MANAGEMENT OF ACID SOILS FOR SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF SPICES IN INDIA

v. Srinivasan, R. Dinesh and S. Hamza Indian Institute of Spices Research, Marikunnu PO, Calicut - 673012, Kerala, India

Abstract India has been a traditional producer, consumer and exporter of spices. Almost all states in the country produce one or other spices. Spices exports have registered substantial growth and crossed one billion marks in foreign exchange. However, the current productivity levels show a disturbing downward trend. Besides pests and diseases, important factor contributing to reduced yields in spices is poor soil quality; a reflection of low carbon sequestration coupled with alarmingly higher nutrient mining from these soils. Poor nutrient management strategies have resulted in depletion of C reserves, imbalanced' nutrient levels, and decreased nutrient cycling and processes due to decreased biological activity. Low pH and lower levels of organic carbon, KI Ca, Mg and Zn are the major constraints iii spice growing soils. This coupled with high soil erosion and associated nutrient losses in high rainfall growing areas where spices are grown have further aggravated the problem. Long-term trials on integrated nutrient management (INM) indicated that fertilizer input efficiency can be increased through rational use of inputs and scientific management. Adoption of INM techniques will not only enhance crop productivity but will also increase the total productivity and the efficiency of fertilizer use in these soils. While doing so there is an urgent need to augment supplies of soil amendments, organic manures, fortified and customized fertilizers supplying secondary and micronutrients and bioagents to sufficiently support nutrient supply in spice production systems.

Introduction The green revolution caused by increased yields could not be sustained due to scarce or imbalanced input use, declining soil fertility and severe soil degradation. Based on the area statistics (lCAR, 2010) the total area under degraded and wastelands in the country is 147.75 M ha and the extent of area undergoing chemical degradation through acidification (only strongly acidic - pH < 4.5 and moderately acidic - pH 4.5-5.5 soils) was estimated at 16.03 M ha. However, through further harmonization of the available data on different possible classes with different stake holders, the extent of this chemically degraded area has been worked out as 10.71 M ha of arable land (exclusively acidic soils « 5.s pH) - 5.09 M ha; acidic « 5.5 pH) and water eroded soils 5.72 M ha and 7.13 M ha of acid soils under open forest according to the Acid soil map of India,

Although all states in the cou'1try produce one or other spices, the states with major area under acid soils are the major producers of spice crops like black pepper, cardamoml ginger and turmeric. India produced about 5350.5 thousand tons of spices during 2010-11 from 2940.4 thousand hectares area (Table 1 & 2). During 2010-11, export in terms of value'was all time high with US $ 1.5 billion. The demand for spices is expected to reach 6.10 Mt in 2025 (Parthasarathy et 01. 2010). While black pepper and cardamom cultivation is mainly confined to Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, the cultivation of ginger and turmeric are spread over the states of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and other NE states, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Among the major spice crops, the area under black pepper during 2010-11 was 183778 ha with a production of 52000 MT with the productivity of 283 kg ha-1 which is the lowest among the competing countries like Vietnam, Indonesia and Brazil. Small cardamom is cultivated in an area of 86704 ha, with a production of 15710 MT and productivity of 181 kg ha-1• Kerala has 59% of total cardamom area and contributes 70% of production; Karnataka 34% of area and 23% of production and Tamil Nadu has 7% of area as well as production. India ranks first with respect to ginger and turmeric production contributing about 32.75 and 94 percent of world's production, respectively. The ginger production was 701989 MT in 2010-11 from an area of 149119 ha and a productivity of 4708 kg ha-1• Andhra Pradesh is the leading turmeric producing state in India followed by Tamil Nadu. The area under the crop was 195072 ha with a production of 992944 MT and productivity of 5090 kg ha-1 in the year 2010-11. Even though India is the largest producer and consumer of ginger and turmeric, our productivity is low compared to China.

While there is little scope for an increase in arable area, the major cause of concern is the decrease in arable area due to urbanization and soil degradation. Since the deficiency of major, secondary and micro nutrients is a yield limiting factor in addition to inherent problems of these soils, a logical alternative for increasing food production is

8th International Symposium on Plant· Soil Interactions at Low pH 153

to develop, fine tune, and implement smart soil/Crop management practices, which enhance and maintain the SOM content and plant nutrient reserves at appropriate levels. In this paper we bring together an array of information related to soil and nutrient management strategies in major spice crops to maintain the system sustainbility.

154

Table 1. State wise area of chemically degraded land area in India ('000 hal

Extream 'I_ e eroded 1-

d"h~~-~-f- 0 0.28 I ~ 0 o I 0

Pradesh 3Qij~ ,....--~--50,r--~~-~ -~gfs-

411 1319 i 265 ~19 -------..-.;.-----~

~

_~ 221 0

,

1 .. -rr- -, __ ~_~ ___ __E I

i 121 ! 332 29 ~~~~.--"". -~.

I 41 1 22S ~ ~..,,g.. 1 115 i 86 1396

-;-" 521 ~--175 --- - j~

1 150 ' 0 ~~ I 17"1 4S I 14~

107 i S, 4S

I 0 1 01 0

~;:-, Q 0 0 2 43

~---i3

Table 2. Area, production and productivity of major spice crops in India (2010-11)

I SpIce Crop

~Ckpepper , Ginger

Chillies

Turmeric

Cardamom Garlic Coriander Cumin Fennel Fenugreek I\jwan Other seed spices (1) Clov. Nu_ TamarInd Cinnamon Tejpat Othe!'S(2j

---~--~~

Toto'

, r-~--~J • ProdUctIon Productivity I A, .. ( 000 ho, ,'000', __ !kg/hoI

183.778 '----- 51.99 283

149.119 701.989 4708

792.107 1223.399 1544

195.072 992.944 S090

86,704 15.711 la, 200.634 1057.755 5272 530,477 481.999 909 507.849 314.222 619 61.754 105.355 1706

81,242 118358 1457

25.849 22.182 ass 37.610 39.551 1052

2.426 1,165 I 46O 16.133 11.425 70S 59.589 206.339 3463

0.51 0.04 73

2M 4.98 2044

7.102 I 1.073 151

2940.395

•

53SOAl1 3059'8

Add Solis uf Indla - Distributlun, properties & Management for Sustainable Crop Production

Table 3. State-wise area and production of spices during 2010-11

State Area ('000 hal Production ('000 tl Andhra Pradesh 289.21 1069.18

Arunachal Pradesh 10.05 61.60

Assam 89.15 222.11

Bihar 13.01 12.54

Chhattisgarh 11.67 8.32

Goa 0.65 0.17

GuJarat 479.42 792.61

Haryana 15.11 77.86

Himachal Pradesh 6.64 1956

1& Kashmir 3.87 0.91

Kamataka 259.12 460.39

Kerala 234.76 113.13

Madhya Pradesh 287.52 413.65

Maharashtra 116.52 100.57

Manipur 10.47 24.14

Meghalaya 16.78 71.44

Mizoram 21.45 110.49

Nagaland 7.46 38.50

Orissa 124.02 174.70

Punjab 18.42 63.53

Rajasthan 598.89 667.98

Sikkim 24.38 52.37

Tamil Nadu 134.28 341.16

Tripura 5.75 18.08

Uttar Pradesh 56.57 200.70

Uttarakhand 6.69 38.74

i West Bengal 96.91 192.94

: Pondicherry 0.02 0.03

I A&N Islands 1.60 • 3.07 ,

I Total 2940.39 5350.47 ~ ..

