having shaved, showered, or put on makeup. Othersmight say the)' could get by with just the steps in the primaty process.

2. Because some people do these tasks at another rime-such as the night before.3. Any answer is okay4. Any answer is okay.5. Any answer is okay.6. They're grouped, more or less, in related ''hunks. " All the steps surroundingeating are together, and so on. This will make it somewhat easier to deal with

in tlze next sectioiz.



40/92

: ALTERNATIVE PATHA path rltrough aflowchnr-t comprise d of one ormore optional tasks off he mand atoty prinmrypafh. Preceded by a decision diamond.

DECISION D I A M O N DA diamor~d-shapedfigure hat poses a quesfionand signals either an alrenzativc path or a,linspection poiltt.

Map Alternative Paths

For your map to be truly useful, it must describe and allow flexibility.Not every salesperson sells exactly the same way. Managers managedifferently-not necessarily better or worse, but differently. A r igidflow cha rt that shows a single, linear path w il l be discarded by thosewho vow not to change their successful habits for the sake of confor-mity alone.The objective of this section i s to b uil d altern ative paths, depen ding oncircumstances or personal preference. Remember that you are cha rtingyour process as it is, not as it ought to be.The symbol we w il l use for a decision leading to an alternative path isthe diamond, depicted by a square stick-on note turned 45 degrees asin Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1. Decision diamond with question.

A decision diam ond always poses a question-no exception-andrequires an answer. Most often, the ques tion w il l lead to yesfno alter-natives, as in Figure 5.2.Figure 5.2 shows two d ifferent paths, depending on the answer to thequestion, ''Do I need to pick u p m y son from baseball practice? "



41/92

5 MA P ALTERNATIVE PATHS

Drive home

Figure 5.2. Alternative responses, paths

Each "sometimes occurs" task demands its own decision diamond.When you go to the gas station, only sometimes do you "Get out ofcar." Why? What's the decision or circumstance that makes you getout of the car? Turn your answer into a question and enter it onto adecision diamond. Figure 5.3 shows the three-step thought process forcreating and placing a "sometimes occurs'' step with its decisiondiamond.

First . . .Pair a "sometimes" taskwith a blank decision Get out of cardiamond.

Then.. .Think of why you woulddo that optional step sewice Get out of car(under what condition or L__,. .circumstance?). Write i tin question form.

Finish up b y . . .Placing the pair (diamondand its task) in its appro-priate sequence within ;...~the process. Sketch in a"yes" path and a "no" !path. Connect the "no"line to the next task box "?in the primary process.

-mw

Figure 5.3. Creatinga decision with yeslno alternatives.



42/92

5 MAP ALTERNATIVE PATHS

Figure 5.4 is an example from "Getting ready for work," where the"sometimes" task is "Go back to sleep."

Wake up(3tod-, -< orkday? / ---8 , " -Get upiFigure 5.4. Yeslno positions reversed.

Keep the primary path running vertically, with additional loops off toeither side. If you're working a horizontal orientation, keep the primarypath running left to right with loops extending 'bove and below. The"yes" and "no" paths may be reversed ("no" along primary path, "yes"off the path). It depends on how you phrase your question. Rewordingthe question ("Is today a holiday or weekend!") would a llow you toreverse the "yes/no" directions.

One diamond, multiple paths Decision diamonds may lead to more than two paths. Figure 5.5 showsthat one of three different driving options might be chosen, dependingon what after-school activity your son has.

r..__.......__. .... ..- .-- ..7Boy Scout ~asiballmeeting practice

none

master's house -.,-*-.--.*.*.* ,.., .~~..*"*w--:.A*Figure 5.5. Multiple response paths



43/92

5 M AP ALTERNATIVE PATHS

Multiple diamonds Sometimes there are two (or more) decisions to be ma de before takingan alternative path. In Figure 5.6, the "sometimes occurs" task i s "eatbreakfast" from the "Getting ready for wo rk ' example.

"Sometimes occurs"

dressedFlFigure 5.6. Mu ltiple decisions.

All three conditions must be met (desire, availability of food, andenough time) before you reach the alternative step or task. A "no"response to any one o f the questions eliminates the task a nd takes youback to the primary sequence. Theoretically anyway, you can line upany number o f diamond s leading to a task off the p rimary path.

