EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY

EXPEDITION:

Madagascar 2007

Contact: James Greenwood 2 /6 Lochrin Buildings. Gilmore place, Edinburgh, UK

EH3 9NB Tel: 07783149678 Email: J.H.Greenwood-2@sms.ed.ac.uk

Item Page Title Content Summery Background/rationale Aims objectives Study site Study methods Logistics Personal Research Permits Itinerary Budget Proposed source of income Health and safety Risk assessment Acknowledgements References

Summary The island of Madagascar is a living laboratory of evolution. The biota of Madagascar is a global priority for conservation owing to the islands exceptional diversity and the ongoing loss of natural habitat (Roxworthy et al, 2003). It is estimated 5% that only original vegetation remains intact (Myers, 1988). The Malagasy chameleons are at the forefront of Madagascar’s conservation struggle as they have high endemic diversity and conservation priority (Raxworthy, 1988; Myers et al., 2000). Nearly all of Madagascar’s chameleons have been added to either Appendix II or I on the CITES international agreement on regulated trade of protected species. Although the degradation and destruction of forest are undoubted the primary threat to Madagascar’s fauna (Raxworthy, 1988), the additional pressure of exploitation for international markets cannot be ignored. There has been intervention on trade, but it will have no effect if there is insufficient or no data on local population sizes or on the impact collection has on populations (Carpenter and Robson, 2005: Jenkins et al, 1999). To estimate chameleon density within the littoral forests, we will use distance sampling methods (Buckland et al., 1993), which have been used successfully in similar investigations (Jenkins et al, 1999: Brady and Griffiths, 1999). By stratifying the sampling effort from the forest edge to the forest centre, we can analyze the edge effect on the chameleon density. Satellite imagery will enable us to select a range of forest conditions that very in health (defined by Ingram, et al., 2005). This will allow us to compare areas in the forests that differ in forest health, thus assessing how forest degradation affects chameleons. Expedition Mahazo Loko will work with Azafady, a local volunteer NGO that works on various community sustainability projects within the research area. Through them we will report our findings to the local people, to help them manage sustainable yields of wild chameleons. Additionally we will reserve two places on the expedition team for Malagasy students from the University of Antananrivo. These members will, firstly, give locals an opportunity for ecological research which would not normally have occurred and, secondly, create local interest for ecological work on chameleons that could be continued in future.

Background / Rationale Madagascar has been described by many scientist and conservation organisations as one of the “biodiversity hot spots” of the global ecosystem. Like the Galapagos Islands, the island of Madagascar is a living laboratory of evolution. More than 165 million years ago, the widening Mozambique channel split Madagascar off from Africa and created the world's fourth largest island covering more than 226,000 square miles. It has been described along with six other countries as an area of mega diversity (Glaw and Vences, 1994). With its separation from mainland Africa species have indulged in isolation leaving the countries flora and fauna to form very distinct assemblages, including many lines that have long disappeared on the mainland (Raxworthy, 2002). It is thought that up to 98 percent of Madagascar's land mammals, 92 percent of its reptiles, 68 percent of its plants, and 41 percent of its breeding bird species are endemic, with high proportions of these being limited to certain niche habitats which the island provides (Ganzhorn, 2001). Madagascar is the world's 46th-largest country in the world, but one of the poorest. Its population about approximately 17million people, growing at a staggering 3% per annum. At this rate the population size will double by 2020, causing a huge demand on natural resources which has thus far been the cause of deforestation and poverty. The biota of Madagascar represent a global priority for conservation owing to the islands exceptional diversity and the ongoing loss of natural habitat (Roxworthy et al, 2003). Between 1950 and 1985 half of the tropical forests were lost, disappearing at a rate of 111, 000ha per year (Green and Sussman, 1990). This lead to the loss of several endemic species of both plants and animals. Now an estimated 5% of the original vegetation remains intact (Myers, 1988). Continuing pressures on these forest from clearing, cattle grazing, charcoal production and recently mining have meant that nearly all remaining endemic species are under threat of extinction. The Malagasy chameleons are at the fore front of Madagascar’s conservation struggle as they have high endemic diversity and conservation priority (Raxworthy, 1988; Myers et al., 2000). Madagascar boasts two-thirds of the world's chameleons (Parcher, 1974). The reptile that was first discovered in this country in the 17th century and has since been a favourite amongst herpetoculrists. This long time interest has also created a substantial industry out of collecting wild species. In 1988 as a result of liberalisation of trade controls, exports of the chameleons grew exponentially at a rate of 62% per annum (Carpenter et al, 2004). It was thought that numbers of chameleons being traded peaked at over 20,000 each year. Up until the intervention of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), African Countries accounted for 96% of the supply to the international