Soil Suitability Mostly of the spices like black pepper, cardamom and ginger prefer acidic soil environment. Black pepper plantations are established on a wide variety of soils with varying texture from sandy loam to clayey loam that are acidic (pH 5.0-6.2) and in coastal sandy soils (Khan etal. 2002). Pepper is also grown as a mixed crop trailed on live trees in alluviums that are deep with sandy or loamy texture, moderately rich in plant nutrients and respond well to management practices. Hamza et 01. (2004) reported that soils of high yielding black pepper gardens are sandy to loam textured with near neutral pH, high in exchangeable bases, organic carbon and micronutrients especially zinc. The major pepper growing soils of India can be broadly classified into four major orders viz., Oxlsols (6%), Alfisols (70%), Moilisois (10%) and Entisols (4%) (Sadanandan, 1993).

The major s(,ils of cardamom growing tracts come under alfisols, derived from schists, granite and gneiss and are lateritic. Soils most suited for cardamom are red lateritic loam with layers of organic debris present in evergreen forests, although it grows on a variety of soiis with only a shallow zone of humus accumulation. In general, carda mom­growing soils are fairly deep having good drainage. The clay fraction is predominantly kaolinitic and hence there is some fixation of potassium in these soils. The cardamom-growing soils of Karnataka are mostly clay loam (Kulkarni et 01. 1971).

810 rnternational Symposium Oil Plant-Soil InteractIons at Low pH 155

I , I

'I , I I I , I' , 1

,': "

Ginger adapts widely to different soils. Maximum ginger yield was realized in soils with moderate acidity (pH 5,7) and high organic matter (1.1 %). Higher yield requires well drained and deep friable soils. In India, ginger Is gown on sandy loams, clay loams and laterite solis but virgin furest soils rich in fertility are ideal. Generally large scale cultivation of ginger is practiced in high range laterites of Kerala and North Eastern states. Turmeric can be cultivated in most areas of the tropics and subtropics provided the rainfall is adequate or facilities for irrigation are available. As It requires a hot and moist climate, It Is usually grown in regions with an annual rainfall of 1000 to 2000 mm. Turmeric thrives best on loamy or allUVial, loose, friable, fertile soils and cannot stand water logging. Well-drained sandy or clayey loam or red loamy soils haVing acidic to slightly alkaline soil Is Ideal for Its cultivation (Dinesh etal. 2012).

Soil related constraints 5011 erosion

The main constraints faced in the potential zones for spices are steep sloping landform leading to excessive erosion, risk of water logging In valleys during heavy monsoon periods and acidic soils due to heavy leaching of bases from soil leading to low soli fertility status. The extent of soil erosion In spice growing tracts Le. Western Ghats, Coastal and NEH region ranges from 20-80 t ha- I yr-', rated to be very severe, affecting approximately 2.4 lakh km' area in this region. Adopting soli and water conservation measures like terracing and bunding to reduce the degree and length of the slope and to reduce erosion Is the primary measure. Soli erosion and associated nutrient losses is a serious issue in the humid tropics, more so In ginger and turmeric as the soil Is constantly disturbed for inter cultivation operations without any conservation measures where, substantial amount of soil and nutrients will be removed through the runoff water.

Low fertility

The major reasons for low productivity of spices are low soil pH, high clay and low sand content, low CEC, base saturatlon,low status of organic carbon, K, Ca, Mg and In. Use of low level of Inputs like manures and fertilizers, crop protection chemicals and crop loss due to diseases add to the farmer's woes. Unlike most other spices, pepper and cardamom are perennial crops and the utilization pattern of nutrients over several years, could be uniquely different. Also black pepper and cardamom are grown widely under coastal or moist humid tropics/forest eco systems where the rainfall Is very high, leaching of applied nutrients and bases is a major constraint. Except widely adapted turmeric and seed spices, which are grown in wide range of pH varying from 5.0 to 7.5, all the other major spices are grown in slightly acidic soils which are being grouped under red loams or laterites. These soils are generally deficient in available P, Ca, Mg, In, B and with low cec Imbalanced/ No fertilizer application

Initial survey in spice growing areas of Kerala showed that 57% of the samples collected were low In P and 52% of soil collected from Karnataka and 9"10 sample collected from Kerala are deficient In K (Sadanandan et ai" 1993). Among micronutrients, defiCiency of In is more predominant in acid soils of India with highest deficiency rate of 57% in acid soils of Meghalaya followed by Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal (23-54%). Recent studies at Callcut and Wayanad districts, the main spice growing areas of Kerala showed an alarming trend of nutrient Imbalance. Soils (representing 26 panchayats) were generally acidic with> 70% of samples falling below 6.0 pH. The mean available P level was 114.35 ± 83 kg ha-' and 9% ofthe samples had high (25-35 kg ha-'), 300/0 had very high (36-100 kg ha-') and 25% of the soils recorded extremely high (> 100 kg ha') available P. The exchangeable K levels were low-medium (69%) and 38% of samples were low in exchangeable Ca. A major percentage of the samples were low In exch. Mg (44% low and 13% very low), available 5 (29%), B (32%) and In (29%) (IISf<, 2012). Relatively excess/Indiscriminate and long term use of N & P straight fertilizers, which are generally free from micro nutrients, ignoring potential soil amelioration with liming materials, has raised concern about preferential building up of P and imbalance of other nutrients, and created wide spread deficiencies of secondary and micronutrients especially Mg, Band In in major spice growing soils. The alleviation of such deficiency by use of corrective soli amendments and micronutrient fertilizers is also limited due to non-availability of standard fertilizer materials and Its awareness by farmers. Efforts to correct this imbalance have to be made through promotion of site specific nutrient management taking into consideration the Initial soli fertility status.

Constraints in nutrient management A negative nutrient balance of 10.0 M tons per year of NPK which is likely to increase. At an estimated nutrient removal of 37.5 M tons ofNPK (11.9 N + 5.3 p,o, + 20.3 K,o M tons) to meet food production by 2020, the nutrient

156 Add Solis of India • Olstrlbufirm, Properties & Management for SustaInable {fOp Production

balance identifies excess use of Nand P ,05' and deficit use of nearly 16 M tons of K which accounts for 55% of NPK removal. The total fertilizer consumption In India during 2010-11 was 28.12 Mt (16.55 N + 8.05 p,o, + 3.51 K,o Mt). Under this scenario, the total estimated fertilizer consumption for spices production Is only 346.7 thousand tons (hardly 1.2%), of which the major spices that are grown under acid soil environments are applied with 69.54 thousand tons of NPK But the estimated nutrient removal by way of harvesting is 134.36 thousand tons, identifying an excess use of p,o, and deficit of Nand K,o to the tune of -14 and -41 thousand tons, respectlvely"(Table 4). The nutrient demand for production of these major spices to achieve the yield goals by 2025 will be 163.15 thousand tons.

