mapfumo andrew

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A case study of Land Use Planning in Nizamabad

District, State of Andhra Pradesh, India.

USING STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS FORINFORMATION SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENT FOR LAND USEPLANNING

Mapfumo Andrew March 2003


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Using Stakeholder Analysis for Information SystemDevelopment for Land Use Planning

(A case study of Land Use Planning in Nizamabad District,

State of Andhra Pradesh, India)

By

Mapfumo Andrew

Thesis submitted to the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation inpartial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geo-InformationManagement for Rural Development and Resources Management

Degree Assessment Board

Chair: Dr. H.G.J. HuizingExt. Examiner: Dr.Ir. R.J.A. van LammerenSupervisors: Dr.C.A.J.M. de Bie

Ir. M.C. Bronsveld

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTHOBSERVATION

ENSCHEDE, THE NETHERLANDS


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Disclaimer

This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at theInternational Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation. All viewsand opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and donot necessarily represent those of the institute.


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USING STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS FOR INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT FOR LAND USE PLANNING

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION II

Acknowledgements

To my supervisors Dr C.A.J.M de Bie and Ir M.C. Bronsveld, thank you so much for the

job well done. And to my ITC, friends, I do appreciate your company, and may God blessyou all.

To my mother, my brothers Ngoni-Chartwell and Shingi-Stewart, thank you for your

support, I do really cherish you and owe you a lot. Mash-tildah, my daughter, I know you

missed me, but thank you for your patients and better days for us lay ahead.

To my Lord God, thank you so much for being the leader of my life and all my

success in life belongs to you. You are the God full of faith, honest and trust.


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION III

Abstract

With the introduction of geo-information system approaches, it has become highly relevantfor planners to build a stakeholder information system to support planning andimplementation of land use strategies containing objectives, perceptions and knowledge ofthe stakeholders. This thesis gives an account of the development and implementation ofthe Land Use Planning Information System for Nizamabad District, State of AndhraPradesh, India.

Firstly the land use-planning context of the problem is addressed. Secondly the concept ofstakeholder analysis (SA) as an approach to gain understanding of a system by means ofidentifying key actors or stakeholders and assessing their respective interest. Themethodological approach for SA consisted of: (1) defining the purpose of the analysis, (2)

stakeholder identification and classification, (3) stakeholder characteristics analysis and(4) identification of information flows and relations. SA has been used as a tool fordefining information requirements and for system analysis for LUP information systemdevelopment and implementation.

The developed system labelled LUPIS is a system to manage (processing, storing,retrieving, analysis, protection and communicate) data to provide information as input forland use decision-making. The database can be queried to answer questions, required fordecision-making and display information as maps with the support of ArcView.Conclusions discuss the implication of SA for information system development, the

performance of LUPIS, and database aspect regarding manipulating land use planningdata.


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION IV

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ........... ii

Abstract..................................................................................................................................iii

List of Figures ................ .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. .vi

List of Tables .................. .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. vii

List of SQL Queries.................................................................................................................vii

List of Plates ................ .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ...vii

Abbreviations and Acronyms .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ........viii

1. Introduction ................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ................. .. 1 1.1. General ....................................................................................................................11.2. Background .............................................................................................................11.3. Problem statement .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ........... 21.4. Research Objectives .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ........ 2

1.4.1. Specific Objectives.............. ................. .................. .................. ................. .............. 21.5. Research Questions ................ ................. .................. .................. ................. ........... 2

1.5.1. Assumption..............................................................................................................31.6. Research Approach .................................................................................................3

2. The Study Area......................................................................................................5 2.1. State of Andhra Pradesh - India ................. .................. .................. ................. ........ 52.2. Nizamabad District..... .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ..... 5

2.2.1. Climate ................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ........... 62.2.2. Agriculture .............................................................................................................. 72.2.3. Natural Resources ...................................................................................................92.2.4. Physical Aspects......... .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ..... 9

3. Methodology-Stakeholder Analysis...................................................................10 3.1. Introduction ................ .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ... 103.2. How to do stakeholder analysis?................ .................. .................. ................. ...... 103.3. Purpose of SA for LUP ................ ................. .................. .................. ................. ... 113.4. Who are the Stakeholders regarding LUP? .................. .................. ................. ...... 123.5. Analysis of the stakeholders............ ................. .................. .................. ................. 133.6. Patterns, Relationships and interactions among stakeholders........ ................. ...... 183.7. Implementation of the findings of Stakeholder Analysis... .................. ................. 20

4. Information System Analysis and Development ................. .................. ........... 22 4.1. Introduction ................ .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ... 224.2. Building the Information System ............... .................. .................. ................. ...... 224.3. Information Requirements......... ................. .................. .................. ................. ...... 234.4. Analysis Modelling ................ ................. .................. .................. ................. ......... 264.5. Information Requirement Constraints ................. .................. .................. .............. 274.6. System Development........... ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 28

4.6.1. Context diagram .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 284.6.2. Data flow diagram.................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........ 29


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION V

4.6.3. Sub-level processes ................ ................. .................. .................. ................. ......... 324.7. Metadata .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ...... 32

5. Data Modelling .................................................................................................... 33 5.1. Introduction ................ .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ... 33

5.2. Steps of Developing a Database................. .................. .................. ................. ...... 335.2.1. Entity Relationships Diagram Concepts ................ .................. ................. ............ 34

5.3. LUP Conceptual Data Model [LUPCDM]................ .................. ................. ......... 345.4. Logical Data Model....... .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. 35

5.4.1. LUP Logical Data Model ................ ................. .................. .................. ................. 365.4.2. Primary and foreign keys...................... .................. .................. .................. ........... 385.4.3. Skeleton tables............... .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. 38

5.5. Physical Database Model ................ ................. .................. .................. ................. 395.5.1. Creating Tables ..................................................................................................... 39

6. Data Manipulation .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ...... 43 6.1. Database querying .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ......... 43

6.2. Views.....................................................................................................................507. Conclusion and Recommendation ................ .................. .................. ................. 51

7.1. Conclusion.............................................................................................................517.2. Recommendations .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ......... 52

References.................................................................................................................................53

Appendix A: Linking MS-Access Land Use Database to ArcView for Manipulation ..... 55

Appendix B: Answers to the stakeholders questions. ................ .................. ................. ...... 58

Appendix C: Lower Level DFDs .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ... 60

Appendix D: Base Data .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. 62 Appendix E: Fieldwork Stakeholders Survey Response....................... ................. ............ 64


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION VII

List of Tables

Table 2-1 (Bichkunda, Birkoor, Kotgiri, Madnur, Jukkal and Pitlam were mandals whichwere visited during the fieldwork) ................. .................. .................. ................. ........ 5

Table 2-2 Main crops in Nizamabad District.......................................................................8Table 3-1: Stakeholders Analysis Matrix.......... .................. .................. .................. ........... 17Table 4-1 Data input and output requirements to the information system......................... 26Table 4-2 Matrix of information flow principles...............................................................31Table 5-1 ERD concepts. ................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 34Table 5-2 Skeleton tables for the land use planning database. ................ ................. ......... 39

List of SQL Queries

SQL Query 1 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ............ 40SQL Query 2 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. ................. ............ 40SQL Query 3 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 40SQL Query 4 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 40SQL Query 5 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 46SQL Query 6 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 47SQL Query 7 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 48SQL Query 8 .................. .................. ................. .................. .................. .................. ........... 50