Specificity, objectivity Finally, these decision questions deserve a lot of attention to h owthey're worded. The more specific and objective (measurable), thebetter. The idea is for everyone to interpret them the same way. Forexample, Figure 5.7 shows different ways to phrase decisions aboutwhe ther to ea t breakfast.

And0o eat? i s better than0o eat?Figure 5.7. Objective versus subjective,

People wi ll respond more consistently to the first questionof each pair.In bo th examples, the second i s open to more interpretation.



44/92


Figure 5.8. Objective versus opinion-based

In Figure 5.8, "Nee d a bath!" gives people wide latitude in application."Bathed i n last 15 hours?" mplies a certain standard. If people use theirow n judgmen t or act ac cording to their subjective wishes, yo u couldreplace either with Figure 5.9.

to take abath?

Figure 5.9. Decision based on desire

You 'll discover, as you map your ow n process, tha t people often don'tk n o w wh y they m ake one decision over another. So m any of the deci-sions in the first, "as is" version of your m ap m ay be quit e subjective.Part of the later impro ving activities-the "should be"-will includeconverting some of them to a m ore objective, measurable state.

In summary Decision diamonds must pose a question-no exceptionThe response to a d ecision ques tion ma y b e two-state, three-state,or more. Each response creates an alternative path.Two or more decisions may be required to enter an alternative path.It's possible to respond to decision questions based on subjectivejudgm ent or an objective, measurable criterion. Ge nerally speaking,object ive is better than subjective, keeping in mind that, at thispoint, y ou're record ing the "as is."Keep additiona l (alternative) tasks and loops ou t of the p rimary path;split the primary p ath for equal, parallel paths.Aim for the most flexible flowchart you have the patience to con-struct. This activity i s the ultimate in reaching consensus. You'llmake decisions later about which paths are best.

The follow ing pages show alterna tive paths mapped for th e three sam-ple processes. Answer the questions, then turn to page 45 for answers.



45/92


Setting a Table (alternative paths) I)1. How many different situations (types of dinners) does this map

account for? Name them.

2. How many (number) additional tasks are there if you're setting atable for a formal dinner?

3. According to the map, under what circumstances are placematsoptional, required, or never used?

4. Theoretically, how many glasses could you put at each place?

5 . The "Special occasion?" loop rejoins the primary path betweenwhich two steps?

6. If "Light candles" isn't part of the table-setting process, to whatprocess does it belong?

7. What happened to the trivets?.........................................................................................................


46/92




/ coun t number /\J . . . . . . . . - a - Put on-bl; pad 1&- - - - - color scheme dinner? ,mvs- ~.---=A\ IpUI..-t~ll-..~ ex

4 p e c i b > . y e s . jccasion? tablecloth

Discarded: not part o ftable-setting process

, - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Water put tumbler at

Other

L. nonone

Figure 5.10. Setting a table, alternative paths.

.-

Arrange centerpiece...

silver flatware

Place candles......----Note differences in tasks andsequence between first arrange-ment of primary process (p. 23 )and this version which representsgreater refinement of thinking.



47/92


Getting Gas for Your Car (alternative paths) #I. he boundaries of the process have changed because the groupbelieved these were better. What was their rationale, do you think

(compared with the p rimary process on page 25)?

2. Compared with the prim ary process on page 25, what other majorchanges to the primary process have occurred? W hy do you sup-pose the changes were mad e?

3. If it were against some local la w to pum p your ow n gas, wou ld theflowch art still b e usable by that locality or wo uld it have to be alteredfor people who lived there?

4. Ho w many steps d o you e liminate (for yourself) by going to a full-sentice pum p? Does i t save you any time?.........................................................................................................

5. What's the purpose of the decision diamond, "Am I n car?'.........................................................................................................

6. Wh at are the little circles for?

7. Can you think of a more specific, o bjective way to phrase the deci-sion question "Need oi l? " W ould your revised question require thatthe "yes" and "no" direction s be switched?

40MAPPING WORK PROCESSES


48/92


Prima ry process Attend ant or(must occur) self-service process

-noq Ifree?

yes

Give order 1

Get out of car

primary process (cont'd)

I Take receipt Il

eyeil?4< . - - - - -'as - o c r ; d i tethod?

n o v { T let in carin car?

to attendant

(cont'd next column)

Figure 5.11. Getting gas for your car, alternative paths.



49/92


Getting Ready for Work (alternative paths) #1.What new task(s) have been added (compared to the primaryprocess on p. 27)?