Table 4. Estimated nutrient-wise fertilizer consumption and balance in spice crops. -

Fertilizer consumption I

N P,O. K,O Total :

2010-11 All spice crops 193.48 97.51 57.68 348.67 • Major spices' 43.35 23.32 22.87 89.54 Crop uptake' 57.52 12.96 63.88 134.36 Balance -14.17 10.36 -41.00 -44.82

2025

I Crop uptake' 80.29 17.31 85.55 183.15

• Spices like black pepper, cardamom, ginger and turmeric are considered

An unfavorable ratio of consumption can restrict the crop yields and can lower the productivity, thus hampering the fertilizer use effiCiency and wastage of financial resource of the farmer. Additionally, Nand P losses resulting from excessive erosion and heavy leaching under heavy rainfall in spice growing areas also threaten the environment. Even though the fertilizer consumption pattern in India is imbalanced with a consumption ratio of 1:0.4:0.2 in 2009-10 as against favourable ratio of 1 :0.5:0.25, the consumption ratio in spice growing Agro eco-regions are near to optimum with 1 :0.5:0.33 in NE hills, 1:0.5:0.43 in Southern plateau and 1 :0.6:0.6 in Coastal zones. But this balanced nutrient supply ratio also seems to be insufficient for major spices as their nutrient removal pattern is 1 :0.23:1.12 of NPK, resulting in a deficit of K supply of about 47% of the total crop nutrient removal. A large removal of potassium by rhizomatous spices compare to little replenishment through inputs is of major concern (Table 5). The crop residue management and loss of plant nutrients through erosion and leaching are key factors in monitoring plant nutrient balance in spice cropping systems. In addition, to maintain the sufficiency levels, serious efforts are needed to work out secondary and micro nutrients needs and strategies to ensure their availability.

Table 5. Nutrient removal by different spices crops

Av. yield Uptake (kg/ha)

Crop* (dry) N P.O. 1<.0 CII Mg Fe

Pepper 2000 42.0 40.0 6.4 3.9 0.09 Cardamom 450 6.0 2.1 16.8 3.4 1.2 0.10 Ginger 4800 170.0 30.0 132.0 8.6 9.1 1.8

Turmeric 5300 135.0 43.0 215.0 10.1 16.0 1.2 Clove 275 3.1 1.0 2.8 3.3 0.8 0,01

Nutmeg 750 7.8 1.9 3.7 4.4 1.2 0.21

* nutrient removal based on average economic produce yield only

Nutrient requirement Black pepper

Mn

0.10 0.16

0.5 0.8 0.08 0.02

Zn Cu

0.04 0.03 0.03 0.006 0.13 0.04 0.24 0.05

0.07 0.002

0.01 0.Q1

Major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), secondary nutrients (calcium and magnesium) and micro nutrients especially Zn are the most important nutrients essential for black pepper. Studies on nutrient removal by black pepper shown that of 100 kg of dried pepper requires 2.05, 0.35 and 1.85 kg of N, p,o, and K,o, respectively. Among the

SIll International Symposillm on Plant·Soillnteractton~ at low pi! 157

major nutrients uptake of N was highest followed by K and Ca and among micro nutrients iron uptake was the highest, The magnitude of nutrients removed was in the order: N>K>Ca>Mg>P>S.

Azmil and Yau (1993) reported a nutrient removal of N - 255, P - 22.8, K - 208.2, Ca - 54.5 and Mg - 36.4 kg ha" by black pepper. Sadanandan (2000) reported a higher uptake of Nand K up to a magnitude of 183-292 kg ha" and 313-337 kg ha-', respectively by eight year old yielding vines of pepper with a population of 1000 vines ha''. They also reported a removal of 24.6 and 21.4 kg P ha" by Pannlyur-l and Karimunda varieties of which 50-62% of removal was constituted by the leaves followed by stem (16-24%), root (11-16%) and berries (8-10%). As plant density increased from 1100 to 5000 ha<, depletion of organic matter, K, Ca, Mg and micronutrients like Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn was more in soils (Reddy et al. 1992). '

Pepper requires large quantities of K for growth and fruiting and K requirement is related to the content of other nutrients In the plant, mainly nitrogen. The amount of K removed by various parts of the black pepper has been quantified (g vine") as leaves 28.73, branches 28.7, stem 19.6, fruit spikes 0.05, and flowers 1.4 with a total uptake of 203-337 kg ha" (Sadanandan, 2000). Even though the varieties Panniyur-I and Karimunda have shown comparable amount of total K removed, K removal by leaf was higher in Karlmunda (58.9%) In spite of less dry matter compared to Pannlyur-1 which recorded higher removal by stem. Calcium is removed to an extent of 54.5 kg ha" and the total Mg removal Is 36.4 kg ha", by different plant parts of pepper. The removal by stem and branches was maximum with 30 and 34.3% followed by leaves (12.5 and 15.2%), respectIvely In Mg and Ca. Yield response can be expected for pepper when sulphur content In the soil is less than the threshold value of 6 mg kg'. Among micronutrients, the magnitude ofthe nutrients removed was in the order: Fe>Cu>Mn>Zn.

Small cardamom

Cardamom is generally grown in the rich fertile soils of the forest eco-system. The nutrient growth data of cardamom­growing tracts of south India revealed that the nutrients limiting growth were in the order Zn > K> P > Ca > Mg > Cu > Mo > Fe > Mn > N (Hamza et ai, 2009). Being a perennial crop, a steady absorption and utilization of plant nutrients take place throughout the life cycle of cardamom and hence warrants regular application of nutrients for higher yields.

Nutrient uptake studies In cardamom have Indicated that the uptake of N, P, K , Ca and Mg were In the ratio of 6:12:3:0:8 respectively and for the production of one kg of cardamom capsules, 0.122 kg N, 0.014 kg P and 0.2 kg K are removed by the plant (Kulkarni et al. 1971). Korikanthlmath et al (2000) reported that N, P and K uptake by cardamom Increased with increase in dry matter production. Of the nutrients, K uptake was more followed by Nand P during both stages of crop suggesting that the crop requires more of K than Nand P. Among the plant parts, highest uptake of N was by green leaves (44.69%) and tillers (29.6%) in one-year-old and prepotents respectively, The highest P and K uptake was by roots and grown up tillers In one-year-old plants and green leaves and tillers In prepotent plants respectively. The nutrient uptake ratio per plant was 9N:l P:17K. Among secondary nutrients, leaves highest uptake of Ca was by shoots at both the stages and Mg was by leaves. Uptake of Ca by shoots at harvest stage was more than that of pre-bearing stage. The reverse was the trend In case of Mg (Krlshnakumar and Potty, 2002).

Ginger

Ginger rhizomes are Nand K exhausting, intermediary in case of P and Mg removal and the least in case of Ca removal (Nagarajan and PllIal, 1979). The uptake of N, P and K in leaf and pseudostem increases up to 180 days and then decreases, whereas that of rhizome uptake steadily increases till the harvest. About 48.41 % of the N absorbed from fertilizer applied at seedling stage was distributed to the shoots and leaves. While 65.43 % of the N derived from fertilizer applied at vigorous growth of rhizome was distributed into rhizomes, only 32.04 % was distributed into shoots and leaves. An average dry yield of 4.0 t ha" dry ginger rhizomes removes 180 kg N, 27 kg P ,0" 132 kg K,o, 8.6 kg Ca, 9.1 kg Mg, 1.8 kg Fe, 500 g Mn, 130 g Zn and 40 g Cu ha'. For healthy growth of ginger, very low Ca is required. A good ginger crop removes 35-50 kg P ha", The leaves of healthy plants contained 1.1 to 1.3% of Ca and concentrations as low as 2 ppm is sufficient to achieve 90 per cent of maximum yield. An appropriate critical limit of 2.1- 3.74 mg Zn kg" for soli and 27.0-53.8 mg Zn kg" for leaf was fIXed for realizing maximum ginger yield (Srinivasan et al. 2009).

