Mahatma Gandhi 1

Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi

Born Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi2 October 1869Porbandar, Kathiawar Agency, Bombay Presidency, BritishIndia[1]

(now in Gujarat, India)

Died 30 January 1948 (aged 78)New Delhi, Dominion of India

Cause of death Assassination by shooting

Resting place Cremated at Rajghat, Delhi.28.6415°N 77.2483°E [2]

Nationality Indian

Other names Mahatma Gandhi, Bapu, Gandhiji

Ethnicity Indo-Aryan (Gujarati)

Alma mater Alfred High School, Rajkot,Samaldas College, Bhavnagar,University College, London (UCL)

Known for Prominent figure of Indian independence movement,propounding the philosophy of Satyagraha and Ahimsaadvocating non-violence,pacifism

Religion Hinduism, with Jain influences

Spouse(s) Kasturba Gandhi

Children HarilalManilalRamdasDevdas

Parents Putlibai Gandhi (Mother)Karamchand Gandhi (Father)

Signature

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (pronounced [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi] ( listen); 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi or Bapu (Father of Nation), was the preeminent leader of

Mahatma Gandhi 2

Indian nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India toindependence and inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights, and freedom across the world.[3][4]

The son of a senior government official, Gandhi was born and raised in a Bania[5] community in coastal Gujarat, andtrained in law in London. Gandhi became famous by fighting for the civil rights of Muslim and Hindu Indians inSouth Africa, using new techniques of non-violent civil disobedience that he developed. Returning to India in 1915,he set about organising peasants to protest excessive land-taxes. A lifelong opponent of "communalism" (i.e. basingpolitics on religion) he reached out widely to all religious groups. He became a leader of Muslims protesting thedeclining status of the Caliphate. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi lednationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, endinguntouchability, increasing economic self-reliance, and above all for achieving Swaraj—the independence of Indiafrom British domination.Gandhi led Indians in protesting the national salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and laterin demanding the British to immediately Quit India in 1942, during World War II. He was imprisoned for that andfor numerous other political offenses over the years. Gandhi sought to practice non-violence and truth in allsituations, and advocated that others do the same. He saw the villages as the core of the true India and promotedself-sufficiency; he did not support the industrialization programs of his disciple Jawaharlal Nehru. He livedmodestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarnhe had hand spun on a charkha. His chief political enemy in Britain was Winston Churchill,[6] who ridiculed him asa half-naked fakir.[7] He was a dedicated vegetarian, and undertook long fasts as means of both self-purification andpolitical mobilization.In his last year, unhappy at the partition of India, Gandhi worked to stop the carnage between Muslims, Hindus andSikhs that raged in the border area between India and Pakistan. He was assassinated on 30 January 1948 byNathuram Godse who thought Gandhi was too sympathetic to India's Muslims. 30 January is observed as Martyrs'Day in India. The honorific Mahatma ("Great Soul") was applied to him by 1914.[8] In India he was also called Bapu("Father"). He is known in India as the Father of the Nation;[] his birthday, 2 October, is commemorated there asGandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and world-wide as the International Day of Non-Violence. Gandhi's philosophywas not theoretical but one of pragmatism, that is, practicing his principles in the moment. Asked to give a messageto the people, he would respond, "My life is my message."[9]

Mahatma Gandhi 3

Early life and background

Gandhi in his earliest known photo,aged 7, c. 1876

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi[10] was born on 2 October 1869[1] in Porbandar,a coastal town which was then part of the Bombay Presidency, British India.[11]

He was born in his ancestral home, now known as Kirti Mandir.[12] His father,Karamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), served as the diwan (chief minister) ofPorbander state, a small princely salute state in the Kathiawar Agency of BritishIndia.[12][13] His grandfather was Uttamchand Gandhi, also called UttaGandhi.[12] His mother, Putlibai, who was from a Pranami Vaishnavafamily,[14][15] was Karamchand's fourth wife, the first three wives havingapparently died in childbirth.[16][17]

The Indian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra,had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, he admitsthat they left an indelible impression on his mind. He writes: "It haunted me andI must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi'searly self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable tothese epic characters.[18][19]

In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old KasturbaiMakhanji (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionatelyto "Ba") in an arranged child marriage, according to the custom of the region.[20]

In the process, he lost a year at school.[21] Recalling the day of their marriage, he once said, "As we didn't knowmuch about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." However,as was prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from herhusband.[22] In 1885, when Gandhi was 15, the couple's first child was born, but survived only a few days. Gandhi'sfather, Karamchand Gandhi, had also died earlier that year.[23] The religious background was eclectic. Gandhi'sfather was Hindu[24] Modh Baniya[25] and his mother was from Pranami Vaishnava family. Religious figures werefrequent visitors to the home.[26]

Mohandas and Kasturba had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, bornin 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.[20] At his middle school in Porbandar and high school in Rajkot, Gandhiremained a mediocre student. He shone neither in the classroom nor on the playing field. One of the terminal reportsrated him as "good at English, fair in Arithmetic and weak in Geography; conduct very good, bad handwriting." Hepassed the matriculation exam at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar, Gujarat, with some difficulty. Gandhi's familywanted him to be a barrister, as it would increase the prospects of succeeding to his father's post.[27]

Mahatma Gandhi 4

English barrister

Gandhi and his wife Kasturba (1902)

In 1888, Gandhi travelled to London, England, to studylaw at University College London, where he studiedIndian law and jurisprudence and to train as a barristerat the Inner Temple. His time in London wasinfluenced by a vow he had made to his mother uponleaving India, in the presence of a Jain monk, toobserve the precepts of abstinence from meat andalcohol as well as of promiscuity.[28] Gandhi tried toadopt "English" customs, including taking dancinglessons. However, he could not appreciate the blandvegetarian food offered by his landlady and wasfrequently hungry until he found one of London's fewvegetarian restaurants. Influenced by Henry Salt's writing, he joined the Vegetarian Society, was elected to itsexecutive committee,[29] and started a local Bayswater chapter.[16] Some of the vegetarians he met were members ofthe Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devotedto the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gitaboth in translation as well as in the original.[29] Not having shown interest in religion before, he became interested inreligious thought.

Gandhi was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had diedwhile he was in London and that his family had kept the news from him.[29] His attempts at establishing a lawpractice in Bombay failed because he was too shy to speak up in court. He returned to Rajkot to make a modestliving drafting petitions for litigants, but he was forced to close it when he ran afoul of a British officer.[16][29] In1893, he accepted a year-long contract from Dada Abdulla & Co., an Indian firm, to a post in the Colony of Natal,South Africa, then part of the British Empire.[16]

Civil rights movement in South Africa (1893–1914)Gandhi was 24 when he arrived in South Africa[] to work as a legal representative for the Muslim Indian Tradersbased in the city of Pretoria.[30] He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics andpolitical leadership skills.

Purported photograph of Gandhi in South Africa (1895)

Indians in South Africa were led by wealthy Muslims,who employed Gandhi as a lawyer, and byimpoverished Hindu indentured laborers with verylimited rights. Gandhi considered them all to beIndians, taking a lifetime view that "Indianness"transcended religion and caste. He believed he couldbridge historic differences, especially regardingreligion, and he took that belief back to India where hetried to implement it. The South African experienceexposed handicaps to Gandhi that he had not knownabout. He realised he was out of contact with theenormous complexities of religious and cultural life inIndia, and believed he understood India by getting toknow and leading Indians in South Africa.[31]

Mahatma Gandhi 5

In South Africa, Gandhi faced the discrimination directed at all coloured people. He was thrown off a train atPietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first-class. He protested and was allowed on first class the nextday.[32] Travelling farther on by stagecoach, he was beaten by a driver for refusing to move to make room for aEuropean passenger.[33] He suffered other hardships on the journey as well, including being barred from severalhotels. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refusedto do.[34]

These events were a turning point in Gandhi's life and shaped his social activism and awakened him to socialinjustice. After witnessing racism, prejudice and injustice against Indians in South Africa, Gandhi began to questionhis place in society and his people's standing in the British Empire.[]

Gandhi extended his original period of stay in South Africa to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the rightto vote. In regards to this bill Gandhi sent out a memorial to Joseph Chamberlain, British Colonial Secretary, askinghim to reconsider his position on this bill.[30] Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful indrawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in1894,[16][32] and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified politicalforce. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him[35] and he escaped onlythrough the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. He, however, refused to press charges against anymember of the mob, stating it was one of his principles not to seek redress for a personal wrong in a court of law.[16]

In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian population.At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolvingmethodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or non-violent protest, for the first time.[] He urged Indians todefy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. The community adopted this plan, and during theensuing seven-year struggle, thousands of Indians were jailed, flogged, or shot for striking, refusing to register, forburning their registration cards or engaging in other forms of non-violent resistance. The government successfullyrepressed the Indian protesters, but the public outcry over the harsh treatment of peaceful Indian protesters by theSouth African government forced South African leader Jan Christiaan Smuts, himself a philosopher, to negotiate acompromise with Gandhi. Gandhi's ideas took shape, and the concept of Satyagraha matured during this struggle.

Gandhi and the Africans

Gandhi in South Africa (1909)

Gandhi focused his attention on Indians while in South Africa and opposed theidea that Indians should be treated at the same level as native Africans while inSouth Africa.[36][37][38] He also stated that he believed "that the white race ofSouth Africa should be the predominating race."[39] After several treatments hereceived from Whites in South Africa, Gandhi began to change his thinking andapparently increased his interest in politics.[] White rule enforced strictsegregation among all races and generated conflict between these communities.Bhana and Vahed argue that Gandhi, at first, shared racial notions prevalent ofthe times and that his experiences in jail sensitized him to the plight of blacks.