List of Plates

Plate 2-1 Paddy field, visited during fieldwork. ................. .................. ................. .............. 8Plate 3-1 Interview with farmers during fieldwork................... .................. ................. ...... 10


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION VIII

Abbreviations and Acronyms

IMSD Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development

SA Stakeholder Analysis

LUPIS Land Use Planning Information System

LUP Land Use Planning

SSDM Structured System Development Methodologies

AO Agriculture Officer

AEO Agriculture Extension Officer

DFD Data Flow Diagram

CDM Conceptual Data Model

ERD Entity Relationship DiagramSQL Structured Query Language

DDL Data Definition Language

FTC Farmers Training Center

DATT District Advisory Technology Transfer

AMC Agricultural Marketing Committee

DRDA District Rural Development Agency

NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development

CPO Chief Planning Officer


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION 1

1. Introduction

1.1. General

Land-use planning is sometimes misunderstood as being a process where planners tell peoplewhat to do, i.e. a typical top-down situation. Land-use planning means the systematic assessmentof physical, social and economic factors in such a way as to assist and encourage land users toselect land-use options that; (i) increase their productivity, (ii) are sustainable and, (iii) meet theneeds of society. Farmers and other land users can, and should, take an active part in land-useplanning, bringing to bear their special knowledge of problems, constraints and needs forimprovement(FAO, 1993).

Sustainable land use planning requires the individual farmers and other stakeholders not only to

realise biophysical interdependencies of the agricultural system but also to co ordinate theplanning ideas with that of other neighbouring farmers and other stakeholders(Ravnborg &Westermann, 2001). While land use planning is a complex process where the land must changeto meet new demands, yet change brings conflicts between competing uses of the land andbetween the interests of the stakeholders. There is need for stakeholder analysis (i.e. open-endedconstructivist inquiry) (Ravnborg & Guerrero, 1997), so as to identify the information flow,interest and objectives of the different farmers and other players in land use planning. As the sizeof the area, the number of people involved and the complexity of the problems increase, so doesthe need for information and rigorous methods of analysis and planning (FAO, 1993) .Thereforethe participation of stakeholders in the planning process is essential and this, (1) ensures that

good land use plans remain intact over time, (2) reduces conflicts among them, (3) speeds thedevelopment process and reduces cost of good projects, (4) increases the quality of planning and(5) gives sense of responsibility and confidence to stakeholders.

1.2. Background

The Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD), was set up by the Indiangovernment to generate plans (at 1:50,000) for land and water resources development to be usedby District Level planners. However these plans received low acceptance, by the stakeholdersthan expected. This could be because the primary stakeholders, secondary stakeholders andexternal stakeholders were de-motivated during plan preparation. On one hand it is because therewas poor identification of the interest of the stakeholders, the impacts of the plans on them werenot evaluated, the priorities of the plans to the stakeholders were not clear and their benefit fromthe plans were not clearly stated. On the other hand, it could be a combination of socio-economicand technical problems that caused the poor acceptance of the plans.

To establish the reasons for the lower acceptance of these plans a stakeholder analysis (SA) wascarried out, in order to determine how the information flows within the sectors and among the


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stakeholders in the agricultural sector. This is because stakeholder analysis is particularly usefulin decision-making situations where various stakeholders have competing interests, limitedresources, and needs that must be appropriately balanced (Gass, Biggs, & Kelly, 1997).According to (de Bie, 2000), much (relevant) land use information cannot be inferred fromimages, but from field surveys and this information must be used in analysis. Field surveys can

only be done as part of stakeholder analysis.

While SA can be used for evaluating existing policies and institutions, it can be used to appraisepossible alternate scenarios. It is about asking questions like: Whose problem? Who benefits?Who loses out? What are the objectives? What are the power differences and relationshipsbetween stakeholders? What relative influence do they have? (Grimble & Man Kwun, 1995)Analysis of answers to these questions enables the identification of institutions and relationshipsand information flow, which need to be developed or dealt with to avoid negative outcomes andenhance positive ones (Grimble, Chan, Aglionby, & Quan, 1994).

1.3. Problem statementThere is very little exchange of information among stakeholders in land use planning inNizamabad District. This has contributed to the low acceptance of land use plans. Therefore aninformation system will seek to enhance the sharing of information for decision-making.

1.4. Research Objectives

The general objective of this research is to develop a prototype information system and prototypedatabase that can be used in land use planning. A database that can be queried to answerquestions of stakeholders regarding their activities in land use planning, i.e. regarding to theirinterest, objectives, incomes, etc.

1.4.1. Specific Objectives

More specifically the objectives of the study are:1. Identify the stakeholders involved in land use planning.2. Analyse the stakeholders objectives, interests and problems in relation to the current land

uses3. Determine the flow of data among the stakeholders in land use planning and design a

prototype information system that can provide thematic and spatial data.4. Generate a prototype database of stakeholders and their activities.5. Test sample queries related to land use planning.

1.5. Research Questions

i. Who are the stakeholders in land use planning and what are their interests, objectives,problems, relations, and capacities in the land use plans?

ii. Which information and how does it flow among the stakeholders in land use planning?


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iii. How can a prototype information system be designed to support land use planning and whatare the process and data models, which can be incorporated into the information system.

iv. What kind of information can be stored in a database to aid in land use planning?v. Can the physical database be queried to answer questions in land use planning?

1.5.1. AssumptionStakeholder analysis is a unifying theme, a tool for decision makers and planners for identifyingand describing stakeholders (A.M.Vos, J.Biesboer, & R.Oudman, 1998) on the basis of theirattributes, interrelationships, and interests and information flow related to land uses.

1.6. Research Approach

The research was approached from a Structured System Development Methodology (SSDM)composed of four major components; namely; problem definition, system analysis, system designand system implementation (Hawryszkiewycz, 1998). SSD methodology allows for userparticipation and the use of associated tools and techniques that includes DFDs, decision treesthat makes it suitable for this study. The study started by looking at the current land uses(Problem Definition ) and then derive the stakeholders (System Analysis) from the current land-uses. The research analysed the stakeholders interest and problems, etc to develop a stakeholderinformation system (System Design) that was in turn used to design the proposed database(System Implementation) . The database was queried to answer questions concerning land useplanning. The figure below shows the conceptual model of the research approach.