market, with Madagascar being one of the three dominant countries involved (Carpenter et al, 2004). Since then nearly all of Madagascar’s chameleons have been added to either Appendix II or I. This has brought about the implementation of regulations on limits that can be exported each year. Primary degradation and destruction of forest are undoubtedly the primary threat to Madagascar’s fauna; however the additional pressures of exploitation for international animal markets cannot be left ignored (Raxworthy, 1988). Although there has been intervention on trade, it has been highlighted recently, that it is to no effect if there is no data on local population densities or the impact of collection on wild populations (Carpenter and Robson, 2005: Jenkins et al, 1999). For Chameleons to be harvested sustainably, enough basic information on their ecology must exist to ensure a non-detrimental impact on the species at the local population level. Previous chameleon studies in Madagascar have concentrated on the compilation of species inventories across a wide range of sites (Raxworthy and Nussbaum, 1994). Thus far the levels of “sustainable” trade have not been set of ecological information (Carpenter and Robson, 2005). Without the general ecological studies on chameleon population sizes the effects of trade will not be possible (Carpenter and Robson, 2005). Aims, Objectives and Outputs Our expeditions aim is to conduct an investigation into the population dynamics of the chameleon community in a littoral forest in Madagascar. The scientific objectives that the expedition hopes achieves in the investigation are:

1. Conduct ecological surveys into the abundance of the chameleon’s population in a littoral forest in Madagascar.

2. Examine the effects of forest degradation on chameleon populations.

3. Investigate the effects forest fragmentation (particularly edge effects) on chameleons.

It is hoped through establishing the local population dynamics and community characteristics it will provide some of the baseline ecological data needed to manage wild chameleons population’s sustainability. As well, we hope the study on the edge effect will be in an attempt to discover the consequence of forest fragmentation on the chameleon community and provide information on the effects on further fragmentation. Importantly, the expedition aims to achieve this with involvement of local people. Our expedition views this as an integral part of any success that can

be taken away from the expedition. Two Malagasy students from Antananarivo University will be on the expedition, funded fully by the expedition. Expedition Mahzo Loko is making distribution of any findings a high priority in it planning. Reports will be issued to government bodies in Madagascar whom are concerned with environmental management. Also the reports will be supplied to conservation NGOs working on the island, to make sure the findings are widely available. Presentations will be made at local universities. To conclude the expedition is and has been very rigorous with its scientific planning, as it is intended that at least one scientific journal will be submitted for publishing. Study site The location of where our studies will take place is in the Tolagnaro region on the south-eastern coast of Madagascar (Fig. 2). The Tolagnaro region supports approximately 4,000 ha of littoral forest. This area comprises of a band of coastal plain and adjacent foothills averaging 7km in width, extending from about 24°35’S to 25°08’S latitude. It is delimited by the Indian Ocean on the east and by the steep, rocky slopes of the Anosy Mountains on the west.

Figure 1: Map of Madagascar. Tolagnaro (english spelling) is in the south east corner of Island. The climate in the Tolagnaro region is characterised by the humid winds that blow from the Indian Ocean though out the whole year. These winds cause

most of the precipitation in the region, especially in the mountainous areas where they meet the Anosy Mountains. The rainfall decreases during the dry season from August to October. The temperature records of the area are relatively lower than a typical tropical climate with the annual average temperature only reaching about 23°C, the minimum in the coolest month (July) averaging only 15°C, and the maximum in the warmest month (February) averaging 30°C (Morat, 1969). The region is characterised by the presence of two very distinctive biogeographic zones. Firstly the southern edge of the humid eastern region, running all along the east coast of Madagascar and dominated by tropical rainforest, and the south-western hot and dry biographical region. The area thus includes three completely different forest habitats: primary rainforest, semi-arid littoral forest and semi-arid spiny forest. This expedition will investigate the littoral forest (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Map the Ste Luce area. The areas with the boxes are the forest fragments that we will be conducting our investigation. The highest proportion (43%) of the remaining remnants littoral forests are situated near the sub regional area called Ste Luce, which can be seen in figure one. The expedition will look to work in two sites:

Primary Site (24° 46’51”S; 047° 10’17.22 E) This site provides access to one of the largest and most diverse forest fragments. The vegetation can be subdivided into primary and secondary littoral forest, with the latter occupying the edges and more disrupted habitat on the southern side, where anthropogenic activity is the greatest. The primary littoral forest, on the other hand, is characterised by a highly heterogeneous vegetation cover, with the abundance of palms and epiphytes, and occurs in the core of the stand extending to the northern edge, where human impact is lower. The forest appears to have been only lightly exploited to date (Azafady, 2006), primarily for fuel wood and timber. Forest is situated 8km north of the village St. Luce, expands westward. Back up Site (24°47’62” S; 047° 10’25.5” E)

From the village of Manafiady toward the southwest coast, a system of sand dunes extends for 14km. On the island side of the dunes, a large littoral forest that spread to the overall size of 244 ha. Within the block there are two primary habitat types: primary littoral forest on the top of the western side of the dunes and a mix of coastal vegetation and rainforest on the eastern side. Due to its position, this forest is better protected from anthropogenic impact, resulting in a lower degree of degradation than in neighbouring fragments. This site will be kept as an alternative survey area if for some reason we need to abandon our Ste. Luce site. Both of these sites can be access from research camp sites that are run in conjunction with local villages and Azafady. Research of a similar nature to which we hope to conduct has been able to be carried out at both these sites in the past.

Scientific methods Our expeditions aim is to conduct an investigation into the population dynamics of the chameleon community in a littoral forest in Madagascar. The scientific objectives are:

1. Conduct ecological surveys into the abundance of the chameleon population in a littoral forest in Madagascar.

2. Examine the effects of forest degradation on chameleon populations.

3. Investigate the effects of forest fragmentation (particularly edge effects) on chameleons.

1. Objective one: We will use Distance sampling methods as outlined by Buckland et al (1993), It operates on a randomly placed line transect in a

selected area, where from perpendicular distances from the line to the objects being measured are recorded. We will record species, density , sex and size structure of populations with this mehod. Data will be analysed using the computer program DISTANCE (Thomas et al, 2006), which provide an estimate of population density in the area. Chameleons will be sampled at night, as they roost and do not move unless directly disturbed. Chameleons also become very pale at night and are therefore relatively easy to detect with torchlight (Raxworthy, 1988, 1991: Jenkins et al, 1999, Brady and Griffiths, 1999). To avoid observer variability, observers will be allocated to transects at random and preliminary training in the sampling technique will be carried out. Distance sampling has been used successfully on chameleon populations in Madagascar by Jenkins et al (1999), and Brady and Griffiths (1999). The method allows for density measurements to be carried out without assuming all individuals have been seen. All the assumptions made when using Distance sampling on chameleon populations have shown to hold true. Sample sites will be in the centre of intact forests. All transects will be 12 m wide and 100 m long. Three transects per forest should be adequate but more can be surveyed if chameleons are scarce. Species-discovery curves will determine if sampling efforts have been adequate in each forest site, as well as the DISTANCE program. If necessary any effects of different sample sizes on density estimates will be accounted for. Information gathered for each animal will include: species; sex; length of body (cm); distance along transect line (m); perpendicular distance (m); roost height (m); other roost information; and processing time (min). In addition to estimates of density, we will also estimate species diversity, richness and relative abundance of species. There are three recognized genera of Malagasy chameleons: Brookesia, Calumma and Furcifer. This classification has been adopted by most recent fieldworkers (e.g. Glaw and Vences, 1994; Brady and Griffiths, 1999; Jenkins et al, 1999). To identify the species present we will be using species keys (Glaw and Vences, 1994), digital photographs, and have the aid of local expertise in herpetofaunal identification. Where in situ identification is not possible, specimens will be collected in sealable plastic bags for later identification in the camp. These specimens will be released within 24 hours at the spot they were collected from. These methods have been used for successful identification in the field by ####. 2. Objective two: We will compare and contrast the chameleon populations at different sites with respect to the level of forest degradation. Ingram et al (2005), provide maps of forest conditions based on a Landsat satellite image of the area. This map shows the relationship between the basal area and stem density measurements to the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