Turmeric

The maximum uptake of nutrients was observed during active vegetative growth phase of turmeric. Higher uptake of K up to third, N up to fourth and P up to fifth months of development was observed with subsequent decrease

158 Add 50u$ of India ~ Distribution, PropNties & Management for Sustainable (rop Production

in their uptake. Planting mother rhizomes enhances the uptake of N, P and K as compared to primary or secondary rhizomes. The uptake of nutrients by turmeric was in the order of K > N > Mg > Ca (Nagarajan and Pillai, 1979). Crop removal studies at IISR have showed that an average dry yield of 6.0 t ha-1 rhizome removes 150 kg N, 48 kg P 2°5'

245 kg K20. According to Kumar et al. (2003) approximately 9% of the turmeric growing area in Tamil Nadu is severely limited by mineral nutrition and about 20% of samples were identified as having deficiencies. They worked out optimum levels for 12 nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, 5, B, In, CUI Fe and Mn) in the leaves of turmeric using Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS)JModified Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (MDRIS) and Compositional Nutrient Diagnosis (CND) approaches. The reference norms for optimum concentration in leaves of turmeric in Erode district of Tamil Nadu ranged as 1.22-2.75% for N, 0.36-1.27% for P, 3.66-6.6% for K, 0.18-0.33% for Ca, 0.61-1.25% for Mg, 0.16-0.31 % for Na, 0.13-0.29% for 5, 14.3-26.3 mg kg-1 for B, 41.1-93.2 mg kg-1 for Zn, 15.2-40.3 mg kg-1 for CUI 143-1568 mg kg-1 for Fe and 66-219 mg kg-1 for Mn. The order of nutrient imbalance was in the order 5 > B > Mg > Cu > P > Na > Ca > K> Zn > N > Fe > Mn based on DR/S, 5 > B > Cu > Ca > Na > In > Mg > P > Fe > Mn > K> N based on MORIS, and 5 > Ca > Na > Mg > Cu > Zn > K> B > Mn > P > N > Fe based on CND. Among the various approaches, CND prOjected the nutrient imbalances better than ORIS. Among the micronutrients, deficiency of B in turmeric results in reduced accumulation of sugars, amino acids, and organic acids at all leaf positions. The overall rhizome yield and curcumin yield also decreases due to B deficiency (Dixit et al. 2002).

Total Zn concentration in the third leaf was considered for delineation of deficiency that varied from 10 to 51.3 mg kg-1 (Kumar et al. 2000). Zinc concentration was significantly and positively correlated with leaf weight and rhizome yield and negatively with Fe: Zn and P: Zn concentration ratios. P: Zn ratio inthe absence of added Zn proved as a good indicator of efficiency of response to added In (Singh et al. 1986). Leaf P: Zn ratio had a positive correlation and soil P: Zn ratio had negative correlation with rhizome yield (Srinivasan et al. 2011).

Management strategies Contouring

The introduction of contour staggered trenches (CST) with cover crops like pine appl~ or french bean could reduce the soil loss and runoff to a marked extent in cardamom. Experiments were conducted at Cardamom Research Centre, IISR with soil and water conservation measures like contour staggered trenches (CST) in alternate rows, CST with cover crops viz. pineapple, ginger, french bean etc. in cardamom plantations. Average runoff and soil loss ranged from 2219.74 kg per hectare to 495.56 kg per hectare with a minimum runoff (31.82 mm) and soil loss (495.56 kg/ ha) in CST with pine apple treatment. Small quantity of nutrients was removed through runoff water and addition of vegetative barrier like pine apple, french bean and ginger leads to better soil cover and additional income.

The use of plant covers on steep slopes is advisable for the recycling nutrients, and consequently for an efficient regulation of the flow of nutrients by runoff and sediments. Vegetation cover makes a nutrient pool available while moderating surface runoff and sediment movement, both of which are major nutrient carriers. In addition having inter or cover crops improves the soil fertility that benefits both the main and component crops. Live mulches like sun hemp, green gram, horse gram, black gram, niger, sesbania, cluster bean, French bean, soybean, cowpea, daincha and red gram can also be grown as intercrop in ginger or turmeric and mulched in situ between 4560 days after planting will reduce weed growth and increase the yield. Green manure crops like daincha (Sesbania aculeata) can be raised successfully in inter-spaces of ginger beds in a row, which adds to 50 per cent of the green leaves required for mulching, suppresses weed growth and reduces cost of production. A/so, proper land use with appropriate crop planning with perennial crops and recommended package of practices has to be followed to prevent soil degradation, to improve productivity and the environment.

Soil Test Based Nutrient Recommendations Black pepper

Long-term studies (18 yrs) on NPK fertilization of black pepper in a laterite soil of Kerala, India revealed that the economical optimum was 140-55-270 kg ha-1 N, P

20

S and K

20 respectively with 15 tonnes green leaf ha-1 yr-1

(Sadanandan and Hamza, 2002). However, the quantity of fertilizers required to release high yield varied largely among locations. Experiments conducted on bush pepper showed that nutrient availability increased significantly due to increasing dose of NPK application. Among the treatments, NPK at the rate of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g plant-1 was superior for optimum yield realization (Sadanandan and Hamza, 1998). Targeted yield equation for predicting nutrient reqUirements to realize fixed yields of dry black pepper in soils with varying fertility levels was standardized based

8th International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at low pH 159

on field trials. The economic optimum in terms of profitable response for money Invested was found to be Rs. 1.601 standard for N, Rs. 2AO/standard for P and Rs. SAO/standard for K (JI5R, 2012).

Muthumanickam (2003) reported increased yield (9.2 kg vine') and oleoresin content (12.34%) of black pepper in acid solis of Yercaud, due to soli application of 40g p,o, as rock phosphate and spraying of 0.5% ln50,. Studies carried out at IISR showed that application of NPK at 150:60:270 kg ha· j with micronutrients In, Band Mo at 5:2:1 kg ha" recorded highest yield In varieties Subhakara and Sreekara. Hamza and Sadanandan (2005) reported that application of In at 5 mg kg" for potted bush pepper and In at 6.2 kg ha" for field condition was optimum for increasing yield and improving the quality of black pepper. Application of 2.5 kg ha' Zn for field planted pepper as In- EDTA was found to increase soli Zn availability, berry yield, oleoresin and piperine. Among sources of Zn and methods of application, soil application of of Zn as ZnS0

4 gave the highest benefit: cost ratio of 5.27 followed by foliar spray of

ZnSO, (Hamza and Sadanandan, 2005).

Molybdenum is found to Increase with the application of organic matter, as it forms a complex which makes Mo more available to the plants for absorption. liming also Increases the available Mo content In the soli. Boron deficiency can be expected in coarse textured solis low in organic matter, especially In high rainfall areas. Hamza and Sadanandan reported that under Mo deficient conditions, black pepper responds up to 0.9 kg ha" of Mo and application of Mo at 0.25 mg kg'; 5011 or foliar spray of 0.1 % sodium molybdate Is economical In Increasing the yield and quality of bush pepper (Hamza and 5adanandan, 2005). Economic analYSis of experimental results using appropriate tools enabled identification of risk.free rational technology wherein application of half the fertilizer dose as recommended in prevailing package of practices + Zn is a risk free rational technology for better retums of black pepper (Madan et 01. 2007).

Liming is critical in acid solis under black pepper. Studies showed that liming enhances yield and quality of pepper. Hamza and Sadanandan (2005) observed Increased quality of pepper In terms of Its piperine content in potted bush pepper with application of lime at 20g por' and significant yield Increase under field condition with high benefit cost ratio (4.58) at an application rate of 0.5 t ha-'. They also reported an increased soil Mo availability with the application of 0.5 tonnes ha" lime alone or 0.5 kg ha", Mo + 0.5 t ha' lime.