Figure 1-1 The Conceptual Research Method

The stepwise conceptual research method (figure 1.2) comprises of a literature review, analysisof the available land use data, developing research questions and of designing questionnaires to

Stakeho ldersS takeho lders

L a n d U s e P l a n n i n gIn fo rma t i o n Sy s t emL a n d U s e P l an n i n gIn fo rma t i o n Sy s t em

Activities In te re s ts P rob lem s Rela t ions

O B J EC TI V ES

St ak eh o l d e r An a l y s is

Curren t Land usesCurren t Land uses

L a n d U s e P l a n n i n g Q u e r y R e s u l t s( Ta b u la r o r M a p s )L a n d U s e P l a n n in g Q u e r y R e s u l t s( Ta b u la r o r M a p s )

D a t a b a s e D e s i g nConcep tua lData Model ,

D a t a b a s eQuery ing

Phys ica lD a t a M o d e l

Logica lD a t a M o d e l

Pro b l em Def i n i t io n

Stakeho ldersS takeho lders

L a n d U s e P l a n n i n gIn fo rma t i o n Sy s t emL a n d U s e P l an n i n gIn fo rma t i o n Sy s t em

Activities In te re s ts P rob lem s Rela t ions

O B J EC TI V ES

St ak eh o l d e r An a l y s is

Curren t Land usesCurren t Land uses

L a n d U s e P l a n n i n g Q u e r y R e s u l t s( Ta b u la r o r M a p s )L a n d U s e P l a n n in g Q u e r y R e s u l t s( Ta b u la r o r M a p s )

D a t a b a s e D e s i g nConcep tua lData Model ,

D a t a b a s eQuery ing

Phys ica lD a t a M o d e l

Logica lD a t a M o d e l

Pro b l em Def i n i t io n


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be used in fieldwork. (i.e. literature review). Fieldwork, concerned verification of land uses,identification of stakeholders and recording their interests and objectives, and capturing oforganisational structures and their mandates. Stakeholder analysis has been used as a systemanalysis tool that allows, the derivation of information (information requirements) from thepeople/organisations involved in the land use planning. The land use planning information

system, integrates all the information from the different stakeholders. System analysis has beenused for information analysis and data analysis for the designing of the LUP informationsystem. The LUP information system, the conceptual model and logical data model are designedat this stage of system design. System implementation is composed of the design of physicaldatabase, data input and querying the database. During the implementation stage the physicaldatabase has been queried in conjunction with ArcView projects, which contains, land useplanning base maps for the study area. Figure 1.2 shows the stepwise implementation of the conceptual research model in this study.The step-wise implementation also is a diagrammatic representation of the thesis structure.

Figure 1-2 Step-Wise implementation of conceptual research method.

Open questions were used for data collection and the interviews focused on: The activities carried out by farmers. The activities carried out by other stakeholders concerned with land use planning. The kind of data they need for land use planning and how the information flows among

them and to farmers (see appendix E, for fieldwork survey responses)

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2. The Study Area

2.1. State of Andhra Pradesh - India

The state of Andhra Pradesh is located in the southeast of India and the capital city is Hyderabad.It has a total geographical area of 2 744 000 sq km (274.40 lac hectares). The State has abundantagriculture resources, blessed as it is with rich soils and plenty of perennial sources of water forirrigation and a range of agro-climatic conditions. Figure 2.1 shows the Andhra Pradesh statewith its district. This study was carried out in Nizamabad district.

2.2. Nizamabad District

The geographical area is 7 956 sq km. The District lies between 18 0 05 and 19 0 00 of theNorthern latitudes and between 77 0 00 and 78 0 37 of the Eastern longitudes (Chief PlanningOfficer, 1996). Figure 2.2 shows the district of Nizamabad with its distribution of the thirty-six

mandals.

The table below shows a list of the mandals that are in Nizamabad District.

Table 2-1 (Bichkunda, Birkoor, Kotgiri, Madnur, Jukkal and Pitlam were mandals which werevisited during the fieldwork)

MandalCode

MandalName

1 RANJAL

2 NAVIPET

3 NANDIPET

4 ARMUR

5 BALKONDA

6 MORTAD

7KAMMAR

PALLE

8 BHEEMGAL

9 VELPUR

10 JAKRANPALLE

11 MAKLOOR

12

NIZAMABAD

MandalCode

MandalName

13 YEDA PALLE

14 BODHAN

15 KOTGIRI

16 MADNUR

17 JUKKAL

18 BICHKUNDA

19 BIRKOOR

20 VARNI

21 DICHPALLE

22 DHAR PALLE

23 SIRKONDA

24 MACHAREDDY

MandalCode

MandalName

25 SADASIVANAGAR

26 GANDHARI

27 BANSWADA

28 PITLAM

29 NIZAMSAGAR

30 YELLAREDDY

31 NAGA REDDIPET

32 LINGAMPET

33 TADWAI

34 KAMAREDDY

35 BHIKNUR

36 DOMAKONDA


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Figure 2-1 Map of the State of Andhra Pradesh

Figure 2-2 Map of Nizamabad District, mandals and villages visited during fieldwork

2.2.1. Climate

The climate in Nizamabad district is characterised by a hot summer and generally dry weather,except during the southwest monsoon. The climate is tropical as the district is situated at a

State of Andra

Pradesh with the

22 Districts


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considerable distance from the sea (Chief Planning Officer, 1996). The normal mean minimumtemperatures are about 13.7 0C and mean maximum is about 39.9 0C. The year may be divided intofour seasons, December to February is winter; March to September, October post monsoonseason, May to September is the summer season; May is the hottest month of the season. Figure2.3 shows the monthly temperature variations in the Nizamabad District.

05

1015202530354045

J a n u a

r y

F e b r u a

r y

M a r c h

A p r i l M a

y J u n

e J u l

y

A u g u

s t

S e p t e m b

e r

O c t o b

e r

N o v e m b

e r

D e c e m b

e r

Mean Max Temp

Mean MinTemp

Figure 2-3Min and Max Temperature of Nizamabad District (Chief Planning Officer, 1996)

The rainy season commences, with the onset of the Southwest monsoon in the latter part of Juneand ends in October. In the part of Northwest and Northeast monsoon has a normal rainfall of1081mm and this constitutes about 74% of the normal rainfall. Figure 2.4 shows rainfalldistribution over the year.

0100200300400500

600

J a n u a r

y

F e b r u a

r y M a

r c h A p r i l M a

y J u n

e J u l

y A u

g u s t

S e p t e m

b e r

O c t o b

e r

N o v e m

b e r

D e c e m

b e r

Normal

1999-20002000-2001

Figure 2-4: Average rainfall of Nizamabad District (Chief Planning Officer, 1996) .

2.2.2. Agriculture

In Nizamabad District paddy and sugarcane are the mostly widely grown crops, during the Kharifand Rabi season. These crops are rainfed and also irrigated during the dry season. The keystrengths of the district are a wide range of agro-climatic conditions suitable for a variety ofcrops; extensive water sources; average rainfall of the State 925 mm; a variety of naturalsources and important rivers for irrigation and extensive irrigation canals.

Tem erature variations in Nizamabad District

Month

T e m

e r a t u r e

0 C

Month

District Avera e Rainfall Season wise & Year-wise

A v e r a g e

R a i n

f a l l ( m m

)


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2.2.3. Natural Resources

Forest: total area under forest in the district is 1 670 sq km forming 22% of the totalgeographical area. Eucalyptus and other plantations are being raised in large extents with a viewnot only to increase the forest wealth but also to provide employment for the rural communities(Chief-Planning-Officer, 1996). Other trees found in Nizamabad district are teak wood, ebony,black wood and nallamaddi.

Soils: the prevalent soils in the district are black soils and chalka (sandy loam) and theyconstitute 55 percent and 45 percent respectively of the total area of the District. The black soilsare clay and they retain a lot of water and paddy and sugar is mainly planted in these soils. In thesouthwest part of the district the soil are black and mainly cotton and sunflower; green gram andblack gram are grown since the area receives low rainfalls.

Minerals: the district in not rich in minerals. Only iron ore though of poor quality is found in

Bhiknoor and Karedpally mandals. Granites of various quartzes and deccan trap rocks yieldexcellent materials for building (Chief-Planning-Officer, 1996). Granite quarrying is alsoprevalent in the Nizamabad district.