measurements from the satellite. To determine the level of forest degradation at each site, geographic coordinates will be recorded with a Geographical Positioning System (GPS) allowing geo-referencing to the satellite data. We will use these maps to identify suitable sampling sites. We anticipate sampling three areas representing three levels of forest degradation using the sampling method outlined in objective one. The t-test will be used to compare the chameleon populations between these three sites. Objective three: We will test for edge effects on chameleons, i.e. test whether the density and species distribution of chameleons differes between forest edges and centres. The selected forest sites will be divided into stratified sampling areas or segments with respect to distance from the edge. The outer edge will be defined by the first woody vegetation > 2 m in height (Lehtinen, Ramanamanjato and Raveloarison, 2003). The line transects will be placed at a parallel angle to the edge, within each defined sampling area. The length of sampling areas into the forests will have to be determined when in the field, but previous studies have found a maximum length of 50 m into the forest is sufficient, as longer distances into the forest could not be used in some of the smaller fragments without approaching the opposite edge (Lehtinen, Ramanamanjato and Raveloarison, 2003). A measure of temperature (°C), relative humidity (%) and wind speed (m/s) will be taken at every 10 m into the forest to determine the edge effects on these a biotic factors, and to determine micro-habitat characteristics. The t-test will be used to compare chameleon populations between edge habitats with centre habitats. In the unlikely event that distance sampling proves to be impractical, the MacKinnon list census technique will be used instead. It allows for a rapid diversity and abundance consensus to be achieved in a short period of time. The observer follows the transect line and notes down the first ten species found, and the time taken. This method is repeated down the transect line. From this information ‘species-discovery’ curves can be made to assess species richness per area. This method has been used successfully in the area by Watson, Whittaker and Dawson (2005). Logistics The Edinburgh contingent of the expedition will travel from Edinburgh to Antananavairo via air travel. Confirmation of airline has yet to be made, but is likely to be made through Air Madagascar. There will be a short stay in the capital to finish the research permit process and meet the Malagasy contingent of expedition. Then the team will take a domestic flight to Fort Douphin. Once there we will meet up with Azafady representatives, hire appropriate guide and vehicle through Azafady. Our guide will also be our

driver. Adequate hospitality is available in all cities, towns and villages while in transition. Transportation of the team and equipment to the research site will take two trips. The journey from Fort Douphin to Ste. Luce village takes approximately one hour. The Journey from Ste. Luce village to our research station will take approximately 40mins. The team will camp at the research site; all other living facilities are provided at research station. The daily travelling will be made via foot to survey destinations. Information about the ability to carry out the walking distances required under local ecosystem and climate conditions, has been confirmed as “obtainable” by Dr Terry Dawson, a professor at The Edinburgh University whom has worked in the same forest and from same research station. Personal James Greenwood (Leader of Expedition) 3rd year Ecological and Environmental Scientist at Institute of atmospheric sciences, Edinburgh University. Last year James was leader of small team in a large expedition that went to Bolivia. This team looked at the effects of selective native logging on the vascular epiphyte community. He was responsible for all scientific planning, logistics and safety of people climbing in the canopy. The expedition was very successful and went without any serious incident. On top of his current degree James has also completed a diploma in Sustainable environmental management at Unitec, New Zealand. Interests in the nature, photography and travel have taken James all round the world lending him experiences in many different cultures and environments. Work history has been in wetland construction, native plant nurseries, self employed garden consultancy and hospitality in which he achieved managerial positions. He has been involved in sport his whole life and has made representative teams in different disciplines. Emily Woollen (Scientific officer) 3rd year Ecological and Environmental Scientist at the Institute of atmospheric sciences, Edinburgh University. Emily has gained experience in the field component of ecological science through taking two field courses, Field Biology and Ecological Measurements, and volunteering in the summer of 2006 working with a University of Edinburgh PhD student investigating site characteristics and vegetation structure of a Sitka spruce research forest in Scotland. She has also been on an