During the Boer War Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to form a group of ambulancedrivers. He wanted to disprove the British idea that Hindus were not fit for"manly" activities involving danger and exertion. Gandhi raised eleven hundredIndian volunteers. They were trained and medically certified to serve on the frontlines. At Spion Kop Gandhi and his bearers had to carry wounded soldiers for miles to a field hospital because theterrain was too rough for the ambulances. Gandhi was pleased when someone said that European ambulancecorpsmen could not make the trip under the heat without food or water. General Redvers Buller mentioned thecourage of the Indians in his dispatch. Gandhi and thirty seven other Indians received the War Medal.[40]

Mahatma Gandhi 6

In 1906, the British declared war against the Zulu Kingdom in Natal, Gandhi encouraged the British to recruitIndians.[] He argued that Indians should support the war efforts in order to legitimise their claims to full citizenship.[]

The British accepted Gandhi's offer to let a detachment of 20 Indians volunteer as a stretcher-bearer corps to treatwounded British soldiers. This corps was commanded by Gandhi and operated for less than two months.[41] Theexperience taught him it was hopeless to directly challenge the overwhelming military power of the Britisharmy—he decided it could only be resisted in non-violent fashion by the pure of heart.[42]

After the black majority came to power in South Africa, Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerousmonuments.[43]

Struggle for Indian Independence (1915–47)In 1915, Gandhi returned to India permanently. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist,theorist and organizer. He joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and theIndian people primarily by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known forhis restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberalapproach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look wholly Indian.[44]

Gandhi took leadership of Congress in 1920 and began a steady escalation of demands (with intermittentcompromises or pauses) until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India.The British did not recognize that and more negotiations ensued, with Congress taking a role in provincialgovernment in the late 1930s. Gandhi and Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declaredwar on Germany in September 1939 without consulting anyone. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demandedimmediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congressleaders for the duration. Meanwhile the Muslim League did cooperate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi'sstrong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947 the British partitionedthe land, with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms Gandhi disapproved.[45]

Role in World War IIn April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.[46]

Perhaps to show his support for the Empire and help his case for India's independence,[47] Gandhi agreed to activelyrecruit Indians for the war effort.[48] In contrast to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914,when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote "To bring about such a state of things we should havethe ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them...If we want to learn the use of armswith the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army."[49] He did, however, stipulate in aletter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."[50]

Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence as his friend CharlieAndrews confirms, "Personally I have never been able to reconcile this with his own conduct in other respects, and itis one of the points where I have found myself in painful disagreement."[51] Gandhi's private secretary also hadacknowledged that "The question of the consistency between his creed of 'Ahimsa' (non-violence) and his recruitingcampaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since."[48]

Mahatma Gandhi 7

Champaran and Kheda

Gandhi in 1918, at the time of theKheda and Champaran Satyagrahas

Gandhi's first major achievements came in 1918 with the Champaran and Khedaagitations of Bihar and Gujarat. The Champaran agitation pitted the localpeasantry against their largely British landlords who were backed by the localadministration. The peasantry was forced to grow Indigo, a cash crop whosedemand had been declining over two decades, and were forced to sell their cropsto the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed toGandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of non-violent protest,Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from theauthorities.[52]

In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demandingrelief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad,[] organising scoresof supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable beingVallabhbhai Patel.[53] Using non-cooperation as a technique, Gandhi initiated asignature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even underthe threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars(revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi workedhard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused but finallyin end-May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment ofrevenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with theBritish, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.[54]

Khilafat movementIn 1919 Gandhi, with his weak position in Congress, decided to broaden his base by increasing his appeal toMuslims. The opportunity came from the Khilafat movement, a worldwide protest by Muslims against the collapsingstatus of the Caliph, the leader of their religion. The Ottoman Empire had lost the World War and was dismembered,as Muslims feared for the safety of the holy places and the prestige of their religion.[55] Although Gandhi did notoriginate the All-India Muslim Conference,[56] which directed the movement in India, he soon became its mostprominent spokesman and attracted a strong base of Muslim support with local chapters in all Muslim centers inIndia.[57] His success made him India's first national leader with a multicultural base and facilitated his rise to powerwithin Congress, which had previously been unable to reach many Muslims. In 1920 Gandhi became a major leaderin Congress.[58][59] By the end of 1922 the Khilafat movement had collapsed.[60]

Gandhi always fought against "communalism", which pitted Muslims against Hindus in politics, but he could notreverse the rapid growth of communalism after 1922. Deadly religious riots broke out in numerous cities, including91 in U.P. (Uttar Pradesh) alone.[61][62] At the leadership level, the proportion of Muslims among delegates toCongress fell sharply, from 11% in 1921 to under 4% in 1923.[63]

Mahatma Gandhi 8

Non-cooperation

Mahatma Gandhi spinning yarn, in the late 1920s

With Congress now behind him in 1920, Gandhi had the base toemploy non-cooperation, non-violence and peaceful resistance as his"weapons" in the struggle against the British Raj. His wide popularityamong both Hindus and Muslims made his leadership possible; heeven convinced the extreme faction of Muslims to support peacefulnon-cooperation.[64] The spark that ignited a national protest wasoverwhelming anger at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (or Amritsarmassacre) of hundreds of peaceful civilians by British troops in Punjab.Many Britons celebrated the action as needed to prevent anotherviolent uprising similar to the Rebellion of 1857, an attitude thatcaused many Indian leaders to decide the Raj was controlled by their

enemies. Gandhi criticised both the actions of the British Raj and the retaliatory violence of Indians. He authored theresolution offering condolences to British civilian victims and condemning the riots which, after initial opposition inthe party, was accepted following Gandhi's emotional speech advocating his principle that all violence was evil andcould not be justified.[65]

After the massacre and subsequent violence, Gandhi began to focus on winning complete self-government andcontrol of all Indian government institutions, maturing soon into Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, politicalindependence.[] During this period, Gandhi claimed to be a "highly orthodox Hindu" and in January 1921 during aspeech at a temple in Vadtal, he spoke of the relevance of non-cooperation to Hindu Dharma, "At this holy place, Ideclare, if you want to protect your 'Hindu Dharma', non-cooperation is first as well as the last lesson you must learnup.".[66]

Sabarmati Ashram, Gandhi's home in Gujarat

In December 1921, Gandhi was invested with executive authority onbehalf of the Indian National Congress. Under his leadership, theCongress was reorganised with a new constitution, with the goal ofSwaraj. Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared topay a token fee. A hierarchy of committees was set up to improvediscipline, transforming the party from an elite organisation to one ofmass national appeal. Gandhi expanded his non-violence platform toinclude the swadeshi policy—the boycott of foreign-made goods,especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi(homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-madetextiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, tospend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independencemovement.[67]

Gandhi even invented a small, portable spinning wheel that could be folded into the size of a small typewriter.[] Thiswas a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication to weeding out the unwilling and ambitious and to includewomen in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities were not respectable activities for women.In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British educational institutions andlaw courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours.[68]

"Non-cooperation" enjoyed widespread appeal and success, increasing excitement and participation from all strata of Indian society. Yet, just as the movement reached its apex, it ended abruptly as a result of a violent clash in the town of Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, in February 1922. Fearing that the movement was about to take a turn towards violence, and convinced that this would be the undoing of all his work, Gandhi called off the campaign of mass civil disobedience.[69] This was the third time that Gandhi had called off a major campaign.[70] Gandhi was arrested on 10

Mahatma Gandhi 9

March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922.He was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only 2 years.[]

Without Gandhi's unifying personality, the Indian National Congress began to splinter during his years in prison,splitting into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in thelegislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move.Furthermore, cooperation among Hindus and Muslims, which had been strong at the height of the non-violencecampaign, was breaking down. Gandhi attempted to bridge these differences through many means, including athree-week fast in the autumn of 1924, but with limited success.[71] In this year, Gandhi was persuaded to presideover the Congress session to be held in Belgaum. Gandhi agreed to become president of the session on onecondition: that Congressmen should take to wearing homespun khadi. In his long political career, this was the onlytime when he presided over a Congress session.[]

Salt Satyagraha (Salt March)Gandhi stayed out of active politics and, as such, the limelight for most of the 1920s. He focused instead onresolving the wedge between the Swaraj Party and the Indian National Congress, and expanding initiatives againstuntouchability, alcoholism, ignorance and poverty. He returned to the fore in 1928. In the preceding year, the Britishgovernment had appointed a new constitutional reform commission under Sir John Simon, which did not include anyIndian as its member. The result was a boycott of the commission by Indian political parties. Gandhi pushed througha resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominionstatus or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal. Gandhihad not only moderated the views of younger men like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru, who sought ademand for immediate independence, but also reduced his own call to a one year wait, instead of two.[72]

The British did not respond. On 31 December 1929, the flag of India was unfurled in Lahore. 26 January 1930 wascelebrated as India's Independence Day by the Indian National Congress meeting in Lahore. This day wascommemorated by almost every other Indian organisation. Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the taxon salt in March 1930. This was highlighted by the famous Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where hemarched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself. Thousands of Indiansjoined him on this march to the sea. This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India;Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.[73]

Women

Gandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women, and he went so far as to say that "the women have come tolook upon me as one of themselves." He opposed purdah, child marriage, untouchability, and the extreme oppressionof Hindu widows, up to and including sati. He especially recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaignsand the boycott of foreign products.[74] Sarma concludes that Gandhi's success in enlisting women in his campaigns,including the salt tax campaign, anti-untouchability campaign and the peasant movement, gave many women a newself-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.[75]

Gandhi as folk hero

Congress in the 1920s appealed to peasants by portraying Gandhi as a sort of messiah, a strategy that succeeded inincorporating radical forces within the peasantry into the nonviolent resistance movement. In thousands of villagesplays were performed that presented Gandhi as the reincarnation of earlier Indian nationalist leaders, or even as ademigod. The plays built support among illiterate peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture. Similar messianicimagery appeared in popular songs and poems, and in Congress-sponsored religious pageants and celebrations. Theresult was that Gandhi became not only a folk hero but the Congress was widely seen in the villages as his sacredinstrument.[76]

Mahatma Gandhi 10

Negotiations

Mahadev Desai (left) reading out a letter toGandhi from the viceroy at Birla House, Bombay,

7 April 1939

The government, represented by Lord Edward Irwin, decided tonegotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March1931. The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, inreturn for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. Also as aresult of the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round TableConference in London as the sole representative of the Indian NationalCongress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and thenationalists, because it focused on the Indian princes and Indianminorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor,Lord Willingdon, taking a hard line against nationalism, began a newcampaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement.Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed tonegate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.[77]

Untouchables

In 1932, through the campaigning of the Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar,the government granted untouchables separate electorates under thenew constitution, known as the Communal Award. In protest, Gandhi embarked on a six-day fast on 20 September1932, while he was imprisoned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune.[] The resulting public outcry successfully forced thegovernment to adopt an equitable arrangement (Poona Pact) through negotiations mediated by Palwankar Baloo.[]

This was the start of a new campaign by Gandhi to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he named Harijans,the children of God.[78] On September 8, 1931, Mahatma Gandhi who was sailing on SS Rajputana, to the secondRound Table Conference in London, Mahatma Gandhi met Meher Baba in his cabin on board the ship, and discussedissues of untouchables, politics, state Independence and spirituality[79][80]