2.2.4. Physical Aspects

Hills: Nizamabad district is situated in the table land of deccan and hence hills of anyconsiderable range are quite isolated peaks and rocky clusters occur frequently. The rocks arerelated to the Archean and Deccan trap formations. Generally the district is flat which makes itone of the most agricultural productive districts in the state of Andhra Pradesh.

Rivers: the principal rivers flowing in the district are the godavari river on the northern boundaryand the manjira river, which is the chief supplier of water to the agricultural area in the studyarea. The manjira rises in Potoda taluk of Bhir district in Maharashtra, and crosses the districtfrom southwest and joins godavari river in Ranjal Manadal. The district has a wide range ofwater tanks, which are used as supplementary, water for irrigation when the boreholes run dryand when the rainfalls are not good.


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3. Methodology-Stakeholder Analysis

3.1. Introduction

Stakeholders or multi-stakeholder analysis can be defined as "an approach and procedure forgaining an understanding of a system by means of identifying the key actors or stakeholders inthe system, and assessing their respective interests in that system" (Grimble et al., 1994).Stakeholder analysis assist in decision-making situations where various stakeholders havecompeting interests, resources are limited and stakeholder needs must be appropriately balanced.

In this study stakeholder analysis was carried out, as an approach for understanding theagricultural system, changes in it and land use plans, by identifying the stakeholders, theinformation flow among them, their relationships, interest and assessing their objectives in landuse planning. SA has been used as a process for acquiring information from the stakeholders and

further more it has been used as an information analysis tool (see figure 4.1) for the developmentof a land use planning information system. What makes stakeholder analysis a unique process ininformation system development is that, it is an iterative process and it allows the participation ofthe users of the system. SA is a method that is used in problem solving in any situation and itgives chances to the stakeholders in the system to identify their problems, objectives andanalyses them.

3.2. How to do stakeholder analysis?

In this study stakeholders are people and organizations who matter in the land use planningsystem. The term thus includes policy makers, planners and administrators in government and

other organizations, as wellas commercial andsubsistence farmers.Farmers, who as a grouphave formed an associationto work on their unifyinggoals, were considered asthe primary stakeholdersduring stakeholder analysisfor land use planning.Open questions were usedduring the fieldwork andfarmers were interviewed asgroup or individually.

Plate 3-1 Interview with farmers during fieldwork.


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From this kind of interviews (figure 3.1) the farmers were able to identify other stakeholders theydeal with in agricultural land use planning. Plate 3.1 shows some of the farmers (stakeholders)interviewed during the fieldwork.

In carrying out stakeholder analysis several steps are followed, as illustrated in figure 3.1. The

first stage is defining the purpose of the analysis, is where there is need to clarify whystakeholder analysis should be done and this was done in the office after the analysis of theproblems in the land use planning (see also section 3.3).

Figure 3-1 Steps in carrying out stakeholder analysis (Modified from Grimble et al., 1994)

Stakeholder identification was done during fieldwork and also the classification of thestakeholders. Interviews were used for characteristics analysis and information retrieval and alsofor identifying the relationships and interaction of the stakeholders.

3.3. Purpose of SA for LUP

Stakeholders can only be identified in relation to an issue or a problem situation (Groenendja,2000). In order to be able to decide who are the stakeholders in a system, there should be anagreement on the nature of the problem. In this study the problem situation was that the IMSDplans for land and water resources development to be used by District Level planners receivedlow acceptance from the farmers and other stakeholders at the district level. Therefore to ensurethat the analysis was well focused and timely, a general understanding was needed of the keyproblems identified by some of the main groups and the basic interactions in the LUP system.

The problems identified where that; there were bottlenecks in the flow of information among thestakeholders; information was flowing in one direction; lack of information sharing for LUP.Therefore the analysis focused on the flow of information, identification of the key decisionmakers and their influences. As the farmers are the primary stakeholders in the agricultural

!

"# ! # # # # #

!

"# ! # # # # #


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External Stakeholders

Land Use Planning System

Secondary Stakeholders

PrimaryStakeholders

Key StakeholdersAffected by system

Implementing &

monitoring the system

Affect the system

Interested insuccess of the system

Supervising & trainings

Influencesuccess of thesystem

Help in giving guidance& policy making

Influence success of & primary stakeholders

External Stakeholders

Land Use Planning System

Secondary Stakeholders

PrimaryStakeholders

Key StakeholdersAffected by system

Implementing &

monitoring the system

Affect the system

Interested insuccess of the system

Supervising & trainings

Influencesuccess of thesystem

Help in giving guidance& policy making

Influence success of & primary stakeholders

system, the analysis focused on who deals with the farmers, how do the farmers interact and howinformation from and to the farmer flows in the Agricultural department section. Afterunderstanding of the system and defining the purpose, listing and analysing the stakeholdersfollows, see section 3.4.

3.4. Who are the Stakeholders regarding LUP?From the land use planning system we were able to identify, the stakeholders, who are thefarmers and water users association as the primary stakeholders. As land use planning being thesystem, the primary stakeholders were able to identify other stakeholders, when asking questions,which are stakeholder self-selection. e.g. which are the problems that you face in land useplanning and whom do you share the information with (Grimble & Chan, 1995). Stakeholderself-selection was used also as a data validation method. After the identification of thestakeholders with respect to the systems, there was need to categorise them as some are affectedor affect the land use planning differently.

We grouped them into primary stakeholders, secondary stakeholders, external stakeholders andkey stakeholders. Primary stakeholders are those individuals or groups who are ultimatelyaffected by the systems (DFID-ODA, 1995). Secondary stakeholders are those who affect thesystem, acting as intermediaries between primary and key stakeholders. External stakeholdersinclude those individuals, groups or organisations that are not directly involved but interested inthe outcome of the land use systems (DFID-ODA, 1995). Key stakeholders are those who cansignificantly influence or are important to the system. Figure 3.2 below shows how stakeholdersinteract and linked to the LUP system.

Figure 3-2 Stakeholders System relationship.


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Primary Stakeholders

wetland& dry land dry land

Large scale farmersLarge scale farmers

wetlandwet land or dry land

Small scale farmersSmall scale farmers

Primary Stakeholders

wetland& dry land dry land

Large scale farmersLarge scale farmers

wetlandwet land or dry land

Small scale farmersSmall scale farmers

Monitoring &advocacyOrganizations

Governmental Dept

Implementing Agents

Funding Organization

SecondaryStakeholdersSecondaryStakeholders

Private Sector

Facility Suppliers Organization

Monitoring &advocacyOrganizations

Governmental Dept

Implementing Agents

Funding Organization

SecondaryStakeholdersSecondaryStakeholders

Private Sector

Facility Suppliers Organization

In general the primarystakeholders can be furtherdivided into different groups, asshown in figure 3.3. They can begrouped according to the

different situations andconditions in their fields.

Figure 3-3 Schematic diagram of primary stakeholders.

Secondary stakeholders are those individuals or groups or organisations who affect the system(Gass et al., 1997), therefore they can be divided with respect to their functions in the land useplanning system. See figure3.4. Secondary stakeholdersdiffers from the key

stakeholders in the sense thatkey stakeholders influencethe success of the LUP andthe farmers (primarystakeholders) and they giveguidance and also providepolicies to the secondarystakeholders for the successof the LUP system.