Small cardamom

The present recommendation of nutrients for cardamom Is NPK at 75:75:150 kg ha'. For rapid multiplication of suckers, application of 32.5 g of N, 25 g of p,os and 50 9 of K,o plant was found desirable. A fertilizer dose of 37.5:37.5:75 kg of NPK ha" for one year old crop during September and 75:75:150 kg of NPK ha' from second year onwards in two - split doses (during Mayand September) were found to be optimum. Numerous studies exist on the optimum NPK levels for maximum capsule yields in cardamom. Considering the low nutrient requirement and the high status of Nand K in cardamom-growing salls, maintenance dose of 30:60:30 kg N, p,o, and K,0 ha· j was recommended (Jadhao et 01. 2005). For a crop yielding 100 kg dry capsules ha" under rainfed conditions, fertilizer dose of 75:75:150 kg N, p,o,and K,o ha" was recommended. But when plant population was Increased to 5000 ha" under trench method of planting, a fertilizer dose of 125:125:250 kg N, p,o,and K,o ha" in three splits was ideal (Korlkanthimath et 01. 1998). Under low rainfall situations prevailing in the lower Palni tracts ofTamii Nadu, a fertilizer dose of 40:80:40 kg N, p,o, and K,0 ha" was found to be optimum (NataraJan and Srinivasan, 1989). Kumar et 01. (2000) reported that application of 150:150:225 kg NPK ha" recorded highest green capsule yield. Contrarily, Murugan et 01. (2007) reported that increasing the levels of N, P and K increased the yields of cardamom up to 125:125:200 kg ha·'. Under irrigated conditions, tiller Initiation and panicle initiation are continuous processes and hence more split applications are beneficial.

Significant yield increase and savings In fertilizer requirements would be possible by way of soil-cum-foliar application. The findings of Srinivasan etal. (1998) suggested that in Karnataka state (India) , N, p,o,and K,o ha" at 37.5: 37.5: 75 kg ha" through soil application and 2.5 % urea + 0.75% single super phosphate + 1.0 per cent muriate of potash through foliar spray gave 64 kg yield increase ha", over no fertilizer application. The yield increase recorded in Tamil Nadu state (India) was 43 kg ha" when a fertilizer dose of 20: 40: 20 kg N, p,o, and K,O ha" through soil and 3% urea + 1% single super phosphate + 2% muriate of potash as foliar spray was given. Among the N forms, ammoniacal forms of N were found to be the best for acidic soils to enhance nutrient use efficiency. Hence, complex fertilizers 20:20:15 or 10:26:26 or 18:18:18 or DAP are much useful. In case of P source, acid soluble form of P either as rock

160 Add Soils of India· Distribution, Propert15 & Management for Sustainable Crop Pmductloo

phosphate or bone meal is better for acid soils. A mixture containing N: P: S in the form of ammonium phosphate sulphate enhanced the efficiency of applied nutrients. Spray of water soluble form of P viz., polyfeed (13: 40: 13 NPK), mono ammonium phosphate (0: 52: 53 NPK) is helpful for profuse flowering and yield. Similarly, water soluble form of K viz., K nitrate (13: 0: 45 NPK), sulphate of potash (0:0:50:20- NPKS) polyfeed (13:40:13-NPK) and mono potassium phosphate (0:52:34 NPK) would help in getting bold capsules with high oil content (Subbaiah etal. 2008).

Micronutrient survey conducted by Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Myladumpara, Idukki, Kerala showed that zinc deficiency is widespread in cardamom soils and B deficiency is observed in certain areas. Hence, it is recommended that Zn may be applied as a foliar spray as zinc sulphate at 250 grams 100 Iiters-1 of water during April-May and September-October. Besides, Zn, application of B seems to be imperative in soils deficient in B.ln such cases, soil application of B in the commercial grade borax at the rate of 7.5 kg ha-1 is recommended in B deficient areas. It is applied in two doses along with NPK fertilizers.

Ginger

Response of fertilizer varies with variety, soil type and climate. A fertilizer dose of 36-225: 20-115: 48-200 N, P 2°5' K

20 kg ha-1 has been adopted in different states in India. Maximum yield was obtained with the application of 125 kg

N ha-1 in Orissa (Mohanty et al. 1993), with 100 kg N ha-1 in Himachal Pradesh (Randhawa and Nandpuri, 1969) and with 150 kg N ha-1 in Maharashtra, India (Tarle et al. 2007). However/ higher dose of N has been found to decrease the yield (Muralidharan/ 1973). The ginger growth and yield is highly influenced by the N levels and yield increase was observed with optimum levels. The application of N beyond optimum results in disturbing the balance between N and carbohydrate compounds within the plants and plants developing under such metabolic conditions showed lower growth (Palakatti and Sulieri, 2000). Lee and Asher (1981) rated the cost effectiveness of N fertilizers in the order: urea> ammonium nitrate> ammonium sulphate.

A heavy crop removes 35 to 50 kg ha-1 of P and it is mostly applied as a basal dose at the time of planting. K is one ofthe most important limiting factors for ginger production, since the crop removes a large amount of soil K (up to 500 kg ha-1

). The main practices to obtain high rhizome yield include top dressing K fertilizer at growth stages with peak demand and applying enough K to balance the appropriate Nand P application rates. In the lower range of replaceable K (0.3 me %), a positive field response was observed with application of up to 325 kg K

20 ha-', while

above 0.3 me % no response was recorded with rates above 60 kg ~O ha-'.

In Kerala, India the optimum dose was found to be 144 kg Nand 109 kg ha-1 K (Pradeepkumar et al. 2001). Under low shade, 150 per cent (112.5: 75: 75 kg NPK ha-1

) of the recommended dose (75:50:50 kg ha-1) enhanced the

yield (Ancy and Jayachandran/ 1998). Gowda et al. (1999) obtained higher yield (15.62-22.53 t ha-1) with the combined

applications of 150 kg N + 75 kg P ha-1; 150 kg N + 50 kg K ha-1

; and 25 kg P + 50 kg K ha-1• However, the yield of

variety'Rio-de-Janiero' could be increased by the application of 150 Kg N, 75 kg P 205 and 50 kg K20 ha-' in Bangalore.

In Orissa, maximum yield of 10.16 t ha-1 was obtained by application of 125 kg N, 70 kg P and 150 kg K ha-' (Mohanty et al. 1993). Targeted yield equation for predicting nutrient requirements to get fixed rhizome yields in soils with varying fertility levels was standardized in ginger based on long term field trials. The economic optimum in terms of profitable response for money invested was found to be Rs. 3.75/ bed (3 m2) for N, Rs. 1.30/ bed for P and Rs. 0.60/ bed for K (IISR, 2012).

Studies by Haque et al. (2007) revealed that the effects of combined application of Nand K was found more pronounced than the single effect of Nand K and also the effect of N was more distinct than K. The combined effect of Nand K up to 180 and 160 kg ha-1 respectively had significantly increased the yield and other yield contributing characters. The highest mean yield (26.95 t ha-1

) was also recorded by Nand K application at 180 and 160 kg ha-1

respectively. Paliyal et al. (2008) obtained highest rhizome yield of 16 t ha-1 due to balanced nutrient application of FYM at 20 t ha-1 and 100-75-40-5-1 kg ha-' of N-K~S~Zn-B fertilizers. Application 5, Zn and B along with NPK ihcreased the uptake of N, p;. K, Ca and S.