On 8 May 1933, Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self-purification and launched a one-year campaign to help theHarijan movement.[81] This new campaign was not universally embraced within the Dalit community, as Ambedkarcondemned Gandhi's use of the term Harijans as saying that Dalits were socially immature, and that privileged casteIndians played a paternalistic role. Ambedkar and his allies also felt Gandhi was undermining Dalit political rights.Gandhi had also refused to support the untouchables in 1924–25 when they were campaigning for the right to pray intemples. Because of Gandhi's actions, Ambedkar described him as "devious and untrustworthy".[70] Gandhi,although born into the Vaishya caste, insisted that he was able to speak on behalf of Dalits, despite the presence ofDalit activists such as Ambedkar.[82] Gandhi and Ambedkar often clashed because Ambedkar sought to remove theDalits out of the Hindu community, while Gandhi tried to save Hinduism by exorcising untouchability. Ambedkarcomplained that Gandhi moved too slowly, while Hindu traditionalists said Gandhi was a dangerous radical whorejected scripture. Guha noted in 2012 that, "Ideologues have carried these old rivalries into the present, with thedemonization of Gandhi now common among politicians who presume to speak in Ambedkar’s name."[83] Guha addsthat their work complemented each other, and Gandhi often praised Ambedkar.In the summer of 1934, three attempts were made on Gandhi's life.[84][85]

Mahatma Gandhi 11

Congress politicsIn 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party membership. He did not disagree with the party's position but felt thatif he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied,including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-businessconvictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also wanted toavoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodationwith the Raj.[86]

Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of theCongress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation aboutIndia's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with SubhasChandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith innon-violence as a means of protest.[87] Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President,against Gandhi's nominee, Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya; but left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned enmasse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.[88][89] Gandhi declared thatSitaramayya's defeat was his defeat.[90]

World War II and Quit India

Gandhi and Nehru in 1942

Gandhi initially favoured offering "non-violent moral support" to theBritish effort when World War II broke out in 1939, but theCongressional leaders were offended by the unilateral inclusion ofIndia in the war without consultation of the people's representatives.All Congressmen resigned from office.[91] After long deliberations,Gandhi declared that India could not be party to a war ostensiblybeing fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was deniedto India itself. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demandfor independence, calling for the British to Quit India in a speech atGowalia Tank Maidan. This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party'smost definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit fromIndia.[92]

Gandhi was criticised by some Congress party members and otherIndian political groups, both pro-British and anti-British. Some feltthat not supporting Britain more in its struggle against Nazi Germany was unethical. Others felt that Gandhi's refusalfor India to participate in the war was insufficient and more direct opposition should be taken, while Britain foughtagainst Nazism, it continued to refuse to grant India Independence. Quit India became the most forceful movementin the history of the struggle, with mass arrests and violence on an unprecedented scale.[93]

In 1942, although still committed in his efforts to "launch a non-violent movement", Gandhi clarified that themovement would not be stopped by individual acts of violence, saying that the "ordered anarchy" of "the presentsystem of administration" was "worse than real anarchy."[94][95] He called on all Congressmen and Indians tomaintain discipline via ahimsa, and Karo ya maro ("Do or die") in the cause of ultimate freedom.[96]

Mahatma Gandhi 12

Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bombay,1944

Gandhi and the entire Congress Working Committee were arrested inBombay by the British on 9 August 1942. Gandhi was held for twoyears in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. It was here that Gandhi sufferedtwo terrible blows in his personal life. His 50-year old secretaryMahadev Desai died of a heart attack 6 days later and his wifeKasturba died after 18 months imprisonment on 22 February 1944; sixweeks later Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. He was releasedbefore the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing healthand necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison andenrage the nation. He came out of detention to an altered politicalscene—the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier hadappeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage"[97] and the topic of Jinnah's campaign forPakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi met Jinnah in September 1944 in Bombay but Jinnah rejected, on thegrounds that it fell short of a fully independent Pakistan, his proposal of the right of Muslim provinces to opt out ofsubstantial parts of the forthcoming political union.[98][99]

While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organizationalstrength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control overevents.[] At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. Atthis point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including theCongress's leadership.[]

Partition and independence, 1947

Gandhi with Louis Mountbatten, Britain's lastViceroy of India, 1947

As a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition as itcontradicted his vision of religious unity.[100] Concerning thepartition of India to create Pakistan, while the Indian NationalCongress and Gandhi called for the British to quit India, the MuslimLeague passed a resolution for them to divide and quit, in 1943.[101]

Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress andMuslim League to cooperate and attain independence under aprovisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could beresolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.[]

When Jinnah called for Direct Action, on 16 August 1946, Gandhiwas infuriated and personally visited the most riot-prone areas tostop the massacres.[102] He made strong efforts to unite the IndianHindus, Muslims, and Christians and struggled for the emancipation of the "untouchables" in Hindu society.[]

On 14 and 15 August 1947 the Indian Independence Act was invoked. In border areas some 10—12 million peoplemoved from one side to another and upwards of a half million were killed in communal riots pitting Hindus,Muslims, and Sikhs against each other.[] But for his teachings, the efforts of his followers, and his own presence,there perhaps could have been much more bloodshed during the partition, according to prominent Norwegianhistorian, Jens Arup Seip.[103]

Stanley Wolpert has argued, The "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi...whorealised too late that his closest comrades and disciples were more interested in power than principle, and that hisown vision had long been clouded by the illusion that the struggle he led for India's freedom was a nonviolentone."[104]

Mahatma Gandhi 13

Assassination

Raj Ghat, Delhi is a memorial to Mahatma Gandhi that marks thespot of his cremation.

On 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot while he waswalking to a platform from which he was to address aprayer meeting. The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was aHindu nationalist with links to the extremist HinduMahasabha, who held Gandhi guilty of favouringPakistan and strongly opposed the doctrine ofnonviolence.[105] Godse and his co-conspirator weretried and executed in 1949. Gandhi's memorial (orSamādhi) at Rāj Ghāt, New Delhi, bears the epigraph"Hē Ram", (Devanagari: हे ! राम or, He Rām), which maybe translated as "Oh God". These are widely believedto be Gandhi's last words after he was shot, though theveracity of this statement has been disputed.[106] Prime

Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressed the nation through radio:[]

"Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I donot quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the fatherof the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as wehave seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and thatis a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country."—Jawaharlal Nehru'saddress to Gandhi[107]

Funeral procession of Gandhi at New Delhi on 6February 1948

Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide. Over two million peoplejoined the five mile long funeral procession that took over five hours toreach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where he was assassinated. Gandhi'sbody was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis wasdismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that peoplecould catch a glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was notused, instead four drag-ropes manned by 50 people each pulled thevehicle.[108] All Indian owned establishments in London remainedclosed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths anddenominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at IndiaHouse in London.[109]

While India mourned and communal (inter-religious) violenceescalated, there were calls for retaliation, and even an invasion of Pakistan by the Indian army. Nehru and Patel, thetwo strongest figures in the government and in Congress, had been pulling in opposite directions; the assassinationpushed them together. They agreed the first objective must be to calm the hysteria.[110] They called on Indians tohonor Gandhi's memory and even more his ideals.[111] They used the assassination to consolidate the authority of thenew Indian state. The government made sure everyone knew the guilty party was not a Muslim. Congress tightlycontrolled the epic public displays of grief over a two-week period—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution ofthe martyr's ashes—as millions participated and hundreds of millions watched. The goal was to assert the power ofthe government and legitimize the Congress Party's control. This move built upon the massive outpouring of Hinduexpressions of grief. The government suppressed the RSS, the Muslim National Guards, and the Khaksars, withsome 200,000 arrests. Gandhi's death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and made moreunderstood the need to suppress religious parties during the transition to independence for the Indian people.[112]

Mahatma Gandhi 14

AshesBy Hindu tradition the ashes were to be spread on a river. Gandhi's ashes were poured into urns which were sentacross India for memorial services.[113] Most were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948, butsome were secretly taken away. In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault andreclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad.[114][115] Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at thesource of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, thecontents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty. Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan inPune[114] (where Gandhi had been imprisoned from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization FellowshipLake Shrine in Los Angeles.[116]

Principles, practices and beliefsGandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted. Of central importance is nonviolent resistance. AGandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.[52]

M.M.Sankhdher argues that Gandhism is not a systematic position in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather,it is a political creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and especially, a humanitarianworld view. It is an effort not to systematize wisdom but to transform society and is based on an undying faith in thegoodness of human nature.[117] However Gandhi himself did not approve of the notion of "Gandhism", as heexplained in 1936:

There is no such thing as "Gandhism", and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to haveoriginated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to ourdaily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I maychange them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as thehills.[118]

Influences

Gandhi with famous poet Rabindranath Tagore,1940

Historian R.B. Cribb argues that Gandhi's thought evolved over time,with his early ideas becoming the core or scaffolding for his maturephilosophy. In London he committed himself to truthfulness,temperance, chastity, and vegetarianism. His return to India to work asa lawyer was a failure, so he went to South Africa for a quarter century,where he absorbed ideas from many sources, most of themnon-Indian.[119] Gandhi grew up in an eclectic religious atmosphereand throughout his life searched for insights from many religioustraditions.[120] He was exposed to Jain ideas through his mother who,was in contact with Jain monks. Themes from Jainism that Gandhiabsorbed included asceticism; compassion for all forms of life; theimportance of vows for self-discipline; vegetarianism; fasting forself-purification; mutual tolerance among people of different creeds;and "syadvad", the idea that all views of truth are partial, a doctrine that lies at the root of Satyagraha.[121] Hereceived much of his influence from Jainism particularly during his younger years.[122]

Gandhi's London experience provided a solid philosophical base focused on truthfulness, temperance, chastity, and vegetarianism. When he returned to India in 1891, his outlook was parochial and he could not make a living as a lawyer. This challenged his belief that practicality and morality necessarily coincided. By moving in 1893 to South Africa he found a solution to this problem and developed the central concepts of his mature philosophy.[123] N. A. Toothi[] felt that Gandhi was influenced by the reforms and teachings of Swaminarayan, stating "Close parallels do

Mahatma Gandhi 15

exist in programs of social reform based on to non-violence, truth-telling, cleanliness, temperance and upliftment ofthe masses."[] Vallabhbhai Patel, who grew up in a Swaminarayan household was attracted to Gandhi due to thisaspect of Gandhi's doctrine.[]

Gandhi's ethical thinking was heavily influenced by a handful of books, which he repeatedly meditated upon. Theyincluded especially Plato's Apology, (which he translated into his native Gujarati); William Salter's Ethical Religion(1889); Henry David Thoreau's On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1847); Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God IsWithin You (1893); and John Ruskin's Unto this Last (1862), which he also translated into Gujarati. Ruskin inspiredhis decision to live an austere life on a commune, at first on the Phoenix Farm in Natal and then on the Tolstoy Farmjust outside Johannesburg, South Africa.[]