expedition to climb Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, in the year 2000, which was very successful. Having lived in many different places, including Sub Sahara Africa, Emily has the experience of different cultures, languages and environments, making her highly adaptable to cultures and travel. Work history includes volunteering for the University of Edinburgh as research assistant, volunteering for an NGO helping with the BBC’s Africa season in 2005, and sales assistant in photography shops. Interests include running, sailing, hiking, nature, photography, and scuba diving. Provisional Itinerary: September: Make contact with local NGO in Madagascar, discuss project with professors. November: Write Proposal for Expeditions Committee and for the research permit application process, start fundraising, make contact with Antanavia University, Apply for Grants. December/January: Apply for grants, selection of team members from Madagascar, Fund raising, team bonding activities. February/March: Apply for grants, Fund Raise, First Aid and Wilderness Medical Training Courses, GIS training courses, Vaccination Programs, Booking of transport and other logistical requirements, apply for visas. 4 th June: Fly into Antananaviro to obtain visas and finish the research permit process, meet the team members from Madagascar, team bonding activities. 7th /8th June: Fly to Fort Douphin, Meet with local Azafady constituents, Gather Supplies and hire vehicle. 10 th June: Drive to Research site near Ste. Luce. 10 th -13 th June – Trail studies, species familiarisation. 14 th July - 5th August: Data Collection. 5th August: Break from research, travel local area. 10th - 30th August: Data collection. 30th August: Return to Fort Douphin. 1st -7th September: Write report. 8th September: Return to Antananaviro and hand in report to Government and other organisations. 10th September: Fly to UK. September/October: Writing scientific journals

Budget EXPENSE COST (£) I. Aifares Rtn Edinburgh to Antananarivo ( 800 x 5) 4000 Rtn Antananarivo to Fort Douphin (180 x 7) 1260 II. Transportation Vehicle hire ( 65 x 50) 3250 Fuel 500 Driver (10 x 50) 500 Insurance STA full travel insurance (50 x 7) 350 Satellite phone (hire plus calls) 150 Field cost IV Food cost (£5 per day) (60 x 5x 8) 2400 Laptop 500 Tents (100 x 3) 300 Site fees (3.5 x 50 x 7) 1225 Local Guide (£250 per month) 500 GPS 200 Head Touches (50 x 8) 400 Field kit for Malagasy Students (200 x 2) 400 Others v Medical kit 200 Wilderness medical training (500 x 2) 1000 Expedition publication costs 500 Incidental travel cost 400

Contingency 10% of budget 1620

Grand total 18,815

Proposed source of income

Source Potential amount RGS 1000 Carnige trust 2000 Gilchrest 2000 Various small grants 1000 Davis fund 5000 Wier fund 2000 James Rennie Bequest 1500 Personal contributions 2500 Fund raising 2000 Total 19000

Acknowledges: Azafady Terry Jil Grahame Colin Daniel References: Brady L.D. and Griffiths R.A. (1999) Status Assessment of Chameleons in Madagascar. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Buckland S.T, Anderson D.R., Burnham K.P., Lake, J.L. (1993) Distance Sampling: Estimating abundance of biological populations. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. Carpenter A. And Robson O. 2005. A review of the endemic chameleon genus Brookesia from Madagascar, and the rationale for its listing on CITES Appendix II. Oryx 39, 1-6 Carpenter A., Rowcliffe M., Watkinson, A. (2004). The dynamics of the global trade on chameleons. Biological Conservation, 120, 291-301. Ingram J.C., Dawson T.P., Whittaker R.J. (2005) Mapping tropical forest structure in southeastern Madagascar using remote sensing and artificial neural networks. Remote Sensing of Environment, 94, 491 – 507. Jenkins R., Brady L., Huston K., Kuaffmann J., Rabearivory J., Raveloson G., Rowcliffe M. (1999) The population status of chameleons within Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar, and recommendations for future monitoring. Oryx, 33, 38-46 MacKinnon J. and Philips K. (1993) A field guide to the birds of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Myers N. (1988) Threatened Biota: “hot spots” in tropical forest. The Environmentalist, 8,187-208 Myers N., Mittermeier R., Mittermeier C., Fonseca G., Kent J. (2000) Biodiveristy hot spots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853-858 Raxworthy C., Martienz E., Hornvy E., Nassbaum R., Schneidier G., Ortea M., Peterson A (2003) Predicting distrubutions of known and unknown reptile species in Madagascar. Nature, 426, 837-841 Raxworthy C. 1988. Reptiles, rainforest and Conservation in Madagascar. In Biological Conservation, 43, 181-211

Watson J.E.M., Whittaker R.J. and Dawson T.P. (2005) The importance of littoral forest remnants for indigenous bird conservation in southeastern Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 523 – 545. Raxworthy C.J., Forstner M.R. and Nussbaum R.A (2002) Chameleon radiation by oceanic dispersal. Nature 415, 784-787. Ganzhorn J., Lowryll P., Schatz G. and Sommer, S. The biodiversity of Madagascar: one of the world’s hottest hotspots on its way out. Oryx, 35, 346.