Figure 3-4. Secondary stakeholders.

3.5. Analysis of the stakeholders

During the fieldwork an analysis of the stakeholders was done, after the identification and listingof the stakeholders. The aim was to understand the interest, importance and the objectives of thestakeholders to the land use planning system. Ramirez & Buckles, (1999) gave the followingreasons for analysing stakeholders: (i) Empirically to discover existing patterns of interaction;(ii) Analytically to improve interventions; (iii) as a management tool in policy-making; and; (iv)as a tool to predict conflict.Different methodologies were employed in doing this analysis, depending on the type of

stakeholder. During the analysis of the primary stakeholders; brainstorming was initially used, soas to generate ideas and issues within the farmers. Unstructured questions were used for the laterpart of the research, as they would allow a follow-up to all the questions, and farmers would havea chance to express any of their views with respect to the land uses and land use planning.Unstructured questions were also used for the other stakeholders. Stakeholder analysis matrix hasbeen used to analyse the interests and importance of stakeholders to the systems. See the matrixtable 3.1below.


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION

seminars of the system funding. managemStakeholderClass

StakeholderName

Institutional sector Keys Interests Importance to system Influence on sys

Key AgricultureResearch Station

Scientific CropResearch (government

-New crop varietyproduction suitingclimatic conditions.-Crop production.-Land sustainability.-Success achievement ofobjectives.

-Quality control.-Research of new cropseeds.-Disease control.-Information providing forcrop management anddiseases.

-Highcropschang-Detedifferdiffer

Key AgriculturalMarketCommittee

Enterprises, buyingproducts from farmers.

-Buying crop producesfrom farmers.-Financial benefit.-Farmers sustainability.

-Sustainability of thesystem.-Optional to equity.

High.crop ton thcrops

External IrrigationDepartment

Water Supply. -Sustainability of system-Supplying of adequatewater.

-Maintenance forsustainability.-Water supply

-Highthe su-Wate

produSecondary Media Institutes Information supplysector

-Informationdissemination to farmersand other stakeholders.

-High. Timely informationdissemination determinesproduction.

-Highdepeninform

Primary(Indirect)

Village Secretary Record keeping(information supply)

-Crop production statistics-Land availability.Financial benefits

-Supply of up to date farmerinformation.-Evaluate land availability.-Importance to sustainabilityof system.- Support and co ordinationto the system.-Gateway of informationflow in the system.

-Highcorrec-Influtake g-Influgive lsupplinform

Table 3-1: Stakeholders Analysis Matrix.


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3.6. Patterns, Relationships and interactions among stakeholders.

In stakeholder analysis there is a need to analyse and understand how stakeholders interrelate, whatmultiple "hats" they wear, and what networks exists (Ramirez & Buckles, 1999). Consider threeblind people, each feeling different parts of an elephant - the trunk, the tail and the leg - andthereafter describing three very different "animals". They could bring together their descriptions andagree on one "common elephant" (Ramirez & Buckles, 1999), only if they share the information theyobtained on the elephant( i.e. a system in which all the three have common understanding, goal andinterests).For the sustainability of land use planning, information sharing is the most important factor.

Understanding of patterns, relationships and context of interactions between stakeholders is one ofthe key steps in stakeholder analysis.In this study, the pattern among stakeholders is complex and the centre of all information is thefarmer who is the primary stakeholder. The study analyses how information flows among thestakeholders and their interactions. Also the kind of information, which is shared between thedifferent stakeholders in the land use planning, was analysed using a stakeholder relation matrix.Figure 3.5 below shows how the stakeholders, relate to each other, in terms of information sharingand lines of command within the land use sector at district level.

Figure 3-5 Schematic diagram of the LUP information flow at district level.


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Table 3-2 Stakeholder relation matrix

Stakeholder

Farmer(small scale

Farmer(Largescale)

VillageSecre

FTC WUA Electricityboard

Banks NABARD

MandalOffice

AgricOfficer

DDirAgric

DATT

Farmer(smallscaleFarmer(Largescale)VillageSecre

FTC

WUA

Electricityboard

Banks

NABARD

MandalOffice

AgricOfficer

Dpty DirAgric

DATT

DRDA

ResearchStation

AMC

MediaInstitutes


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3.7. Implementation of the findings of Stakeholder Analysis

Findings from the stakeholder analysis were recorded in tables and matrix diagrams as shown insection 3.6. With this stakeholder analysis provides a view of stakeholders and provides a means ofdeveloping an agenda of action in the land use planning. SA is a process for identifying informationrequirements for the development of an information system for land use planning. Informationsystems promote co-ordination and data sharing among different stakeholders whose information canonly be retrieved by stakeholder analysis. Therefore the development of any information system anddatabase design is a way of implementing the findings of a stakeholder analysis. Figure 3.6 showshow stakeholder analysis is a supporting tool for the development of an information system anddatabases.

Figure 3-6 . SA supports Information Systems Development & Database Design. (Modified from Radwan,2001)

The figure is showing stakeholder analysis as a tool for information retrieval in the real world andalso as a tool for providing information to the database and the information system. SA in thiscontext is being used for data collection from the real world and also as part of system analysis in thedevelopment of an information system.

Realworld

Data Survey

Data Co llection

Database Sys tem andits D ata StructureDatabase Sys tem andits Data Structure

StakeholderAnalysis

Designer View

Discipline rules for: Instance o f interest in real world,

instance definition, geome tric description, relations

Discipline rules for: Instance of interest in real world,

instance definition, geom etric description, relations

Information System An alysis

Data Entry

Specification{Data Model}Specifications

{Data C ollection

Realworld

Data Survey

Data Co llection


StakeholderAnalysis

Designer View






Data Entry


{Data C ollection

RealworldRealworld

Data Survey

Data Co llection


StakeholderAnalysis

Designer View






Data Entry


{Data C ollection


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4. Information System Analysis and Development

4.1. Introduction

There is high correlation between quality information and the quality of any decision makingprocess, be it strategic, tactical or operational. The correct use of information is highly dependent onthe developed information system (Paresi, 2000). Land use planning requires the individual farmersand other stakeholders not only to realise biophysical interdependences of the agricultural system butalso to co-ordinate the planning ideas with that of other neighbouring farmers and other stakeholders(Ravnborg & Westermann, 2001) and an information systems can be used to perform this function.

In this study an information system is defined as: a system to transform data 1 in information(including collection, processing, storing, retrieving, analysis, protection and communicate on) assuch that this information can be used as input for decision-making (Paresi, 2000).StructuredSystems Development Methodologies are used in developing the information system in this study asthey can deal with complex system, which other methodologies have difficult in dealing with. Due totheir capabilities of using associated tools and techniques such as decision trees, decision tables,DFD and data dictionaries (Paresi, 2000), they are found suitable for developing land use planninginformation systems. This chapter will focus on information analysis and process modelling.

4.2. Building the Information System

The steps recommended by the structured system methodologies in building information systemsconsists of a set of iterative activities referred to as the System Life Cycle (Paresi, 2000). Paresi(2000) emphasised that the cycle occurs, when dealing with the next step and it is discovered that theprevious step is incomplete and need enhancement. Figure 4.1 shows the iterative System Life Cycleused in this study.