Balkrishna Gokhale argues that Gandhi took his philosophy of history from Hinduism and Jainism, supplemented byselected Christian traditions and ideas of Tolstoy and Ruskin. Hinduism provided central concepts of God's role inhistory, of man as the battleground of forces of virtue and sin, and of the potential of love as an historical force.From Jainism, Gandhi took the idea of applying nonviolence to human situations and the theory that AbsoluteReality can be comprehended only relatively in human affairs.[]

Historian Howard Spodek argues for the importance of the culture of Gujarat in shaping Gandhi's methods. Spodekfinds that some of Gandhi's most effective methods such as fasting, noncooperation and appeals to the justice andcompassion of the rulers were learned as a youth in Gujarat. Later on, the financial, cultural, organizational andgeographical support needed to bring his campaigns to a national audience were drawn from Ahmedabad andGujarat, his Indian residence 1915–1930.[]

Tolstoy

Mohandas K. Gandhi and other residents ofTolstoy Farm, South Africa, 1910

In 1908 Leo Tolstoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu, which said that only byusing love as a weapon through passive resistance could the Indianpeople overthrow colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi wrote to Tolstoyseeking advice and permission to republish A Letter to a Hindu inGujarati. Tolstoy responded and the two continued a correspondenceuntil Tolstoy's death in 1910. The letters concern practical andtheological applications of non-violence.[124] Gandhi saw himself adisciple of Tolstoy, for they agreed regarding opposition to stateauthority and colonialism; both hated violence and preachednon-resistance. However, they differed sharply on political strategy.Gandhi called for political involvement; he was a nationalist and was prepared to use nonviolent force. He was alsowilling to compromise.[] It was at Tolstoy Farm where Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach systematically trained theirdisciples in the philosophy of nonviolence.[]

Mahatma Gandhi 16

Truth and Satyagraha

"God is truth. The way to truth lies through ahimsa(non-violence)"—Sabarmati 13 March 1927

Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose ofdiscovering truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve this bylearning from his own mistakes and conductingexperiments on himself. He called his autobiographyThe Story of My Experiments with Truth.[]

Bruce Watson argues that Gandhi based Satyagraha onthe Vedantic ideal of self-realization, and notes it alsocontains Jain and Buddhist notions of nonviolence,vegetarianism, the avoidance of killing, and 'agape'(universal love). Gandhi also borrowedChristian-Islamic ideas of equality, the brotherhood ofman, and the concept of turning the other cheek.[]

Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fightwas overcoming his own demons, fears, and

insecurities. Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said "God is Truth". He would later change this statementto "Truth is God". Thus, satya (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God".[]

The essence of Satyagraha (a name Gandhi invented meaning "adherence to truth"[125]) is that it seeks to eliminateantagonisms without harming the antagonists themselves and seeks to transform or "purify" it to a higher level. Aeuphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a "silent force" or a "soul force" (a term also used by MartinLuther King Jr. during his famous "I Have a Dream" speech). It arms the individual with moral power rather thanphysical power. Satyagraha is also termed a "universal force", as it essentially "makes no distinction betweenkinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe."[]

Gandiji wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate atrue spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause."[126]

Civil disobedience and non-cooperation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the "law of suffering",[] adoctrine that the endurance of suffering is a means to an end. This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progressof an individual or society. Therefore, non-cooperation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the cooperation ofthe opponent consistently with truth and justice.[]

Mahatma Gandhi 17

Nonviolence

Gandhi with textile workers at Darwen,Lancashire, 26 September 1931.

Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle ofnon-violence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a largescale.[127] The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonresistance hasa long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals inHindu, Buddhist, Jain, Jewish and Christian contexts. Gandhi explainshis philosophy and way of life in his autobiography The Story of MyExperiments with Truth. Some of his other remarks were widelyquoted, such as "An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind."[128]

"There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes thatI am prepared to kill for."[129] Gandhi realized later that this level ofnonviolence required incredible faith and courage, which he believedeveryone did not possess. He therefore advised that everyone need notkeep to nonviolence, especially if it were used as a cover forcowardice, saying, "where there is only a choice between cowardiceand violence, I would advise violence."[][130]

Gandhi thus came under some political fire for his criticism of thosewho attempted to achieve independence through more violent means.His refusal to protest against the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh and Rajguru were sources ofcondemnation among some parties.[131][]

Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to givefight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of noavail against the [Hindu–Moslem riots] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."[132]

Gandhi's views came under heavy criticism in Britain when it was under attack from Nazi Germany, and later whenthe Holocaust was revealed. He told the British people in 1940, "I would like you to lay down the arms you have asbeing useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want ofthe countries you call your possessions... If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. Ifthey do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but youwill refuse to owe allegiance to them."[]

In a post-war interview in 1946, he said, "Hitler killed five million Jews. It is the greatest crime of our time. But theJews should have offered themselves to the butcher’s knife. They should have thrown themselves into the sea fromcliffs... It would have aroused the world and the people of Germany... As it is they succumbed anyway in theirmillions."[133] Gandhi believed this act of "collective suicide", in response to the Holocaust, "would have beenheroism".[134]

Mahatma Gandhi 18

Muslims

One of the Gandhi's major strategies, first in South Africa and then in India, was uniting Muslims and Hindus towork together in opposition to British imperialism. In 1919–22 he won strong Muslim support for his leadership inthe Khilafat Movement to support the historic Ottoman Caliphate. By 1924 that Muslim support had largelyevaporated.[135][136]

Jews

In 1931, he suggested that while he could understand the desire of European Jews to emigrate to Palestine, heopposed any movement that supported British colonialism or violence. Muslims throughout India and the MiddleEast strongly opposed the Zionist plan for a Jewish state in Palestine, and Gandhi (and Congress) supported theMuslims in this regard. By the 1930s all major political groups in India opposed a Jewish state in Palestine.[137]

This led to discussions concerning the persecution of the Jews in Germany and the emigration of Jews from Europeto Palestine, which Gandhi framed through the lens of Satyagraha.[138][139] In 1937, Gandhi discussed Zionism withhis close Jewish friend Hermann Kallenbach.[140] He said Zionism was not the right answer to the Jewishproblem[141] and instead recommended Satyagraha. Gandhi thought the Zionists in Palestine represented Europeanimperialism and used violence to achieve their goals; he argued that "the Jews should disclaim any intention ofrealizing their aspiration under the protection of arms and should rely wholly on the goodwill of Arabs. No exceptioncan possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to found a home in Palestine. But they must wait for itsfulfillment till Arab opinion is ripe for it."[142] In 1938, Gandhi stated that his "sympathies are all with the Jews. Ihave known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions."[143] Philosopher MartinBuber was highly critical of Gandhi's approach and in 1939 wrote an open letter to him on the subject. Gandhireiterated his stance on the use of Satyagraha in Palestine in 1947.[144]

Vegetarianism and foodStephen Hay argues that Gandhi in London looked into numerous religious and intellectual currents. He especiallyappreciated how the theosophical movement encouraged a religious eclecticism and an antipathy to atheism. Haysays the vegetarian movement had the greatest impact for it was Gandhi's point of entry into other reformist agendasof the time.[145] The idea of vegetarianism is deeply ingrained in Hindu and Jain traditions in India, especially in hisnative Gujarat.[146] Gandhi was close to the chairman of the London Vegetarian Society, Dr. Josiah Oldfield, andcorresponded with Henry Stephens Salt, a vegetarian campaigner. Gandhi became a strict vegetarian. He wrote thebook The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism and wrote for the London Vegetarian Society's publication.[147] Gandhi wassomewhat of a food faddist taking his own goat to travels so he could always have fresh milk.[]

Gandhi noted in his autobiography that vegetarianism was the beginning of his deep commitment to Brahmacharya;without total control of the palate, his success in Brahmacharya would likely falter. "You wish to know what themarks of a man are who wants to realize Truth which is God", he wrote. "He must reduce himself to zero and haveperfect control over all his senses-beginning with the palate or tongue."[148][149]

Mahatma Gandhi 19

Fasting, with young Indira Gandhi, mid-1920s

Fasting

Gandhi used fasting as a political device, often threatening suicideunless demands were met. Congress publicized the fasts as a politicalaction that generated widespread sympathy. In response thegovernment tried to manipulate news coverage to minimize hischallenge to the Raj. He fasted in 1932 to protest the voting scheme forseparate political representation for Dalits; Gandhi did not want themsegregated. The government stopped the London press from showingphotographs of his emaciated body, because it would elicit sympathy.

Gandhi's 1943 hunger strike took place during a two-year prison term for the anticolonial Quit India movement. Thegovernment called on nutritional experts to demystify his action, and again no photos were allowed. However hisfinal fast in 1948, after India was independent, was lauded by the British press and this time did include full-lengthphotos.[150]

Alter argues that Gandhi's fixation on diet and celibacy were much deeper than exercises in self-discipline. Rather,his beliefs regarding health offered a critique of both the traditional Hindu system of ayurvedic medicine andWestern concepts. This challenge was integral to his deeper challenge to tradition and modernity, as health andnonviolence became part of the same ethics.[151]

Celibacy and Experiments with Celibacy (Bramhacharya)In 1906 Gandhi, although married and a father, vowed to abstain from sexual relations. In the 1940s, in hismid-seventies, he brought his grandniece Manubehn to sleep naked in his bed as part of a spiritual experiment inwhich Gandhi could test himself as a "brahmachari." Several other young women and girls also sometimes shared hisbed as part of his experiments.[152] Gandhi's behaviour was widely discussed and criticised by family members andleading politicians including Nehru. Some members of his staff resigned, including two editors of his newspaperwho left after refusing to print parts of Gandhi's sermons dealing with his sleeping arrangements. But Gandhi saidthat if he wouldn't let Manu sleep with her, it would be a sign of weakness.[153]

Gandhi discussed his experiment with friends and relations; most disagreed and the experiment ceased in 1947.[154]

Religious studies scholar Veena Howard argues that Gandhi made "creative use"[]:130 of his celibacy and hisauthority as a mahatma "to reinterpret religious norms and confront unjust social and religious conventionsrelegating women to lower status."[]:130 According to Howard, Gandhi "developed his discourse as a religiousrenouncer within India’s traditions to confront repressive social and religious customs regarding women and to bringthem into the public sphere, during a time when the discourse on celibacy was typically imbued with masculinerhetoric and misogynist inferences.... his writings show a consistent evolution of his thought toward creating anequal playing field for members of both sexes and even elevating women to a higher plane—all through hisdiscourse and unorthodox practice of brahmacharya."[]:137

Nai Talim, basic educationGandhi's educational policies reflected Nai Talim ('Basic Education for all'), a spiritual principle which states thatknowledge and work are not separate. It was a reaction against the British educational system and colonialism ingeneral, which had the negative effect of making Indian children alienated and career-based; it promoted disdain formanual work, the development of a new elite class, and the increasing problems of industrialisation and urbanisation.The three pillars of Gandhi's pedagogy were its focus on the lifelong character of education, its social character andits form as a holistic process. For Gandhi, education is 'the moral development of the person', a process that is bydefinition 'lifelong'.[155]