Micronutrient deficiency is common in ginger-growing soils and application of micronutrients has markedly improved growth and yield. Soil and plant analysis of samples across the country revealed 49% deficiency of zinc (Zn) with acid soils of Meghalaya having the highest deficiency of 57%. Roy and Hore, 2007 obtained maximum yield with a combined spraying of Zn (0.3%) + Fe (0.2%) + B (0.2%t twice at 45 and 75 days after planting. Foliar application of Zn at 0.25% (twice-May-June and August-September) increased the rhizome yield (16.2 kg/3m2 bed), as compared to soil application (14.4 kg) (Srinivasan et al. 2004). Studies conducted at Solan on the effect of micronutrients namely, Zn (20 kg ha-t B (10 kg ha-'), Mo (1 kg ha-1), Mg (10 kg ha-1) and Jagromin (chelated form of micronutrients) along with

8th International Symposium on Plant-Soillnteradions at Low pH 161

recommended dose of NPK (100:50:50 kg ha") showed significant increase In the yield with NPK along with two sprays of Jagromin (0.7%)' once at rhizome initiation and again one month after the first spray (Ramana et al. 2003), In an Ustic Humitropept soil of Kerala, highest rhizome yield (13.78 kg bed' of3 m') was obtained in plots where Zn (zinc sulfate) at 5 kg ha' was applied. The maximum limit of soil DTPA-extractable zinc for obtaining higher rhizome yield was 3.4 mg kg" (Srinivasan et a/. 2004). The optimum fertilizer rate for obtaining maximum rhizome yield was determined as 6 kg Zn ha". Application of Cu (0.05% spray) or combined spray of Cu and Mn (0.05%) resulted in higher carotenOid and chlorophyll accumulation In ginger, there by Increased crop yield (Deviand Singh, 2005).

Turmeric

Being an exhaustive crop, turmeric responds well to judicious application of fertilizers and yield increases to the tune of 81 to 282% have been observed due to fertilizer application compared to non-fertilized control. Location specific fertilizer recommendations have been made based on agro climatic situations (Table 6), Studies Indicate that turmeric responded economically up to 300 kg N ha". In Tamil Nadu Increased N levels up to 120 kg N ha" significantly increased the fresh rhizome yield (41 t ha") was up to 62 % and split application of N did not affect the rhizome yield. Contrarily, in the Trans Gangetic plains of Punjab, application of 60 kg N ha" in three equal splits produced the maximum fresh rhizome yield than basal application of whole N (Gill etal. 2001). In Maharashtra, yield response to application of N up to 120 kg ha" was observed (Attarde et 01. 200~), while, application of 80 kg N ha" was the optimum dose for Increasing productivity of turmeric in Nagaland (Singh et al. 2008).

Table 6. Optimum levels of N, P and K (kg ha") recommended for turmeric in different locations

N P K ____ Recommended Location Source

150:125:250 kg ha" Central Kamataka Plateau, Hot Semiarid Venkatesha etal. (1998) ecoregion

120: 60:120 kg ha-'

60: 50: 120 kg ha"

130: 90: 70 kg hO'f

200: 60: 200 kg ha"

75: 60: 150 kg ha-'

100: 50: 50 kg ha"

200: 1 00: 1 00 kg ha"

1 00: 1 00: 1 00 kg ha-'

Hili zone of Karnataka Sheshagirl and Uthalah (1994)

Western Ghats and Coastal Plains of Sadanandan and Hamza (1996) Kerala, Hot humid eco region

Subdued Eastern Himalayas (Arunachal Dubey and Yadav (2001) Pradesh), warm to hot per humid region

Alluvial piains of West 8engal Medda and Hore (2003)

Middle Gangetic plain, hot moist semi Thomas et al. (1965) dry eco region (Allahabad)

Western Himalayas, hot moist subhumid Randhawaetal(1973) tran,Ition eco region (Shimla hills)

Eastem Plateau, hot dry sub humid eco Yamgar et al. (2001) region (Maharashtra)

Middle Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh Upadhyay and Misra (1999)

The response to applied P has been reported up to 175 kg ha" with the combination of other nutrients. Optimum levels of N, P and K, and method of application varied with locations. In Karnataka, maximum yield and cost-benefit returns were recorded with the application of 150:125:250 kg NPK ha", irrespective of cultlvars, Similarly, In MaharashITa state application of N:P:K at 200:100:100 kg ha" resulted in the maximum plant height, fresh rhizome yield the highest net return with a benefit cost ratio (Srinivasan et al. 2011). N applied In 3 splits recorded the highest rhizome yield, maximum net retums and benefit: cost ratio. Swain et at. (2006) recorded the highest fresh yield with 120:60:120 kg N: P: Kp hal, but the highest benefit cost ratio was obtained with 100:50:110 kg N: P: Kp ha". Based on field trials, targeted yield equation for obtaining nutrient requirements to get fixed yield targets under varying soil fertility levels was standardized. The economic optimum in terms of profitable response for money invested was found to be Rs. 0.6S/ bed (3 m') for N, Rs. 0.40/ bed for P and Rs. 0.B5/bed for K.

162 Add Soils of India" Distributlon, Prapenies & Management for Sustainable (rop Production

Micronutrient application positively influenced turmeric growth and yield and up to 24% increase in rhizome yield with the application of FeS0

4 at 30 kg ha-1 was observed in Fe deficient soils of Tamil Nadu. Application of ZnS0

4 at

15 kg haw' increased the rhizome yield by 15%. Combined application of 50 kg ha-1 each of FeS04

and ZnS04

increased yield up to 21.4 t ha-I• Foliar application at 0.25% ZnS04 twice has given higher rhizome yield on par to soil application of 7.5 kg Zn ha-1• Halder et al. (64) found that the highest rhizome yield was recorded with the combination of Zn and B applied at the rate of 4.5 and 3.0 kg ha-', respectively. Studies at IISR showed highest yield response to applied zinc (as zinc sulphate) at 10 kg ha-1 as soil application on par with 0.25% foliar spraying twice. Foliar spray of B (as borax) twice @ 0.2% on 45 and 90 DAS recorded significantly highest yield of 14.8 and 13.7 kg/3m2, respectively and also increased the curcumin content significantly (4.86 - 6.08) (lISR, 2012). Similarly, without liming, application of B up to 1 kg/ha increased the rhizome yield (15.7 kg/3 m2) which was 39% higher compared to control. But when the lime was applied, similar increase in yield was observed even without application of 8, indicating the benefits of correcting the soil pH in increasing the B availability (IISR, 2011).

Integrated nutrient management Black pepper

Integrated nutrient management with annual application of NPK at the rate of 100:40:140 kg ha-1 and organics like FYM at the rate of 5.0 kg vine-1 enhanced the fertility of soils under black pepper. Application of organics like castor and cotton cakes at 1-2 kg per plant or poultry waste at 1-2 kg or cattle manure at 3-5 kg, 200 to 300g NPK (12:12:17) mixture, 500g of lime and 300g thermo phosphate per plant per year in addition to foliar sprays of micro nutrients are the general practice followed by the growers (Sadanandan, 2000). From a four year study conducted in 162 locations, Sadanandan and Hamza (2002) reported an increase in almost all the nutrients and yield due to the adoption of INM. Mathew and Nybe (90) observed that combined application of 50% N as FYM + Azospirillum + 50% P as inorganic + Phosphobacteria + 100% K as inorganic resulted in highest berry yield comparable with 50% Nand Pas inorganic + biofertilizers + 100% K as inorganic and recommended dose of chemical fertilizers .. Srinivasan et al. (2005) recommended application of coir pith compost at 1.25 t ha-' integrated with half the recommended fertilizer dose and Azospirillum Spa @ 20 g vine-1 for higher yield and fertility build up in black pepper gardens.