System strategy and planning deals with the analysis of the problem on the ground and theidentification of stakeholders. It looks at the possibility of carrying out the analysis. Stakeholderanalysis has been applied for this stage as it is a tool for analysing and understanding a system and ithas the steps for carrying out the analysis (see figure 3.1). System analysis deals with analysis ofinformation that the system has to provide with and this done by the using decision trees (i.e.problem tree and objectives tree), see section 4.3. System design is when the information system is

composed of, the context diagram, top-level diagrams and the lower level diagrams. At this stage, insystem development, the conceptual and logical data models are designed. System realisation, iswhen the designed system is implemented, i.e. implementing the logical data model into anoperational physical database, which is operational.


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Figure 4-1 Major phases and life cycle (Modified from Paresi, 2000)

4.3. Information Requirements

Information 2 requirements can be defined, as the information needs analysis where the goals orobjective of the stakeholders are defined. A problem tree is used to analyse the real world problemsand identify information needs. Figure 4.2 shows the problem tree derived from the SA during thefieldwork. First we look at the main problem and then the causes of the problem and their effects.The problem tree mainly focussed on the causes of lack of adoption land use plans by the farmers

and also on the irrigation water problem. Problems related to the local government and themandals/district were identified in the problem tree and also the effects of these problems at bothlevels, within the land use planning system. The main critical causes in the problem tree are the onesin double boxes in the problem tree, figure 4.2. From the problem tree, an objective tree is derived,which is a clarifying tool, for the specific objectives. The only difference between them is that theproblem tree describes the causes of a problem, while the objective tree describes the same elementsas proposals to solve the problem. Narrowing the components to a number that is manageable, withinthe context of an individual project may be obtained by preparing an objective tree and identifyingpriorities. Figure 4.3 below shows the objective tree, which has been derived from the problem tree.The objective tree act as a solution provider to the causes, problems and effects in the problem tree.

The objectives are basically what the stakeholders expect as output in terms of information from theland use planning information system.

1 Data is representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalised manner suitable for communication.2 Information is an answer to a specific questions, in problem solvin,g in connection with decision-making.

S y s t e mA n a l y s i s


F e a s i b i l i t yS t u d y

P r o b l e mD e f i n i t i o n

S y s t e m S t r a t e g y & P l a n n i n g

D e t a i l e dd e s i g n


G l o b a ld e s i g nG l o b a ld e s i g n

S y s t e m D e s i g nS y s t e m D e s i g n

O p e r a t i o nI n s t a l l a t i o nI m p l e m e n t a t io n

S y s t e m R e a l i z a ti o n

S t a k e h o l d e r a n a l y s i sa p p l i c a t i o n

U s i n g p ro b l e m t r e e &o b j e c t i v e t o a n a l y z e

i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i re m e n t

D e t a i l e d , d a t a b a se s &l o w e r D F D l e v el s

B r i n g i n g t h e s y s t e m i n t oo p e r a t i o n


S y s t e mA n a l y s i sS y s t e mA n a l y s i s




















S t a k e h o l d e r a n a l y s i sa p p l i c a t i o n

U s i n g p ro b l e m t r e e &o b j e c t i v e t o a n a l y z e

i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i re m e n t

D e t a i l e d , d a t a b a se s &l o w e r D F D l e v el s

B r i n g i n g t h e s y s t e m i n t oo p e r a t i o n


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Figure 4

Figure 4-4. The land use planning objective tree.

ObjectivesObjectives StrategieStrategie

Adequate adoptionof farmingDevelopment

policies by mandals

Good supportto land use

plans by

agriculture staff


plans by

agriculture staff

AdequatepolicyGuidelinesin land use

development.

Appropriateinstitutionalset up forfarmingsector

CoordinationimprovementAmongprogrammess& projectswithin

the sector

StrongData Basereliability

Effectiveperformanceof theFarmingsector


Adequatesupplyof power

Water availabilityon farm plots


Sufficientknowledgeland use pto local mleaders

Improvedmanagementof AOs &

AEOs

Improvedirrigation

infrastructure

ED

Well-maintainedwater supplycanals

Waterutilizationto satisfaction

High participationof farmers in

demonstrationfields

AdequateWater

utilizationon farm

Sustainableland useSustainableland use

P o v e r t y r e

d u c t

i o n a t

h o u s e

h o

l d

F o o

d s e c u r i

t y

F o o

d s e c u r i

t y

I m p r o v e d

f a r m e r

s i n c o m e g r o w

t h

H i g h a g r i c u

l t u r a l p r o

d u c t

i o n

H i g h a g r i c u

l t u r a l p r o

d u c t

i o n

ObjectivesObjectives StrategieStrategie

Adequate adoptionof farmingDevelopment

policies by mandals


plans by

agriculture staff


plans by

agriculture staff

AdequatepolicyGuidelinesin land use

development.

Appropriateinstitutionalset up forfarmingsector

CoordinationimprovementAmongprogrammess& projectswithin

the sector

StrongData Basereliability



Adequatesupplyof power



Sufficientknowledgeland use pto local mleaders

Improvedmanagementof AOs &

AEOs

Improvedirrigation

infrastructure

ED

Well-maintainedwater supplycanals

Waterutilizationto satisfaction

High participationof farmers in

demonstrationfields

AdequateWater

utilizationon farm

Sustainableland useSustainableland use

P o v e r t y r e

d u c t

i o n a t

h o u s e

h o

l d

F o o

d s e c u r i

t y

F o o

d s e c u r i

t y

I m p r o v e d

f a r m e r

s i n c o m e g r o w

t h

H i g h a g r i c u

l t u r a l p r o

d u c t

i o n

H i g h a g r i c u

l t u r a l p r o

d u c t

i o n


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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO--INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION 26

4.4. Analysis Modelling

Analysis modelling consists of activities of discovering (i.e. done in fieldwork) and documenting theuser requirements for the land use planning system, to produce a formal detailed model of what theusers expect the system to achieve. Basically analysis modelling, consider the system inputs andoutputs, roles of social system members, the value of social system members and the expectations oftheir participation in the system. Table 4.1 below summarizes the output and input expectations ofthe stakeholders to and from the system respectively.

The input requirements is the information that the stakeholders would input in the system and theoutput is the information that the stakeholders would want the system to provide and this informationis retrieved by querying the database. Such a system would allow the sharing of information withinthe LUP, as it integrates all information from all stakeholders in LUP.

Table 4-1 Data input and output requirements to the information system.

Stakeholder Input Requirement Output requirementFarmer -Soil sample data

-Pest and disease attack data.-Field size and crop pattern data.-Irrigation source/borehole information.-Credit & loans data.-Lease/landholder hold data.-Yield information.-Land extent and type.

-Crop market prices-New technology and seed varietyinformation.-Credit facilities-Crop suitability information-Pest and disease controlinformation.-Marketing skills information.-Water/crop management.

NABARD -Credit facilities information tocommercial/society banks.-Developmental activities information(financial management, institutionalbuilding)-Regulation information.

-Repayments of credits.

DRDA -Grants information for development.-Trainings information in self helpsprojects.-Institutional trainings information.

-Farmers groups data.-Groups/society performanceinformation.

ElectricityBoard

-Electricity bills-Farmers records-Electricity distribution data.