Mahatma Gandhi 20

Nai Talim evolved out of the spiritually oriented education program at Tolstoy Farm in South Africa, and Gandhi'swork at the ashram at Sevagram after 1937.[156] After 1947 the Nehru government's vision of an industrialized,centrally planned economy had scant place for Gandhi's village-oriented approach.[157]

Swaraj, self-ruleRudolph argues that after a false start in trying to emulate the English in an attempt to overcome his timidity, Gandhidiscovered the inner courage he was seeking by helping his countrymen in South Africa. The new courage consistedof observing the traditional Bengali way of "self-suffering" and, in finding his own courage, he was enabled also topoint out the way of 'Satyagraha' and 'ahimsa' to the whole of India.[158] Gandhi's writings expressed four meaningsof freedom: as India's national independence; as individual political freedom; as group freedom from poverty; and asthe capacity for personal self-rule.[159]

Gandhi was a self-described philosophical anarchist,[160] and his vision of India meant an India without anunderlying government.[161] He once said that "the ideally nonviolent state would be an ordered anarchy."[] Whilepolitical systems are largely hierarchical, with each layer of authority from the individual to the central governmenthave increasing levels of authority over the layer below, Gandhi believed that society should be the exact opposite,where nothing is done without the consent of anyone, down to the individual. His idea was that true self-rule in acountry means that every person rules his or herself and that there is no state which enforces laws upon the people.[]

This would be achieved over time with nonviolent conflict mediation, as power is divested from layers ofhierarchical authorities, ultimately to the individual, which would come to embody the ethic of nonviolence. Ratherthan a system where rights are enforced by a higher authority, people are self-governed by mutual responsibilities.On returning from South Africa, when Gandhi received a letter asking for his participation in writing a world charterfor human rights, he responded saying, "in my experience, it is far more important to have a charter for humanduties."[162]

A free India did not mean merely transferring the established British administrative structure into Indian hands. Hewarned, "you would make India English. And when it becomes English, it will be called not Hindustan butEnglishtan. This is not the Swaraj I want."[163] Tewari argues that Gandhi saw democracy as more than a system ofgovernment; it meant promoting both individuality and the self-discipline of the community. Democracy was amoral system that distributed power and assisted the development of every social class, especially the lowest. Itmeant settling disputes in a nonviolent manner; it required freedom of thought and expression. For Gandhi,democracy was a way of life.[164]

Gandhian economicsA free India for Gandhi meant the flourishing of thousands of self-sufficient small communities who rule themselveswithout hindering others. Gandhian economics focused on the need for economic self-sufficiency at the village level.His policy of "sarvodaya"[165] called for ending poverty through improved agriculture and small-scale cottageindustries in every village.[166] Gandhi challenged Nehru and the modernizers in the late 1930s who called for rapidindustrialization on the Soviet model; Gandhi denounced that as dehumanizing and contrary to the needs of thevillages where the great majority of the people lived.[167] After Gandhi's death Nehru led India to large-scaleplanning that emphasized modernization and heavy industry, while modernizing agriculture through irrigation.Historian Kuruvilla Pandikattu says "it was Nehru's vision, not Gandhi's, that was eventually preferred by the IndianState."[168] After Gandhi's death activists inspired by his vision promoted their opposition to industrializationthrough the teachings of Gandhian economics.

Mahatma Gandhi 21

Literary works

Young India, a weekly journalpublished by Gandhi from 1919 to

1932

Gandhi was a prolific writer. One of Gandhi's earliest publications, Hind Swaraj,published in Gujarati in 1909, is recognisedWikipedia:Avoid weasel words as theintellectual blueprint of India's freedom movement. The book was translated intoEnglish the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved".[]

For decades he edited several newspapers including Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindiand in the English language; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, YoungIndia, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India.Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi. In addition, he wrote letters almostevery day to individuals and newspapers.[169]

Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, The Story of MyExperiments with Truth (Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા"), of which he boughtthe entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.[70] His other autobiographiesincluded: Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj orIndian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of JohnRuskin's Unto This Last.[] This last essay can be considered his programme oneconomics. He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usuallywrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.[]

Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name The Collected Works ofMahatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it constituted large number of errors andomissions.[170] The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.[171]

Legacy and depictions in popular culture

A wall graffiti in San Francisco containing aquote and image of Gandhi

The word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name inthe West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) andatma (meaning Soul). Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded thetitle to Gandhi.[] In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explainsthat he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.[172][173][174]

Mahatma Gandhi 22

Followers and international influence

Mahatma Gandhi on a 1969 postagestamp of the Soviet Union

Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements. Leaders of the civilrights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King, JamesLawson, and James Bevel, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the developmentof their own theories about non-violence.[175][176][177] King said "Christ gave usthe goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics."[] King sometimes referred to Gandhias "the little brown saint."[178] Anti-apartheid activist and former President ofSouth Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi.[179] Others include KhanAbdul Ghaffar Khan,[180] Steve Biko, and Aung San Suu Kyi.[181]

In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was afollower of the non-violent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.[179] Bhana andVahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations ofSouth African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him toNelson Mandela...in a sense Mandela completed what Gandhi started."[182]

Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi astheir mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi's ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first todiscuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Mourawrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einstein exchanged writtenletters with Gandhi, and called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a later writing about him.[] Einsteinsaid of Gandhi:

Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely newand humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energyand devotion. The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entirecivilized world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation ofbrutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up andstrengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works.We may all behappy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for thegenerations to come.Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.[183]

Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi'sphilosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). Madeleine Slade(known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devoteeof Gandhi.[][184]

In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on non-violence.[] Atthe Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 2007, former U.S. Vice-President and environmentalist AlGore spoke of Gandhi's influence on him.[]

President of the United States Barack Obama in an address to a Joint Session of the Parliament of India said that:"I am mindful that I might not be standing before you today, as President of the United States, had it notbeen for Gandhi and the message he shared with America and the world."—Barack Obama in an addressto a Joint Session of the Parliament of India, 2010[185]

Obama in September 2009 said that his biggest inspiration came from Mahatma Gandhi. His reply was in response tothe question 'Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?'. He continued that "He'ssomebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He ended up doing somuch and changed the world just by the power of his ethics."[]

Mahatma Gandhi 23

Time Magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi,Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs tonon-violence.[] The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, isofficially named after Gandhi.[]

Global holidaysIn 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi's birthday 2 October as "the International Day ofNon-Violence."[] First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Non-violence and Peace (DENIP inSpanish),[] 30 January is observed the School Day of Non-violence and Peace in schools of many countries[] Incountries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.[]

Awards

Monument to M.K. Gandhi in NewBelgrade, Serbia. On the monument

is written "Non-violence is theessence of all religions".

Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. Gandhi was also therunner-up to Albert Einstein as "Person of the Century"[186] at the end of 1999.The Government of India awards the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguishedsocial workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of SouthAfrica's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, is aprominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Time magazine named Gandhi as one ofthe top 25 political icons of all time.[187]

Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated fivetimes between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by theAmerican Friends Service Committee,[] though he made the short list only twice,in 1937 and 1947.[] Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared itsregret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opiniondenying the award.[] Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated beforenominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prizestating that "there was no suitable living candidate" and later research shows thatthe possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed andthat the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.[] When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prizein 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi."[]

World Farm Animals' DayGandhi's birthday is chosen as a commemoration for the billions of non-human animals that are slaughtered by thehuman farming industry each year. The practice started in 1983[]

Film and literatureMahatma Gandhi has been portrayed in film, literature, and in the theatre. Ben Kingsley portrayed him in the 1982film Gandhi, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 Bollywoodcomedy film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. The 1996 film The Making of the Mahatma documented Gandhi's time inSouth Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.[]

Anti-Gandhi themes have also been showcased through films and plays. The 1995 Marathi play Gandhi VirudhGandhi explored the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father wasinspired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy and the 1997 Hindi play GandhiAmbedkar criticized Gandhi and his principles.[188][189]

Mahatma Gandhi 24

Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with hisMahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in eight volumes, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with theirMahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. There is another documentary, Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, which is 14chapters and six hours long.[] The 2010 biography, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India byJoseph Lelyveld contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.[190] Lelyveld, however,stated that the press coverage "grossly distort[s]" the overall message of the book.[]

Current impact within India

The Gandhi Mandapam, a temple in Kanyakumari,Tamil Nadu in India. This temple was erected to

honour M.K. Gandhi.[]

India, with its rapid economic modernization and urbanization, hasrejected Gandhi's economics[191] but accepted much of his politicsand continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notesthat, "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one.His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted asideduring his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a nationalethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antitheticalto the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." Bycontrast Gandhi is "given full credit for India’s political identity asa tolerant, secular democracy."[]

Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India,Gandhi Jayanti. Gandhi's image also appears on paper currency ofall denominations issued by Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note.[] Gandhi's date of death, 30January, is commemorated as a Martyrs' Day in India.[]

There are two temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.[] One is located at Sambalpur in Orissa and the other atNidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka.[] The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumariresembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the MahatmaGandhi Museum.[]

Citations[1] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pp. 1–3 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA1#v=onepage& q&

f=false).[2] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Mahatma_Gandhi& params=28. 6415_N_77. 2483_E_[3] Pilisuk & Nagler (2011), pp. 306–307 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=GTJV2UcZVHcC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA306#v=onepage& q&

f=false).[8][8] Quote: "Addresses in Durban and Verulam referred to Gandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great soul'. He was seen as a great soul because he had taken

up the poor's cause. (p. 172)"[10] Todd & Marty (2012), p. 8 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC& pg=PA8). The name Gandhi means "grocer",

although Mohandas's father and grandfather were politicians not grocers.[11] Miller (2002), p. 9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uiBNJWqtiVcC& pg=PA9).[12] Majumudar (2005), pp. 27, 28 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xM4paHEq5oQC& pg=PA27).[13] Schouten (2008), p. 132 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pIoKdTH7KPsC& pg=PA132).[16][16] Tendulkar (1951).[18] Sorokin (2002), p. 169 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DGCleCxTkbIC& pg=PA169).[19] Rudolph & Rudolph (1983), p. 48 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JsPYNLAU9KYC& pg=PA48).[20][20] Mohanty (2011).[21] Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "At the High School" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_I/

At_the_High_School).[22] Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "Playing the Husband" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_I/

Playing_the_Husband).[23] Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "My Father's Death and My Double Shame" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/

The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_I/ My_Father's_Death_and_My_Double_Shame).