Small Cardamom

Organic manures are considered essential for improving physical characteristics of soil, apart from their nutritional value, and they are indispensable for cardamom irrespective of whether fertilizers are applied or not. The application of organic manures such as neem cake at 1-2 kg plant1 or poultry manure/ FYM/ compost/ vermicompost at 5 kg plant-' may be done once in a year during May-June. If necessary application of Mussorie rock phosphate or bone meal may be done based on soil analYSis. Application of 3-4 t of well rotten cattle or sheep manure apart from 75 kg each of N, P

20

S and 100 kg K

20 ha-1 was found to greatly enhance the yield of cardamom. As 70 per cent of

cardamom roots were confined to shallow depth of 5 - 40 cm and 30 - 50 cm radius, for maximizing the efficiency of applied manures it would be necessary to apply at a radius within 50 cm. Field studies in cardamom have shown that application of recommended NPK nutrients as organic fertilizer (50 per cent each as FYM and neem cake + 50 per cent P each as bone meal and rock phosphate + 50 per cent K as wood ash) was effective in increasing the yield and quality of cardamom (Sadanandan and Hamza, 2006).

Three species of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi (Glomus macrocarpum, G. fasciculatum and Gigaspora corallo idea) were recorded .in the roots of cardamom plants and their colonization percentage varied from 40 - 100 per cent in pre monsoon samples and 63 - 94 per cent in post monsoon samples. Application of FYM at 5 kg plant , + 50% recommended N + Azospirillum yielded 141.20 kg haw, similar to that of FYM at 5 kg plant-' + 75% recommended N (146.34 kg haw,)' thereby providing 25% saving in inorganic N (Kumar et al. 2009).

Ginger

Ginger performs well with good supply of humus and organic matter, which has positive correlation with yield. Farm Yard Manure (FYM), poultry manure, green leaf, compost, press mud, oil cakes, biofertilizers and cow urine are used as sources of organics. The quantity of organics applied may vary with availability of material and generally it varies between 5-30 t haw'. Lime application is practiced in acidic soils to correct the pH and nutrient imbalance. However, farmers of Maharashtra apply heavy doses of FYM, about 40 to 50 t ha-1

• Organic manures are mostly applied as basal doses and in certain places it is also applied after the emergence of crop as mulch. In Kerala the recommended dose of organic manure is 25-30 t ha-I of FYM and 30 t haw, of green leaf mulch applied in three splits. The fertilizer recommendations in combination with organicS in different states of India are provided in Table 7.

Sih International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at Low pH 163

Table 7. Manures and fertilizers recommended for ginger in various locations of India.

___ -=S.::ta::.;tc::e ______________ --"-'-Rec,ommendation ___ ~

Kerala

Karnataka

Orissa

Himachal Pradesh

Bihar Andhra Pradesh Chattisgarh

Slkklm

Meghalaya

FYM 30 t ha"; NPK 70:50:50 kg ha·'. P as basal and N & K in two equal splits at planting and on 60 DAS. FYM/compost 25 t ha"; NPK 100:50:50 kg ha·'. P and K as basal and N in two equal splits at 30 and 60 DAS.

FYM 25 t ha"; NPK 125:100:100 kg ha·'. P as basal and N & K In two equal splits at 45 and 90DAS.

FYM 20-30 t ha"; CAN @ 400 kg ha", NPK 100:50:60 kg ha·'. P and K as basal and N in 3 equal splits at monthly intervals

FYM 20-30 t ha"; NPK@60:60:120 kg ha" FYM 20-30 t ha-'; NPK@75:50:50kg ha-' FYM 20-30 t ha"; NPK@ 150:125:125 kg ha-l

Manures 40-50 t ha-'; Few farmers apply fertflizers*

FYM lOt ha"; NPK@ 60:90:60 kg ha""

Source: Parthasarathy ef: al. (2010)

Application of organic cakes increased nutrient availability, improved physical condition of the soil, increased the yield and oleoresin production. Neem cake application significantly increased the N availability and the highest available N was recorded in soils that received half the dose of N as urea along with neem cake at 2 t ha·' . In addition to neem cake, phosphobacteria and P as rock phosphate increased the availability of P, Ca, Mg, Zn and Mn. Under Kerala conditions, in an Ustic Humitropept, Bray P increased with the application of rock phosphate mixed with FYM and among the P sources, Raj phos was superior. Rhizome P concentration was higher when superphosphate and FYM incubated rock phosphates were applied. Significantly higher dry yield in ginger was registered with Rajphos and Gafsaphos application with FYM, and it was significantly higher than other sources of P applied, Not much variation was observed in oleoresin content of ginger due to application of different sources of P. Among all the sources, apparent phosphate recovery, agronomic efficiency of the applied P and percentage yield response was higher in case of Gafsa phos, followed by Raj phos incubated with FYM in ginger (Srinivasan etal. 2oooa).

Incorporation of inorganic N combined with neem cake (50% N), pOUltry manure (2S% N), and groundnut cake (50% N) were found to be best for higher yield of up to 29 t ha" of ginger. Also, application of neem cake at 2t ha" along with NPK at 75:50:50 kg ha' increased yield of ginger and reduced the rhizome rot incidence under Kerala conditions (Sarma et ai, 2003). Among other organic sources, application of coir compost (Terracare) at 2.5 t ha" increased the yield by 37.5% over control (Srinivasan et ai, 2000b). Gradual availability of nutrients through decompOSition of organics throughout the growth phase may bethe probable cause for better growth and development of plant and ultimate yield when in organics were substituted with organiCS at different levels (Roy and Hare, 2007), Similarly, Pawar and Patil (1987) recorded higher yield when fertilizers were applied in both organic and inorganiC forms (20t FYM + 225 kg N, 50 kg P and 180 kg K ha"), In an acidic Alfisol of Meghalaya, rhizome yield, N, P and K uptake and crude protein and oleoresin contents of ginger increased significantly with the application of Nat 100 kg ha" and FYM at 5 t ha" (Majumdar et 01. 2003).