-Payment of bills-Farmers financial statusinformation.

IrrigationDepartment

-Water levels data-Water management information anddistribution.

-Water consumption data.-Irrigated area extent.

DATT -Soil/water analysis data.-Fertiliser versus crop application data-Farmer soils/water samplesinformation

-Soil/water samples data-New crop variety/fertiliserapplication data


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AMC -Crop market prices data-Payment to farmers-Harvest storage information.

-Crop quantity deliveriesinformation.

State Bank ofHyderabad

-Credit facilities information.-Crops to be financed information.-Credit cards & farmers information-Guideline, and policies on creditfacilities.

-Title deeds and extent of landdata.-Lease agreement information-Repayment of loans.

Mandal Office -Crop estimation/condition data.-Rainfall data.-Agricultural census data.-Land utilisation/extent/holderinformation.-Crop census, rainfall.-Population census.

-Payment of taxes.-Drought/crop condition reports.

AgricultureDepartment

-Pest and disease control information.-Crop cultivation and latest technology.

-Quality control of seeds.-Crop statistical

-Pest and disease attack.-Farmers/crop performance.

-Soil/water sample.-New crop varieties.Water UsersAssociation

-Crops to grow/season-Irrigation water quantity available-Irrigation water management.

-Payment from members-Details of members

AgricultureResearchStation

-New crop variety information-Crop suitability information.-Field visits on demonstration fields.-Pest and disease information.

-Pest and disease attacks.-Crop performances.

FarmersTrainingCentre

-Crop cultivation and management.-Agriculture techniques trainings.-Seed rate/acre, labour/crop/acre

information.

-Farmers problems and needs.-Farmers performanceinformation.

MediaInstitutes

-Weather forecast information.-Planting, crop managementinformation.

-Crop yield.-Crop performance

VillageSecretary

-Farmers details.-Crops census data.- Irrigation facilities reports.-Drought reports.-Land extents and utilisation

-Credit facilities available.-Seeds &fertiliser subsides.-

When inputs and outputs, information requirement to the land use planning information system, have

been defined, the designing of the information system would follow. Section 4.6 deals with thedevelopment of the LUP information system.

4.5. Information Requirement Constraints

In every system, there is bound to be information constraints where, information is not flowingefficiently among the stakeholders. During the fieldwork, it was discovered that there were areas


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were information flow was inefficient, as it was flowing in one direction and not much feedbackfrom the other side. Information sharing is one of the most relevant aspects for sustainable land use.The information constraint identified was that the information was flowing in one direction and therewas no much feedback. Those at the bottom are information starved, since they cannot get anyfeedback from the top level. Figure 4.4 shows information constraints (one directional informationflow) discovered during the fieldwork. Information systems are solutions information requirementconstraints as all the users ofthe system can have access toinformation without much ofconsulting other stakeholders.An information system makesthe accessibility of informationeasier.

Figure 4-5 Information constraints in CPOs offices and agriculturedepartment

4.6. System Development

System development is a method of diagrammatically showing how data flows from one process toanother in LUP. Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) are used to describe the processes of a system,showing how these processes link together through data stores and how these processes relate to thestakeholders (i.e. users of the system - outside world). Data Flow Diagrams is a means ofrepresenting a system at any level of detail with a graphic network of symbols showing data flows,data stores, data processes, and data sources/destinations. In developing the land use planninginformation system data flows diagrams have been designed after the context diagram, because thecontext diagram functions as the basis of the data flow diagram.

4.6.1. Context diagram

Context diagram is an approach to model the whole land use planning system in one process. Itshows all the externalities that interact with the system and the data flows between the externalentities and the system. Figure 4.6 shows the context diagram developed in this study, which modelsthe land use planning system. In the context diagram the information received and provided to theland use-planning domain is identified. The arrows represent the information being received orgenerated by the land use-planning domain. The closed boxes represent the set of sources and sinksof information (i.e. stakeholders).


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The model shown in figure 4.6 does not describe the land use planning information system in detail,it only shows the main process, which is land use planning. For more details, it is necessary toidentify more processes within the land use planning system and come up with a DFD made up withthese processes and the data flows between them. The context diagram is only composed of the mainprocess, data flows and the external entities, which are the stakeholders.External Entities: are outside of the system, but they either supply input data to the system or useoutput data from the system. They are entities 3 which the designer has no control over them(Hawryszkiewycz, 1998). In the context of this research the external entities are called sources whenthey supply data to the system and are called sinks when they receive data from the system.

Figure 4-6 Context Diagram

4.6.2. Data flow diagram

DFDs use a number of components to represent information systems (Hawryszkiewycz, 1998). Thesystem components are; process, data flow, data stores and the external entities (Perera, 2002). Thesecomponents are represented diagrammatically in figure 4.5.


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i) Processes: show what the system does. Each process has an identifier (a number: indicating theprocesss place in sequence) and a unique name (i.e. the action: specifying the act and the data onwhich it is performed). Each process has one or more data inputs and produces one or more dataoutputs (Hawryszkiewycz, 1998).

Process Shows what the systems do.

Externalentity

Source or destination of data that is external to the system.

Data store Manual or computer storage of data.

Data flow Data transfer in the direction shown by arrow. Each arrow should belabelled to show or indicate what is being transferred.

Figure 4-7 Components of the DFD.

ii) Data stores: contains data that is retained in the system. They can be manual files or computerfiles. Processes can enter into a data store or retrieve data from a data store (Hawryszkiewycz, 1998).A data store is never the direct recipient of unprocessed data from external sources or from otherdata stores nor is data from a data store ever directly delivered to an external source; there must be aprocess in between.

iii) Data flows: models the passage of data in the system and they are represented by arrows whichlinks; i) two processes, ii) data store and a process and iii) process and external entities. The arrow

indicates the direction of flow of data. We have no control over flows between external entities, sowe do not model them (Hawryszkiewycz, 1998).

DFDs that show the major system processes are called the top-level DFD (figure 4.7). The top-levelDFD contains the five major processes of the land use planning information system. Each of theprocesses has a unique name and number. The numbers start from one until all the processes havebeen numbered sequentially (Hawryszkiewycz, 1998). The major processes in this LUP informationsystem are; crop cultivation, farming system analysis, data collection and dissemination, land useplan preparation and investment and operation. These processes describe the land use planninginformation system to a certain level, where for a more detailed explanation of the system, sub-

processes of each process should be described.

The sub-processes are derived from decomposing the five main processes in the land use planninginformation system. The major processes are composed of different number of sub-processes, withdata flows and data stores (see appendix C).

3 Farmers have been defined as an entity because, they have been defined as a group with the same input to the system and requiressame outputs from the system. Usually entities are considered as organisations in information system development.


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Figure 4-8 Top-level diagram showing the five major processes.

There are a number of advantages in decomposing the processes to sub-processes or even to n-levelsof DFDs, namely:

i. Provide ease of understanding.ii. It falls naturally into line with analysts top down approach to decomposition.

iii. The various levels represent the various degrees of detail by which the system is represented.This is very useful during discussions with users, either in fact finding or getting agreementabout system specification. Different users may want to view the system at different levels ofdetail.

iv. By the incorporation of different levels, the DFD can provide the view of the whole system orof an area of interest.