Mahatma Gandhi 25

[27] Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "Preparation for England" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_I/Preparation_for_England).

[28] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pp. 20–21 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC& pg=PA20).[29][29] Brown, (1991).[30] Gandhi In South Africa, The Journal Of Modern African Studies, 1969, http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 159062[31][31] Parekh, (2001).[32][32] Fischer, (2002).[33] Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "More Hardships" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_II/

More_Hardships).[34] Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "Some Experiences" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_II/

Some_Experiences).[35] Wikisource: March 1897 Memorial (Gandhi) : correspondence and newspaper accounts of the incident.[36][36] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol I, p. 150[37][37] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol I, p. 74[38] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol I, pp. 244–245[39][39] The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Government of India (CWMG), Vol. I, p. 105[40][40] Herman (2008), chapter 6[41][41] Herman, (2010). p. 137.[42] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pp. 108–109 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC& pg=PA108& redir_esc=y#v=onepage&

q& f=false).[43][43] Smith, (2006).[44][44] Prashad, (1966).[46] Chronology of Mahatma Gandhi's Life:India 1918 in WikiSource based on the Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Based on public

domain volumes.[47] Gandhi,(1940). Chapter "Recruiting Campaign" (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth/ Part_V/

Recruiting_Campaign).[48][48] Desai, (1930).[49] Gandhi, (1965) Collected Works, Vol 17. (http:/ / www. gandhiserve. org/ cwmg/ VOL017. PDF) Chapter "67. Appeal for enlistment",

Nadiad, 22 June 1918[50] Gandhi, (1965) Collected Works, Vol 17. (http:/ / www. gandhiserve. org/ cwmg/ VOL017. PDF) "Chapter 8. Letter to J. L. Maffey",

Nadiad, 30 April 1918.[51][51] Andrews (1930).[52][52] Hardiman, (2001).[53] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pp. 196–197 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC& pg=196#v=onepage& q& f=false).[54] Brown, (1974). pp. 94–102 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=HUo4AAAAIAAJ& lpg=PP1& pg=PA94#v=onepage& q& f=false)[55] Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India (1982)[64] Roberts, "A Review of the Gandhi Movement in India", Political Science Quarterly, (1923) p. 229[65] Mohandas K. Gandhi, An Autobiography Or the Story of My Experiments with Truth (1990) edited by Mahadev Desai p82[66] Hardiman, (2003). p. 163 (http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=UWYV5qYZ3-oC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA163#v=onepage& q& f=false)[67] Gandhi, An Autobiography (1990) edited by Mahadev Desai p89[68][68] Shashi, (19960. p. 9.[69] Gandhi, An Autobiography (1990) edited by Mahadev Desai p 105[70][70] Roberts, (2011).[71] Gandhi, An Autobiography (1990) edited by Mahadev Desai p 131[72][72] Gandhi 1990, p. 172.[73] Hatt, (2002). p. 33 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC& pg=PA33).[74][74] Norvell, 1997.[75][75] Sarma, (1994).[76][76] Murali, (1985).[77] Herman (20080. pp. 375–377 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tquxD6dk914C& pg=PA375).[78] Coward, (2003). pp. 52–53 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GGGudMuE4PIC& pg=PA53).[79] Kalchuri, Bhau: "Meher Prabhu: Lord Meher, The Biography of the Avatar of the Age, Meher Baba", Manifestation, Inc. 1986. p. 1380[80][80] ial.goldthread.com/Meher_Baba.html[81] Gandhi, An Autobiography (1990) edited by Mahadev Desai p 230-289[82] 100 Most Influential People of All Times (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WcLJ3aK-ZSkC& pg=PT354). p. 354.[83] Ramachandra Guha, "The Other Liberal Light" The New Republic 22 June 2012 (http:/ / www. tnr. com/ article/ books-and-arts/ magazine/

104203/ the-other-liberal-light)[84][84] Pyarelal, (1956).[85] Jones & Ryan (2007). p. 160 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC& pg=PA160).

Mahatma Gandhi 26

[86][86] Gandhi 1990, p. 246.[87] Ghose, Sankar (1992). Jawaharlal Nehru, A Biography, p. 137 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MUeyUhVGIDMC& pg=PA137&

dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Allied Publishers Limited.[88] Gandhi 1990, pp. 277–281.[89][89] Sarkar, (2006).[91] Gandhi 1990, pp. 283–286.[92][92] Gandhi 1990, p. 309.[93][93] Gandhi 1990, p. 318.[97][97] Lapping, (1989).[100] Reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas, Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition)

pp. 106–108.[104] Stanley Wolpert, Gandhi's Passion p. 7[106] Vinay Lal. ‘Hey Ram’: The Politics of Gandhi’s Last Words (http:/ / www. sscnet. ucla. edu/ southasia/ History/ Gandhi/ HeRam_gandhi.

html). Humanscape 8, no. 1 (January 2001): pp. 34–38.[107] Jain, 1996. pp. 45–47 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5Wrc1K0uJTgC& pg=PA45).[108][108] Unattributed, Indian Express, (1 February 1948).[109][109] Unattributed, Indian Express (31 January 1948).[110] Ramachandra Guha, India after Gandhi (2007) pp 37–40[111] Sarvepalli Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru (1979) pp 16–17[112][112] Khan, (2011).[114][114] Ramesh, (2008).[115] Kumar, (2006). p. 170 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=abPsWgqrmMMC& pg=PA170).[116][116] Ferrell, (2001).[117] M.M. Sankhdher, "Gandhism: A Political Interpretation", Gandhi Marg (1972) pp. 68–74[118] M. V. Kamath, Gandhi, a spiritual journey (2007) p. 195[122] Religion – Hinduism: Gandhi – Mohandas 'Mahatma' Gandhi (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ hinduism/ people/ gandhi_1.

shtml) retrieved 12 November 2012[123][123] Crib, (1985).[126] R. K. Prabhu & U. R. Rao, editors; from section "Power of Satyagraha" (http:/ / www. mkgandhi. org/ momgandhi/ chap34. htm), of the

book The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, Ahemadabad, India, Revised Edition, 1967.[128] Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire (2009) p. 316[129] James Geary, Geary's Guide to the World's Great Aphorists (2007) p. 87[130] Faisal Devji, The Impossible Indian: Gandhi and the Temptation of Violence (Harvard University Press; 2012)[131] Mahatma Gandhi on Bhagat Singh (http:/ / www. kamat. com/ mmgandhi/ onbhagatsingh. htm).[132] reprinted in Louis Fischer, ed. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas (http:/ / www. amazon.

com/ gp/ reader/ 0394714660/ ) 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.[134][134] George Orwell "Reflections on Gandhi", Partisan Review, Jan. 1949[137] Birendra Prasad, "Indian Opinion and the Peel Commission on Palestine", Indian Journal of Politics, (1977) 11#3 pp. 223–228.[138] Joseph Lelyveld, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India (2011) pp. 278–281.[139] Simone Panter-Brick, Gandhi And The Middle East: Jews, Arabs and Imperial Interests. London:I.B. Tauris, 2008.[140] Panter-Brick, Simone. "Gandhi's Dream of Hindu-Muslim Unity and its two Offshoots in the Middle East (http:/ / www. dur. ac. uk/

anthropology. journal/ vol16/ iss2/ panter-brick. pdf)." Durham Anthropology Journal, Volume 16(2) 2009: pp. 54–66.[141] Homer A. Jack, The Gandhi Reader (1956) P. 317[142] Lelyveld, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India p. 280[143] Ramana V.V. Murti, "Buber's Dialogue and Gandhi's Satyagraha." Journal of the History of Ideas. Vol. 29, NO. 4 (Oct–Dec 1968), pp.

605–613. in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2708297)[144] Murti, "Buber's Dialogue and Gandhi's Satyagraha." Journal of the History of Ideas. (1968), pp. 605–613.[145] Stephen Hay, "The Making of a Late-Victorian Hindu: M.K. Gandhi in London, 1888–1891", Victorian Studies, (Aut. 1989) 33#1 pp.

75–98 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3827899)[146] Chitrita Banerji, Eating India: an odyssey into the food and culture of the land of spices (2007) p. 169[147] Wolpert, Gandhi's passion p. 22[148] Cited in Mohit Chakrabarti, Gandhian Socio-Aesthetics (1997) p. 24[149] See also Carol Becker, "Gandhi's Body and Further Representations of War and Peace", Art Journal 65#4 (2006) pp 79+[150] Tim Pratt and James Vernon, "'Appeal from this fiery bed . . .': The Colonial Politics of Gandhi's Fasts and Their Metropolitan Reception",

Journal of British Studies, Jan 2005, 44#1 pp. 92–114[151] Joseph S. Alter, "Gandhi's body, Gandhi's truth: Nonviolence and the biomoral imperative of public health", Journal of Asian Studies,

(May 1996) 35#2 pp. 301–22 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2943361)[152] Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9iQI8dmPPQgC&

pg=PA210). Sage, p. 210.

Mahatma Gandhi 27

[154] Vinay Lal, "Nakedness, Nonviolence, and Brahmacharya: Gandhi's Experiments in Celibate Sexuality", Journal of the History of Sexuality,(Jan/Apr 2000), Vol. 9 Issue 1/2, pp. 105–36

[155][155] Dinabandhu Dehury: Mahatma Gandhi's Contribution to Education[159] Anthony Parel, ed., Gandhi, Freedom, and Self-Rule (2000) p 166[160] Snow, Edgar. The Message of Gandhi. 27 September March 1948. "Like Marx, Gandhi hated the state and wished to eliminate it, and he

told me he considered himself 'a philosophical anarchist.'"[161] Jesudasan, Ignatius. A Gandhian theology of liberation. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, 1987, pp. 236–237[162] Easwaran, Eknath. Gandhi the Man. Nilgiri Press, 2011. p. 49.[167] Bidyut Chakrabarty, "Jawaharlal Nehru and Planning, 1938–1941: India at the Crossroads", Modern Asian Studies (March 1992) 26#2 pp.

275–287[169] Peerless Communicator (http:/ / www. lifepositive. com/ Spirit/ masters/ mahatma-gandhi/ journalist. asp) by V.N. Narayanan. Life

Positive Plus, October–December 2002[171] Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) Controversy (http:/ / www. gandhiserve. org/ cwmg/ cwmg_controversy. html)[173] Rabindranath Tagore: The Poet of India – Page 83 A. K. Basu Majumdar – 1993 "When Gandhi returned to India, Rabindranath's eldest

brother Dwijendranath, was perhaps the first to address him as Mahatma. Rabindranath followed suit and then the whole of India called himMahatma Gandhi."