2. Wh at tw o c onditions must be present in order for you to exercise inthe morning?

3. H o w many exercise alternatives are there? Could there be more?

4. Acco rding to the map, can you both shower and wash your face, ordo you shower o r wash your face?

5 . What shaving standard is implied for men ? If shaving were entirelyoptional, ho w wou ld you reword the question in the decision dia-mond? s there any standard for females and makeup?

6 . H o w is i t possib le to answer "yes" to "Clothes selected!" (Un derwha t circumstances?)

7. Suppose you had a maid or valet (or agreeable spouse). Whichtasks could you give them to make a parallel process that wouldsave you time?



50/92


Dress inexercise clothes

I r-Run--I I' I' II II . ~ o n d iape

.yes --...-.--,,. Prepare food

Apply makeup!

selected?8d4 . . . . - . . . - - - - - - . . . - - - - Ives


51/92


O Ma ke sure everyone has had time to read and understand the pre-vious section. Discuss questions from any team member.Q Retrieve the stack of stick-on notes tha t con tains tasks categorized

as optional or as done on ly sometimes.O Select one task from th e stack and pair it wi th a square, blank stick-o n note to create a decision diamond.O Dec ide where, w ithin the primary process, the pair (the diamondand its associated task) should be placed.O Compose the question (carefully) that is to b e written o n the deci-sion diamond. When you're satisfied with the wording, place thecompleted diamond and i t s associated task w ith in the primary pathin the agreed-upon sequence.8 Draw the answer lines (yesfno or other) l ightly in pencil in theappropriate directions. You'll be mo ving things around, to makeroo m for things as you go. If you use pens now, yo u'l l have toreplace flip chart sheets.

Repeat steps @ through @ for e ach rem aining task in the stack.A dd any other optional tasks or alternative paths as yo u th ink ofthem . This is painstaking, bu t it's wo rth it, w e promise.



52/92



Settinga Table I . Three. Nonspecial occasions, which is the primary process and two rypes of(page 38) special occasions: casual and formal.

2. Seven Everything from "Put on table pod" to "Place candles."3. Placemats are optional for the primnry process, required for special occasion

casiral, and never used for a f o w l dinner4. One for every beverage you intend to serve; theoretically, every glars and cup

you own!5. Benveen thefirst boundary, '"Countnumber of places" and the second step,

"Put plate at each place.6. Probably a step in the "Serving dinner" process.Z The person who sirggested the step in the first place admitted she was justshowing off and agreed to eliminate it from the process.

Getting Gas for Your Car I . Someone in the group pointed out tltat cycle time could be affected by iv aiti~~g(page 40) for an open pump. Therefore thefirst boundary should be "Enter Station." Thepmcess actually ends when you drive awal-~zot when you pay the attendant.

2. To keep the level of detail about the same rl~rou~houthe entire process, somesteps were eliminated in the "Purnp gas" sequence.

3. Theflowchart would still workfine. People who live in such localities wouldalways answer "no" to the questior~, Selfservicepumnp?" and wouldalwaysanswer "yes" to "Am I in car?"4. You save yourself seven steps for sure and possibly two optiorral steps ("Add

oil" and "Wash windows') . You probably save no time because you're siningin the car waiting for someone else to complete the steps. (This is why youcan't call those steps a parallel pmcess.)

5. It accounts for the person who has gotten our of the car at a self-servicepump.

6. The circles are a handy little convention to show the continuation of theprocess. Use rhem at the bottom nrld top of pages with the page nlunber inside.Z "Dipstick reads at least 'one quart low'?" is more specific than "Need oil?"Yes/no paths would stay the same. Bur if you phrased the question "Dipstick

reads 'full'?" you would have to switch the yes/no paths. Some people aresficklers about keeping the yes/no paths consistent. We don't think it makes abit of difference.

Getting Ready for Work 1. "Gather things neededV(coat,briefcase, purse, lunch, and so on) has been(page 42) added The point: as you see things to change, do so. Yourfirst efforts oftenoverlook importon1 things.

2. You must want to exercise, and you must have 25 minutes to spend.3. n i s moo shows three nltemrives. The oossibilities are almost limitless. Thedifficulry comes in finding room or rhem on the map.4. If you shower; you reenter the primary process after the "Wash face" step.

Thus you either shower or wash your face, not both.5. Men without full beards must shave. To make shaving optional, the decisiondiamond could read "Feel like shaving?" The implication or females is thatthey must be consistent. Either the), always wear makeup or never wear it. As

you develop your ow11paths, be sure to say what you mean. Smnll differencesin wording nrake big direrences in meaning.