In developing lower-level DFD from top-level, the principles of the flow of information are still

maintained and the guide the decomposition. Table 4.2 shows the matrix of information flowprinciples in the DFDs of the land use information system.

Table 4-2 Matrix of information flow principles.

External entity Process Data store

External Entity No Yes No

Process Yes Yes Yes

Data store No Yes No


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4.6.3. Sub-level processes

Sub-level processes gives, more detailed information about the land use information systems. Theyshow all the stores, which are in the system. Figure 4.9 below shows an example of the sub-levelprocesses.Each process in these detailed DFDs is labelled firstly with a number from the top-level DFD, and

then followed by a number to show that each is an expansion of the process in top-level. For otherlower level DFDs please refer to appendix B. Figure 4.9 is a DFD lower level of the Farming SystemAnalysis process in the top level DFD.

Figure 4-9 Lower-level diagram

4.7. Metadata

Metadata can be defined literally as "data about data," but the term is normally understood to meanstructured data about digital (and non-digital) resources that have been used to help support a widerange of operations. It is helpful to think of metadata as 'tongs' with which we can handle raw data.

Without metadata, the data is meaningless. We do not even know where it is, or how much of it touse?Meta data includes; (i) information about data elements or fields (Column Name, Business Name,Description, Length, Format); (ii) files or table (Name, Contents (subject area)); (iii) system (Name,Contents and Processes); (iv) environment (Flat files, Mainframe, Data Warehouse). In this study theinformation in the appendices is an example of metadata.


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5. Data Modelling

5.1. Introduction

DFDs model the process view of a system and include some consideration of the data used by thesystem and the contents of data stores and data flows. To determine the file structures that will beneeded to support the new systems procedures it is necessary to examine the data more closely andto subsequently model it more rigorously. In this study, the entity relationship modelling, (a top-down approach) has been used for data modelling.The top-down approach of Entity-Relationship modelling is a valuable technique for giving a high-level, conceptual view of a database structure (Lee, 1998). It is a tool that helps to focus on threemajor elements that must be incorporated into the final database system: entity types, relationshiptypes and existence conditions. The ERM can be used as a modelling technique, both for the conceptual and logical modelling (Lee,

1998). This technique produces a good database structure such that the data is stored and can beretrieved in a more efficient way.

5.2. Steps of Developing a Database

In developing the database, this study uses the following steps: conceptual design, logical design andphysical design of the database as shown in figure 5.1. The stages of database development shownin figure 5.1 are stepwise processes, as the first stage will lead to the next stage. They simplify theprocess of database development; reduce redundancy in the database and in turn the memory spaceof the physical database. Following these steps will ensure a well-designed database, which isefficient in retrieving data, since all redundancy is removed.

Figure 5-1. The phases of database design process. (Modified from Ellis, 2002)


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5.2.1. Entity Relationships Diagram Concepts

The three basic -components of the ERD are entities, attributes and relationships. These componentsare represented by various symbols within the ERD. Table 5.1 below shows the symbols that wereused in this study. Using these concepts conceptual database schema of the land use planning wasderived.

Table 5-1 ERD concepts.

Concept Symbol DescriptionEntity Specific objects or things in the mini-world that are represented in the

database e.g. Farmer, Village.

Attribute Properties, which are used to describe the entities, e.g. Farmer-name =Andrew, village_name, village_Id.

Primary key An attribute or combination of attributes that uniquely identifies oneand only one instance of an entity, e.g. Village_Id

Relationship A data relationship is a natural association that exists between one ormore entities; a farmer lives in a village.

5.3. LUP Conceptual Data Model [LUPCDM]

The conceptual model is based on a view of the real world and on understanding the data. A CDM,typically called an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD), contains business information and structurewithout regard to physical storage concerns. Business items become entities and are described byattributes. Typically no indexes, foreign keys or table space information are included in theconceptual model (Lopez, 2001).

According to (Dorion, 1996) the Conceptual Data Model represents the way the user perceives thedata; it describes all business information that is currently being used or will be used by theorganization in the future. The Conceptual E/R diagram (i.e. conceptual database design) representsa high-level view of the data entities and their relationships required in the system to be developed,as well as some of the attributes required to support each data-entity.

Figure 5.2 shows the land use planning conceptual data model, derived from the information in thelower level DFDs. The data stores in the lower levels and other data elements become entities in theconceptual method. The information from the lower DFDs is also used to model the relations amongthe entities. At this stage there are no attributes to be assigned to the entities. The conceptual modelonly shows or explains the relationship amongst the identified entities. The derived entities from thelower level DFDs are specific objects or things in the mini-world that are represented in thedatabase. Figure 5.2 shows the relationships among the identified entities.


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Figure 5-2 Conceptual Database schema

5.4. Logical Data Model

The Logical Data Model is a more detailed version of the Conceptual Data Model. Attributes areassigned to entities based on rules of normalization 4. These rules help define the primary key of anentity and ensure that all attributes are totally dependent on the primary key (Dorion, 1996). Anormalized Logical Data Model eliminates redundancies in data storage and capture. The normalized

4 Normalization is a process for insuring well-structured relations (tables.) It is the process used to assign attributes toentities. These attributes will transform into column names and the entities will transform into relations.


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Logical Data Model serves as the basis for the Physical Data Model. Rules of normalisation whichare used in the logical data model are:

i. 1NF (First Normal Form): (i) elimination of repeating groups in individual tables, (ii) creatinga separate table for each set of related data, and (iii) identifying each set of related data with aprimary key.

ii. 2NF (Second Normal Form): (i) Creating separate tables for sets of values that apply tomultiple records, and (ii) relating these tables with a foreign key.

iii. 3NF (third Normal Form): eliminating fields that do not depend on the key. No duplicateinformation is permitted.

The logical model depicts the true relationships of attributes as they are grouped into entities,relating attributes to attributes and entities to entities. Logical models are not concerned withimplementation, storage mechanisms (figure 5.3). In developing the logical modelling, it is a one-to-one mapping of the conceptual data model. The entities, which have been identified in theconceptual model, are now arranged and show the relationships among them, though some of the

entities can be converted into relationships.5.4.1. LUP Logical Data Model

The logical data model is a more detailed version of the Conceptual Data Model. Several activitiesare involved in the development of the Logical Data Model; the methodology used in this study hasdivided the development into two distinct parts. The development processes is iterative, so as toperfectise the logical model. Part one of the development used the activities shown in figure 5.4,which is self-explanatory.

Figure 5-3 First stages Logical Data Modelling

Figure 5-4 Stage two of the development of thelogical model.

The second stage of logical data model development is more detailed than the first stage as on thisstage, all the issues which had not been dealt with in stage one are done here. This is the stage,which the logical model is finalised. Figure 5.6 shows the steps used in developing the land useplanning logical model, stage two.


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After the completion of stage one and two, the result is a logical data model in the form of an ERdiagram. Figure 5.5 shows the logical data model of land use planning, showing the entities and theirrelationships.In this study due to the many number of entities it is not possible to show the attributes of entities onthe ER diagram. The attributes can be conveniently represented in the form of a set of normalisedskeleton tables. Skeleton tables in the database context are sets of tables that show entities with theircorresponding attributes in the normal form and that helps to transform the ER diagram into acomputer compatible form (Perera, 2002).

Figure 5-5. The logical data model

The skeleton tables are the representation of the physical database tables

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