The trials on different management systems on ginger at Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicu\, India recorded higher soil nutrient buildup with highest organiC carbon content (2.33%) in organic system. Field studies on glngercv. Nadia conducted at Umiam, Meghalaya, India in a sandy loam soil revealed that N at 100 kg ha"· + FYM was the best treatment for obtaining the highest yield and good crop quality (Majumdar et al. 2003),

Turmeric

Many experimental evidences show the beneficial effects of organic matter alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers in case of turmeric, Compost or FYM at 40 t ha' is applied by broadcasting and ploughing at the time of preparation of land or as basal dressing by spreading over the beds to cover the seed after planting. The fresh yield increase was over 37 per cent. Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) recommends 40 t ha"compost or cattle manure

164 Add Solis of India· Olstrlbution, Properties & Management for SU$!alnaillt (rop Production

as basal dressing, for Western Ghats and Coastal Plains of Kerala; whereas in Orissa 15 kg has been applied in 5m2

bed area in three splits along with chemical fertilizers. Organic manures like groundnut cake, vermicompost and neem cake can also be applied. In such cases the dosage of FYM can be reduced. Farmyard manure + 90 kg N ha­l is optimum for turmeric production in acidic alfisols of Meghalaya, with considerable N use efficiency (34.3%) and nutrient build up in the soil (Majumdar et 01.2002). In Wayanad, Kerala application of 100 kg N per ha along with FYM (15 t ha-1

) and green leaf mulch (50 t) produced maximum yield. Among P sources superphosphate and FYM incubated rock phosphate increased the rhizome P concentration. Significantly higher dry yield was obtained with Gafsa phos followed by Raj phos applications when incubated with FYM. Not much variation was observed in curcumin content due to application of different sources of P. Among all the sources, apparent phosphate recovery, agronomic efficiency of the applied P and percentage yield response were higherfor Gafsa phos followed by Raj phos incubated with FYM (Srinivasan et 01. 2000a). Nand P uptake, curcumin content and P use efficiency increased with the application of 1:3 RP + SSP + FYM in Meghalaya state, India.

Application of 50% RDF (175 kg N, 60 kg P 20S and 125 kg K20 ha-1

) + 10 t ha-1 vermicompost improved soil porosity, reduced soil bulk density and increased organic carbon content (from 0.44 to 0.72%) under Madhya Pradesh (Central Plateau and hill regions), with the highest yield, net returns and benefit: cost ratio. Application ofvermicompost at 5 t ha-1 + 100% RDF (125:60:60 kg NPK ha-1

) along with humic acid at 0.2% showed significant increase in fresh rhizome yield per plant, number, length, girth and weight of mother, primary and secondary rhizomes per plant in Erode local cultivar (Majumdar et 01.2002).

Turmeric shows good response to the application of organics and biofertilizers.lntegrated application of coir compost (2.5 t ha-1

) combined with FYM, Azospirillum and half the recommended NPK significantly increased yield and quality of turmeric (Srinivasan et a/. 2000b). Similarly, application of FYM (5 t ha-1

) with 50% inorganic Nand Azospirillum (5 kg ha-1

) produced higher yield of mother, primary and secondary rhizomes with a cost benefit ratio of 1 :2.28 (Subramanian et 01. 2003). Up to 16% increase in yield by the application of 25 kg Azospirillum with 50% of the recommended dose of inorganic Nand 5 t FYM ha·l over the recommended dose of fertilizer application was observed by Selvarajan and Chezhiyan (2001). Jena et al. (1999) noted that the rhizome yield and nutrient uptake by turmeric were significantly higher in both individual and combined inoculation of Azotobacter and Azospirillum and the percentage increase in yield due to inoculation integrated with fertilizer N ranged from 15.2 to 30.5% with enhanced N-use efficiency.

The use of FYM and lime in laterite soils is crucial for greater turmeric yield and enhanced soil fertility. This was apparent from the -results of Senapati et al. (105), who found that 50% recommended dose of fertilizer in combination with FYM (20 t ha-1

) + lime (500 kg ha-1) recorded the highest mean yield of 8.78 t ha-l, which was 65% greater than

control. Kamble et al. (2009) also reported highest turmeric dry yield with the recommended fertilizer dose applied in combination with FYM (25 t ha-1). Similarly, field trials conducted to evaluate the application of composted coir pith (CCP) for growth and yield ofturmeric cv. Sudarsana revealed that CCP combined with 3/4 of the recommended dose of leaf mulch under limed condition recorded the highest benefit: cost ratio and net income.

Turmeric cv. Suguna grown as intercrop in six year old arecanut plantation gave maximum projected yield in the treatment NPK'(75%) + Azospirillum + AMF followed by NPK (75%) + Azotobacter + AMF (31.531 ha-1

) as compared to 100% inorganic NPK alone (Roy and Hore, 2009). The study by Thenmozhi and Paulraj (2009) further indicated that the highest rhizome yield was recorded with the application of poultry manure enriched microbial inoculant! Trichoderma viride banana pseudostem compost at 750 kg ha-l applied along with 75 per cent of the recommended dose of fertilizer. Findings also revealed that application of organiC manures (FYM, vermicompost, neem cake, ash) and biofertilizers (Azosprillum brasilense and phospho bacteria) to turmeric either singly or in combination with chemical fertilizers positively influenced microbial biomass C, N mineralization, soil respiration and enzymes activities, while, in soils with exclusive use of chemical fertilizers the microbial community was stressed sue to reduced supply of organic substrates (Dinesh et al. 2010). Mohan et al. (2004) recorded a linear response of turmeric growth, yield and quality of turmeric with inoculation of Azospiri/Jum in combination with N levels compared to that of Azotobacter in Karnataka state, India. Poinkar et al. reported that application of NPK 120:60:60 kg ha-1 followed by FYM (10 t ha-1

) + Azotobacter + Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) (250 9 per 10 kg of seed) increased the fresh yield per ha significantly in Maharashtra and C: B ratio was the highest (2.17) in treatment FYM + Azotobacter + PSB.

Conclusions Black pepper, ginger, turmeric and cardamom require a friable soil rich in humus and essential plant nutrients, with good drainage. In addition to major (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) and secondary (calcium and magnesium)

8t~ International Symposium on Plant-Soil Interactions at low pH 165

nutrients, micro nutrients especially Band Zn are most important for better growth, development and yield of these crops. In soils with low pH, liming based on lime requirement could enhance the yield. It is therefore necessary to develop sound soil fertility management program that encompasses nutrient recommendations based on robust soil tests. Crop management programs that are location specific should form the basis for manure and fertilizer management that optimizes economic return while protecting the environment. Overall, it is apparent that in majority of the soils the reasons for low productivity of these crops are low pH, low levels of organic carbonI low CEC, K, Ca, Mg/ Zn and B. Inorganic, fertilizer schedules for different agro-ecological locations exits for these crops. Similarly organic nutrition schedules have also been devised for these crops. However, among the different nutrient management strategies, INM through judicious use of inorganic fertilizersl biofertilizers, biosolids, biological nitrogen fixationl and other nutrient cycling mechanisms that enhance nutrient use efficiency appears to be the best bet.

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Azmil, I.A.R and Yaul P.Y. 1993. In: The Pepper Industry: Problems and Prospects, (Eds.) Ibrahim et a1., University Pertanian Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia, pp. 15-23.

Devi, A.K and Singh, P.K. 2005. J. Phytol. Res./ 18: 215-218.

Dinesh R, Srinivasan V, Hamza S. 2012. Crop nutrition. In: Singh HP, Parthasarathy VA, Kandiannan K, Krishnamurthy KS (Eds.), Zingiberaceous crops: Production and Utilization, Westville Publishing Housel New Delhi. pp. 255-287.

Dinesh R, Srinivasan V, Hamza 5, Manjusha A. 2010. Bioresource Technol., 101,4697-4702.

Dixit, D., Srivastava, N.K and Sharn1a, S. 2002., Photosynthetical 40: 109-113.

Dubey, A.K and Yadav, D.S. 2001. Indian J. Hill Farm., 14: 144-146.

Gilll B.s., Krorya/ RI Sharma, K.N., Saini, 5.5. 2001. J. Spices and Aromatic Crops/ 10: 123-126.

Gowda, KK., Melanta, K.R and Prasad, T.RG. 1999. J. Plantation Crops, 27: 67-69.

Hamza/ S. and Sadanandan, A.K. 2002. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 72: 745-746.

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