6. If you did it the night before-nor par? of this pmcess.Z "Prepare food," "Clean up," "Select clothes," and "Gather things needed"are the only possibilities. While the maid or valet could help you brush your

teeth or dress, you still must be involved. So no time is saved ifyord're involvedtoo.

MAPPING WO RK PROCESSES 45


53/92

Map Inspection Points

Inspection points serve to f ind errors before they reach the customer.Alater step in improvement attempts to prevent errors. However, as partof mapping the "as is," you'll need to understand how errors occur inyour existing process. Figure 6.1 shows errors detected by customersafter delivery of the service or product, a costly proposition.

I've got two knives

(Output delivered)TABLE SET

Figure 6.1. Enor detection after delivery

INSPECTION POINT An inspection point is a special category of decision diamond thatA pass/fail decision, based on objective standards, typically leads to a "pass/fail" answer. Work that fails inspection causesro test an olrrpur inprocesr. Signaledby a decision the process direction to reverse itself. The flow progresses from top todiamond wirk two or more parks leading fro111 t. bottom, but a "fail" forces the direction back up the process and addsM q ead to a rework loop (srep)or to a do-over a ,,rework" ask as shown in ~i~~~~.2 ,loop.



54/92

6 MAP INSPECTION POINTS

TABLE SETDFigure 6.2. End-of-process error detection (before delivery)

REWORK LOOP The "rework" loop in Figure6.2 may be circled several times-until theThe result of a failed inspecrion point. A rework table passes inspection. The good news is that the inspection catchesloop adds steps to fkeprocess adg enerall y leads errors before customers do. The bad news is that rework loops add tobock to fhe inspection diamorzd. cycle time and, ultimately, to cost.

When the error is bad enough, rework isn't sufficient; you must scrapthe output and start over as shown in Figure 6.3.

INSPECTION 9POINT

Figure 6.3. Do-over loop.


55/92


DO-OVER LOOP Do-over loops deliver the same good newsbad news dilemma as~ ~ ~ t h ~ ~esult of a failed inspe ction point, a do- rewo rk loop+it's better to find them before the customer does, butover loop leads to an earlier step in the process. they add time and cost.steps be r epeated. Associated with scrap.

Inspection points may be formalized-staffed w ith inspectors andchecklists, or they may be rather laissez-faire arrangements wheresomeone happens to notice a problem and sends it back. Both typesmay be mapped the same way.

Specificity, objectivity If we're inspecting gizm os in a m anufacturing process, it's clear that aninspect ion point that says "Look okay?" w il l y ield s loppy results.Giving the exact dimensions clarifies what you mean b y "okay" (seeFigure 6.4). Everyone w il l interpret specific inspection questions thesame way.

Figure 6.4. Subjective versus objective inspection criteria.

And yet, when we're dealing with processes that p roduce less tangibleproducts, we're tempted to accept these broad, subjective "lookokay? " kind o f standards.



56/92

6 MA P INSPECTION POINTS

Suppose, as in Figure 6.5, w e use a vague "look okay!" criterion todetermine whether w e need to do-over or re work our appearance.Ask everyone in the group how they decide if they "look okay" andyou 'll very likely get dozens of different ideas-r worse--no ideas("Ijust know, that's all").At this p oint in your mapping activity, yo u ca n decide to accept a sub-jective inspection point if you're convinced it represents the "as is."Mark the inspection step cardor stick-on note wit h a big star or borderit in red. This means "come back and fix this." For instructions on howto f ix it, read the section "Develop and App ly Standards" o n page63 .Otherwise, spend some time trying to uncover the existing objective(measurable, observable) criterion or standard.

INSPECTIONPOINT

"Clean. That's al l it means.""It's having 1 "Nothing showinga great outfit." that isn't supposed to."

"Ithaireansay.'" 1 / nythingDoesn't o eane."/Figure 6.5. Interpretingsubjectivecriteria



57/92


In summary Inspection points unco ver errors and flaws-either form ally orinformally.lnspection decision points pose a passlfail question. A fail reversesthe flo w (back toward the beginning of the process).

The reversed-direction loop creates either a rew ork step or a do-over loop.Rework loops require one or more ad ditional steps and rejoin theprimary process above the inspection step/diamond.Do-over loops (scrap) lead back to an earlier step in the primaryprocess wh ich w il l be repeated.Inspection points represent standards. As such, they should bespecific, objective, and measurable. If they are not, this is an areato improve.



58/92


Setting a Table (inspection points)+Our table-setting team members began by asking themselves, "Whaterrors are common in the table-setting process!" Their short list: 1) Toomany or too few settings, 2) Too formal or too casual a setting, and3) Incomplete settingb).

1.The first error, Too manylfew settings, occurs early in the process-between "Count number of places" and "Put plate at each place."Why did the team choose to change the wording of the boundarytask from "Count number of places" to "Count number ofguests!"What difference does it make?

2. The first inspection point (black diamond) says that, after the platesare placed, they are counted. If that number doesn't match thenumber of guests, plates should be added or subtracted. Can youthink of a more efficient way of inspecting for (or avoiding) thiserror?

3. Does inspection at point 1 occur 100 percent of the time, or on arandom basis?

4. No inspection point was mapped for error 2. Why?.........................................................................................................

5 . If you were in charge of "Table inspection for complete settings"(point 3), how would you (do you) do it?What's the mental process?

52 MAPPIN G WOR K PROCESSES


59/92


I POSSlBLE ERROR:0 Too rnany/too few $2'19,.-:;.

plates?Put salad plate


Select, put o POSSIBLE ERROR:placemats

--~-- @ Too formal, too casual.

Put salad forks1 at each place 1. , .......... i.. .. ."*:..

-waterbeer .*,\ iced tea

beveragesewed? POSSIBLE ERROR:@ Incomplete settingb).none

TABLE SETc3Figure 6.6. Setting a table, inspection points.

53MAPPING WORK PROCESSES


60/92


................ Getting Gas for Your Car (inspection points)................. I. hat two errors resulted in the choice of inspection points?

.........................................................................................................

2. If you drive to a pump and find that the hose won't reach, whatsteps must you take to correct the situation, according to the map?

3. Leaving the inspection diamond where it is, can you think ofanother action to take (other than "Select different pump") thatwould shorten the do-over loo^?

4. How effective do you think the inspection point "Gas cap inplace?" will be in catching the gas cap error before driving awayfrom the station?Why?

5. It's very hard to avoid thinking about ways to improve a processwhen you see inspection points like the two in this example. Whyshould you document the "as is" rather than the "what should be!"



61/92


free?

I Giver orderto attendant

Figure 6.7. Getting gas for your car, inspection points.

*..,.*. : ;;.~ ~ ~ ~ K ~ l d c ~ ~o s e ; :. :*,,:"- ..7 .:" !;,.:!?:

MAPPINGWO RK PROCESSES


62/92


Getting Ready for Work (inspection points) I)1. Suppose you determined that you did not "look okay" because youhad checked "no" for "Hair neat!" W ha t steps does the map directyou to take?

2. Wh at steps does the map direct you to take if you ch ecked "no " for"Clothes clean!"

3. The "Have everything?" inspection point i s an aggregate of howmany different, separate inspection diamonds?

4. Are any of the items on the "Look okay!" chec klist too vague to beapplied the same way by everyone?Wh ich ones?.........................................................................................................

5. Ho w important would it be for everyone to agree on the ch ecklistfor "Look okay!" H ow do you decide?



63/92

6 MA P INSPECTION POINTS

-+.--zYUa,L"F00 - ,o_

INSPECTION

POSSIBLE ERROR:0 Clothes clean ?O Clothes pressed?d Colors coordinated?

POSSIBLE ERROR:@ Forget something.

Figure 6.8. Getting ready for work, inspection points.

MAPPING WORK PROCESSES 5 7


64/92


I 0 Mak e sure everyone has had t im e to read and understand theprevio us s ection . Discuss questions from any team mem ber.0 Mak e a l is t o f l ike ly errors. Star t w i th any d iscarded st ick-on

notes that represent "check," "approve," or "inspec t for errors."Reduce the list to those that you ac tually inspect now. Save thelist for use durin g improvement activit ies (the "sho uld be").Q ~ o c a t ehe f irst inspect ion point on the f lowchart. Ident i fy theperson wh o performs the inspection-the process participant,the manager, or one of the other functions/columns in the blockdiagram.O Create (or f ind) the stick-on note that describes the inspectiontask (such as review draft, inspect subassembly, or review salesplan).O Create a decision dia mo nd that represents the pass/fail d ecision.Place the pair of stick-on notes in the appropriate sequence ofthe process.O Chart the revision loop, adding necessary rework steps. Or,chart the do-over loop.

Repeat steps Q through for remaining inspection points. Ifyou inspect the final product before it is delivered t o the customer,show that at the bottom of the process. This may serve to changeyour process boundary.Finish the flow chart0 Talk through every path, m aki ng certain the elements are in thecor rec t place an d sequence. M ake any changes necessary.

Keep the spacing loose-much looser than we sh ow in theexamples.@ Dr aw the conn ecting lines wi th a pen, finally. Depending on themess you've made, you may have to replace fl ip chart pages.@ Ma ke a record of your map. Use a Polaroid camera for a quickand easy way of making a copy. Or,have someone redraw the mapon a piece of paper or with a computer drawing program. You'llneed to know where you started as you begin to make changes andimprove the process.

58 lvlAPPlNC WORK PROCESSES


65/92



Setting a Table I. It> the number of guests that determines rhe number of places to set. With that( M e 52) small change, the inspection point is easier to express. The point: you'Nundoubtedlyfnd a number of changes tomake as you proceed. You slwuld feel

absolutely ree to change previous work--don t consider your mop as carved instone.2. Don't wait until the plates are on the table t o count. Count them as you takethem o#the shelfin the kitchen.

3. This one probably requires a 100-percent check unless you can think of a wayto avoid the erm r altogether (in the subsequent improvement stage).4. The error at this point probably occurs because of a misunderstanding ofth e mrms casual and formal. Your defini tion of formal and mine may be

considerably different. To avoid the error; you don't need an inspection asmuch as you need commonly understood dejinitions. Always as k "What do -oumean by. . . ? "5. Most people (with experience) will have a mental image of what a completesetting looks like. To help others with less experience, irk useful to have the

experienced person devise a written checklist that others can,6llowNote: Can you see now that we're unable t o f t the entire process on a single page?It just keeps getting bigger and bigger: And we've got farther to go.

Getting Gas for Your Car 1. Finding that the hose doesn'r reach the tank and forgetting to replace the gas(page 541 cap.2. As the map reads, you mustjind anotherpump (presumably pumping from the

other side), wait for it tofree up, then drive to it.3. You could reposition the car closer to the pump and stretch the hose.4. If you're forgening the step "Replace gas cap, " you're just as likely to forgetto inspect.This kind of inspectionpoint is wishful thinking unless there is some

meons to remind you to do if .5. Both inspectionpoints in this process are fairly silly. Ifthe map really reflected

the "a s is" process, we'd have to admit rkat we dkin't actually do any inspection.Maybe we should, maybe not. Check yourselves often about whether you'remapping what you rhink ought to be rather than what is.

Getting Ready for Work I. Comb h a i ~hen go through the inspection diamond again. By now you'll have(page 56) a cobweb of lines tkat begin to cross. Note the lurlfcircle that shows the solidline jumping over the dotted line beneath it.

2. This is a particularly rime-consuming error because the step "Undress" hasbeen added. Then you must select a new set of clothes, dress, and submityourself to another inspection.

3. Nine. The checkl ist takes the place of nine separate decision diamonds.Checklists tend to keep things simpler: graphically.4. Yes. "Hairneat?" "Colors coordt'nated?" and 'Jewelry appropriate?" are all

open t o inrerpretation and different values. They're worth discussing, but don?eq ec t quick agreement.

5. This is the very heart of the standards issue. While it> unlikely any rationalperson would insist on dress standnrds (we went through that in rhe 1960s and1970s). there are other pmcesses where standards are both appropriate andnecessary.



66/92

Use the Map toImprove the Process

So you have a fairly good picture of how you do your job now. Butwhat if you could give your customers an error-free outp ut every time?What if they could have that output without w ait ing? W ha t if youcould offer this instant, perfect product or service at a lower cost?You'd have a thoroughly delighted customer and a quality product orservice. It's an achievable, though not instant, goal.Broadly speaking, the 13 improvement techniques in this chapter andthe next affect either error rates or cycle time; some o f them operate onboth, simultaneously. By improving error rates and cycle times, youdirectly or indirectly affect b oth cost a nd customer satisfaction.Read through a ll the techniques before you begin improvement w ork.The five techniques in this chapter should always be applied to aprocess. The remaining eigh t are optional bu t recommende d. Andremember that

mapping-work processes asq

Documents