[174] Mahatma Gandhi – Page 158 Sankar Ghose – 1991 "So Tagore differed from many of Gandhi's ideas, but yet he had great regard for himand Tagore was perhaps the first important Indian who called Gandhi a Mahatma. But in 1921 when Gandhi was asked whether he was reallya Mahatma Gandhi replied that he did not feel like one, and that, in any event he could not define a Mahatma for he had never met any. "

[179] Nelson Mandela, The Sacred Warrior: The liberator of South Africa looks at the seminal work of the liberator of India (http:/ / www. time.com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,993025,00. html), Time, 3 January 2000.

[182] Bhana & Vahed, (2005). pp. 44–45, 149.[190][190] (Book review of "Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India" by Joseph Lelyveld).

References

Books

• Bhana, Surendra; Vahed, Goolam H. (2005). The making of a politicalreformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Manohar.ISBN 978-81-7304-612-4.

• Lapping, Brian (1989). End of empire (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=xBsiAQAAIAAJ). Paladin.ISBN 978-0-586-08870-8.

• Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1971). Conquest of violence: the Gandhianphilosophy of conflict (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=4hcf8jPrSKYC). University of California Press.GGKEY:NDWFBERN9B5.

• Lelyveld, Joseph (2011). Great soul: Mahatma Gandhi andhis struggle with India. Random House Digital, Inc.ISBN 978-0-307-26958-4.

• Brown, Judith M. "Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand [Mahatma Gandhi](1869–1948)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford UniversityPress, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 accessed 25 February 2012 (http:/ / www.oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 33318,)

• Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi's pilgrimage of faith: fromdarkness to light (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=xM4paHEq5oQC). SUNY Press.ISBN 978-0-7914-6405-2.

• Brown, Judith M. (25 October 1974). Gandhi's Rise to Power: IndianPolitics 1915–1922 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=HUo4AAAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-09873-1. Retrieved 25 February 2012.

• Miller, Jake C. (2002). Prophets of a just society (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=uiBNJWqtiVcC). NovaPublishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-068-5.

• Brown, Judith Margaret (1991). Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=boDAE8MLAJMC). Yale University Press.ISBN 978-0-300-05125-4.

• Nayyar, Pyarelal (1956). Mahatma Gandhi—the last phase,Vol 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=E8wBAAAAMAAJ). Navajivan PublishingHouse. ISBN 0-85283-112-9.

• Brown, Judith M.; Parel, Anthony (2011). The Cambridge Companion toGandhi (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KLM8kMZZu-IC).Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13345-6.

• Pāṇḍeya, Viśva Mohana (2003). Historiography of India'spartition: an analysis of imperialist writings (http:/ / books.google. co. in/ books?id=Vu2lu-ZI-vQC). Atlantic Publishers& Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0314-6.

• Chadha, Yogesh (1997). Gandhi: a life (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=vSduAAAAMAAJ). John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-24378-6.

• Parekh, Bhikhu C. (2001). Gandhi: a very short introduction(http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC).Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285457-5.

Mahatma Gandhi 28

• Harold G. Coward (2003). Indian critiques of Gandhi (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=GGGudMuE4PIC). SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5910-2.

• Pilisuk, Marc; Nagler, Michael N. (2011). Peace MovementsWorldwide: Players and practices in resistance to war (http:// books. google. co. in/ books?id=GTJV2UcZVHcC).ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36482-2.

• Desai, Mahadev Haribhai (1930). "Preface" (http:/ / www. wikilivres. ca/wiki/ Day_to_Day_with_Gandhi/ Volume_1/ Preface). Day-to-day withGandhi: secretary's diary (http:/ / www. wikilivres. ca/ wiki/Day_to_Day_with_Gandhi). Hemantkumar Nilkanth (translation). SarvaSeva Sangh Prakashan. Archived from the original (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=iDQKAQAAIAAJ) on 3 June 2007. Retrieved 16 January2012.

• Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber; Rudolph, Lloyd I. (1983).Gandhi, the traditional roots of charisma (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=JsPYNLAU9KYC). University ofChicago Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-226-73136-0.

• Easwaran, Eknath. Gandhi the man: how one man changed himself tochange the world (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v_hpUlMRjWsC).Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-1-586380-55-7. Text "year-2011" ignored(help)

• Rühe, Peter (5 October 2004). Gandhi. Phaidon.ISBN 978-0-7148-4459-6.

• Fischer, Louis (1997). The life of Mahatma Gandhi. HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-00-638887-6.

• Schouten, Jan Peter (2008). Jesus as guru: the image ofChrist among Hindus and Christians in India (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=pIoKdTH7KPsC). Rodopi.ISBN 978-90-420-2443-4.

• Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Gandhi: the man, his people, and the empire(http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC). University ofCalifornia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25570-8. Retrieved 7 February 2012.

• Sharp, Gene (1979). Gandhi as a political strategist: withessays on ethics and politics. P. Sargent Publishers.ISBN 978-0-87558-090-6.

• Gangrade, K.D. (2004). "Role of Shanti Sainiks in the Global Race forArmaments" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UODB6R_LmWsC).Moral Lessons From Gandhi S Autobiography And Other Essays. ConceptPublishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-084-6.

• Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan,Bangladesh. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-7041-859-7.

• Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in his time and ours: the global legacy ofhis ideas (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UWYV5qYZ3-oC). C.Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-711-8.

• Sofri, Gianni (1999). Gandhi and India: a century in focus.Windrush Press. ISBN 978-1-900624-12-1.

• Hatt, Christine (2002). Mahatma Gandhi (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC). Evans Brothers. ISBN 978-0-237-52308-4.

• Sorokin, Pitirim Aleksandrovich (2002). The ways and powerof love: types, factors, and techniques of moraltransformation (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=DGCleCxTkbIC). Templeton Foundation Press.p. 169. ISBN 978-1-890151-86-7.

• Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi and Churchill: the epic rivalry thatdestroyed an empire and forged our age (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=tquxD6dk914C). Random House Digital, Inc.ISBN 978-0-553-80463-8.

• Tendulkar, D. G. (1951). Mahatma; life of MohandasKaramchand Gandhi (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=LHJuAAAAMAAJ). Delhi: Ministry ofInformation and Broadcasting, Government of India.

• Jai, Janak Raj (1996). Commissions and Omissions by Indian PrimeMinisters: 1947–1980 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=5Wrc1K0uJTgC). Regency Publications.ISBN 978-81-86030-23-3.

• Thacker, Dhirubhai (2006). ""Gandhi, MohandasKaramchand" (entry)" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC& pg=PA1345). In AmareshDatta. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Two)(Devraj To Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1345.ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.

• Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism (http:// books. google. com/ books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC). Infobase Publishing.p. 160. ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9.

• Todd, Anne M. (2004). Mohandas Gandhi (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=svxDMQZ7fakC). InfobasePublishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-7864-8.; short biography forchildren

• Kumar, Shanti (2006). Gandhi meets primetime: globalization andnationalism in Indian television (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=abPsWgqrmMMC& pg=PA170). University of Illinois Press.p. 170. ISBN 978-0-252-07244-4.

Mahatma Gandhi 29

Scholarly journal articles• Cribb, R. B. (August 1985). "The Early Political Philosophy of M. K. Gandhi, 1869–1893". Asian Profile 13 (4):

353–360.• Hardiman, David (April 2001). "Champaran and Gandhi: Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by Jacques

Pouchepadass (Review)". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 (1): 99–101. JSTOR  25188108 (http:/ / www.jstor. org/ stable/ 25188108).

• Khan, Yasmin (January 2011). "Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in theconsolidation of the Nehruvian state" (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ abstract_S0026749X10000223). ModernAsian Studies 45 (1): 57–80. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X10000223 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1017/S0026749X10000223). Retrieved 21 January 2012.

• Mohanty, Rekha (2011). "From Satya to Sadbhavna" (http:/ / orissa. gov. in/ e-magazine/ Orissareview/ 2011/Jan/ engpdf/ january. pdf#page=58). Orissa Review (January 2011): 45–49. Retrieved 23 February 2012.

• Murali, Atlury (January 1985). "Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920–22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and theMobilization of Peasantry". Indian Historical Review 12 (1/2): 188–217. ISSN  0376-9836 (http:/ / www.worldcat. org/ issn/ 0376-9836).

• Norvell, Lyn (1997). "Gandhi and the Indian Women's Movement". British Library Journal 23 (1): 12–27. ISSN 0305-5167 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 0305-5167).

• Prashad, Ganesh (September 1966). "Whiggism in India". Political Science Quarterly 81 (3): 412–431. JSTOR 2147642 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2147642).

• Sarkar, Jayabrata (18 April 2006). "Power, Hegemony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress in the1930s". Modern Asian Studies 40 (2): 333–370. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X0600179X (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.1017/ S0026749X0600179X).

• Sarma, Bina Kumari (January 1994). "Gandhian Movement and Women's Awakening in Orissa". IndianHistorical Review 21 (1/2): 78–79. ISSN  0376-9836 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 0376-9836).

• Spodek, Howard (February 1971). "On the Origins of Gandhi's Political Methodology: The Heritage ofKathiawad and Gujarat". The Journal of Asian Studies 30 (2): 361–372. JSTOR  2942919 (http:/ / www. jstor.org/ stable/ 2942919).

Primary sources• Andrews, C. F. (2008) [1930]. "VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa" (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=3EAV6JhQmgkC). Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings. Pierides Press.ISBN 978-1-4437-3309-0.

• Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: selected political writings (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=afqmUWX5yeoC). Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87220-330-3.

• Duncan, Ronald, ed. (May 2011). Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM.qst?a=o& d=54615149). Literary Licensing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-00907-6.

• Gandhi, M. K.; Fischer, Louis (2002). Louis Fischer, ed. The essential Gandhi: an anthology of his writings onhis life, work and ideas. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-3050-7.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). Satyagraha in South Africa (paperback) (in Gujarati) (1 ed.).Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. "Translated by Valji G. Desai" Free online access at Wikilivres.ca(1/e) (http:/ / wikilivres. ca/ wiki/ Satyagraha_in_South_Africa). Pdfs from Gandhiserve (3/e) (http:/ / www.gandhiserve. org/ cwmg/ VOL034. PDF) & Yann Forget (hosted by Arvind Gupta) (1/e) (http:/ / arvindguptatoys.com/ arvindgupta/ gandhisouthafrica. pdf).

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Division,Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. ISBN 978-81-230-0239-2. (100 volumes). Free onlineaccess (http:/ / www. gandhiserve. org/ cwmg/ cwmg. html) from Gandhiserve.

Mahatma Gandhi 30

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1940). An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments With Truth (2 ed.).Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. ISBN 0-8070-5909-9. Also available at Wikisource.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). " Drain Inspector's Report (http:/ / www. saadigitalarchive. org/ item/20111212-545)". The United States of India 5 (6,7,8): 3–4.

• Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi reader: a source book of his life and writings (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=pjN3jZQ74AoC). Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3161-4.

• Johnson, Richard L.; Gandhi, M. K. (2006). Gandhi's experiments with truth: essential writings by and aboutMahatma Gandhi (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dRQcKsx-YgQC). Lexington Books.ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7.

• Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: 'Hind Swaraj' and Other Writings Centenary Edition (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=oc47gUOPZfcC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14602-9.

Web sites• Sannuti, Arun (6 April 2010). "Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) – Vegetarianism: The Road to Satyagraha"

(http:/ / www. ivu. org/ history/ gandhi/ road. html). International Vegetarian Union (IVU). Retrieved 12 January2012.

• Smith, Colleen (1 October 2006). "Mbeki: Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)" (http:/ /www. polity. org. za/ article/ mbeki-mahatma-gandhi-satyagraha-100th-anniversary-01102006-2006-10-01).Speeches. http:/ / www. polity. org. za. Retrieved 20 January 2012.

• Sughosh, India (2 October 2010). "Bapu: Complete Life History" (http:/ / www. Bapu. sughosh. in). ResearchWork. http:/ / www. bapu. sughosh. in. Retrieved 15 August 2012.

News reports• Ferrell, David (27 September 2001). "A Little Serenity in a City of Madness" (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/

latimes/ access/ 82514621. html?FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT& type=current& date=Sep+ 27,+ 2001&author=DAVID+ FERRELL& pub=Los+ Angeles+ Times& edition=& startpage=B. 2& desc=Surroundings:+Lake+ Shrine;+ 'A+ Little+ Serenity+ in+ a+ City+ of+ Madness';+ Meditation+ Gardens+ in+ Pacific+Palisades+ Are+ a+ Place+ to+ Walk,+ Think+ and+ Pray) (Abstract). Los Angeles Times. pp. B 2. Retrieved 14January 2012.

• Ramesh, Randeep (16 January 2008). "Gandhi's ashes to rest at sea, not in a museum" (http:/ / www. guardian. co.uk/ world/ 2008/ jan/ 16/ india. international). The Guardian (London). Retrieved 14 January 2012.

• Roberts, Andrew (26 March 2011). "Among the Hagiographers (A book review of "Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhiand His Struggle With India" by Joseph Lelyveld)" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358. html). Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 January 2012.

• Unattributed (31 January 1948). "Of all faiths and races, together they shed their silent tears" (http:/ / news.google. com/ newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ& sjid=nkwMAAAAIBAJ& pg=2964,2759742). The IndianExpress. p. 5 (top centre). Retrieved 19 January 2012.

• Unattributed (1 February 1948). "Over a million get last darshan" (http:/ / news. google. com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ& sjid=nkwMAAAAIBAJ& pg=2273,2717510). The Indian Express. p. 1(bottom left). Retrieved 19 January 2012.

Mahatma Gandhi 31

External links• Gandhi Smriti — Government of India website (http:/ / www. gandhismriti. gov. in/ indexb. asp)• Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Museum & Library (http:/ / www. gandhi-manibhavan. org/ )• Sughosh India — Bapu:Complete Life History (http:/ / www. bapu. sughosh. in/ indexb. asp)• Gandhi Research Foundation – One-Stop info on Gandhi (http:/ / www. gandhifoundation. net/ )• Works by or about Mahatma Gandhi (http:/ / worldcat. org/ identities/ lccn-n79-41626) in libraries (WorldCat

catalog)• Mohandas K. Ghadhi materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA) (http:/ / www.

saadigitalarchive. org/ subject/ mk-gandhi)• Works by Mahatma Gandhi (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Mahatma_Gandhi) at Project Gutenberg

Article Sources and Contributors 32

Article Sources and ContributorsMahatma Gandhi  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=562765482  Contributors: (boxed), 1292simon, 1exec1, 2Tone89, 2p4dp, 49ers14, 5 albert square, 8.218, 9711CA, =CJK=, A Pair of Shoes, A Sunshade Lust, A suyash, A. B., A. Parrot, A. S. Aulakh, ABDEVILLIERS0007, ABraidotti, AGGoH, AJadhavji, AMK152, AMbroodEY, Aaftabj, Aaron Schulz, Aaronchall, Abc518, Abecedare, Aberdonian99, AbhiSuryawanshi, Abhinav619, Abhishek191288, Ace of Spades, Ace111, Across.The.Synapse, Acsenray, Activision45, Adam Bishop, Adam sk, Adamfrange, Adamsj7940, Adamstraw99, Adashiel, Adirele, Adjam, Adrian.benko, Aeosynth, Aeusoes1, AgadaUrbanit, AgarwalSumeet, Agent007ravi, Ageo020, Aghitza, Aghniyya, AgnosticPreachersKid, Ahc, Ahoerstemeier, Ahudson, Aillema, Ajaxkroon, Ajp2000, Ajshm, Akamad, Akashiiii, Akhil.bharathan, Akhilaum, Akkida, Akraj, Aksi great, Aktron, Akubra, Akulabubu, Al001, Alai, Alansohn, Aldis90, Ale jrb, Alemily, Alex Bakharev, Alex Kinloch, Alex Nisnevich, AlexEden88, AlexJohnTorres12, AlexPlank, AlexanderKaras, Alexyoung97, Alhutch, Alialiac, Alientraveller, Alienus, Alihasnain, All knowledge is free for all, Allakky, Alpha Quadrant, Alphachimp, Alren, AltShiftTheL337, Aman Zaidi, Aman asv, Amartya ray2001, Amartyabag, Ambarish, Ambkj123, Ambuj.Saxena, Americ8, AmiDaniel, Amit Patel, Amitch, Amontero, Amsterdam360, AmyzzXX, Anaxial, And we drown, Andre Engels, Andres arg, Andrew Gray, Andrew73, Andrewman327, Andy Marchbanks, Andycjp, Anevba, Angelsaraf 1, Anger22, Angr, Anil1956, Anirvan, Anirved, Anit.pimple, Ankur, AnnaFrance, Annas.k, Anomalocaris, Anonymous anonymous, Another Believer, Anshuman.jrt, Ansumang, Antandrus, Anthony, Anubhab91, Anusha mallireddy, Apandey, Apeloverage, Apofisu, Apox, Apple1976, Aprogressivist, Aragupta, Arbor to SJ, Arch dude, AreJay, ArglebargleIV, Argyll Lassie, Ariah, Aristophanes68, Aristotle, Arjun01, Arjun2hotty, Armando, Arnabchaks, Arnavj, ArnoLagrange, Arnob1, AroundTheGlobe, Arparag, Art LaPella, Arthuc01, Arthur Holland, Arthur Rubin, Arunbandana, Arvind Iyengar, Arvindn, Arwel Parry, Asenine, AshLin, Asha14, Ashashyou, Asheps13, Ashimac, Ashrock99999999, Ashwatham, Ashwin147, Askalan, AstroNomer, Astrogeek, Atavi, Athangjain, Athrion, Atlant, Atmapuri, Atomic Cosmos, Atorpen, Attilios, Atul Pradhan, AuburnPilot, Aude, Aumnamahashiva, Auric, Aurora Glory Paradise, Austy351, Autocratique, Avant Guard, Avillia, Avorrok, Avriette, AxelBoldt, Axelchick2395, Ayanosh, Ayounali, AzaToth, Aznph8playa, BD2412, BDD, BEST STAR 907, BPrider, BaLlnuts, Babagandhi, Babub, Bachrach44, Bacus15, BadNightmare 7, Badagnani, Baggins55, Bakasuprman, Balajiviswanathan, Balarishi, Banjee ca, BanyanTree, Barneyboo, Baronnet, BarrelProof, Barsoomian, Basar, Bateau, BazookaJoe, Bbsrock, Bcartolo, Bdesham, Bdiscoe, Beamathan, Beano, Bearcat, Bearingbreaker92, Beast of traal, Beckmanse, Beit Or, Beland, Belgium EO, BenAveling, Benandorsqueaks, Benchaz, Bencherlite, BengaliHindu, Benl47, Benna, Bennybp, Benstown, Besidesamiracle, Bharathiya, Bharatveer, Bhutamsa, Bidabadi, Bigone2345, Bil1, Bill william compton, Binksternet, Biplabpal2000, Bitbut, Bkwillwm, Blacksun, Blainster, Blaze hole00, Bless sins, Blindman shady, BlueCaper, Bobak, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobet, Bobo192, Bobred, Bogdangiusca, Bogey97, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bondego, Booksworm, Boothy443, Borisblue, Bporopat, BrainyBroad, Brandmeister, Brandon39, BrandonCsSanders, Brendan Moody, Brendon1555, Brenont, Brian0918, Briangotts, Brianski, Briantw, Bricksmasher, BrightStarSky, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Broodwaif raj, BryanG, Bsananda, Bucketsofg, Buddhipriya, Buhuzu, Bull Market, Bumm13, Buridan, Burntsauce, Burnzy86, C.Fred, C628, CALR, CBDunkerson, CJ Withers, CMacMillan, CPMcE, CTSWyneken, CWenger, Cacophony, Cactus.man, Cagliost, Calmer Waters, Camapily, Cambio, Camohatman, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Candacechivis, Canderson7, Canterbury Tail, Cantus, Canuckian89, Captain Proton, CaptainVindaloo, Cardsplayer4life, Carlvincent, Carnivean, Carolmooredc, Casbo92, Cast, Catchpole, CattleGirl, Causa sui, Cavrdg, Cbrodersen, Cdc, Cdobson, Cdrk, Centrx, Cgingold, Chan Han Xiang, Chancemill, CharCoal, ChardingLLNL, Charles Essie, Charles Matthews, Charlieedwinthompson, Chazella, Chensiyuan, Chernus, Chesdovi, Chhajjusandeep, Chicheley, Chinju, Chinmay N Kumar, Chintanshah123, Chirags, Cholmes75, Chopper Dave, Chrbartolf, Chris 73, Chris Roy, Chris the speller, ChrisB, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisjonesmic, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Chrysaor, Church of emacs, Chuunen Baka, Cited third page, Ckatz, Clanposse, Classicfilms, Clayoquot, CleanUpCrew, Clem23, Cliff, Clngre, CloudNine, Cmdrjameson, Colenso, Coltsfan1284, Commander Shepard, CommonsDelinker, CompREM, Conman336, Conscious, Conversion script, Cooldennisjo9490, Coolfrood, Coolxrav, Coredesat, Coren, Corpx, Corti, Coulten, Coyote Castro, Crackfucus, CrazyMaster, Creidieki, Cronholm144, Cruz-iglesia, CryptoDerk, Csa.certified, Csalmon, Cube lurker, Cunado19, Cupidvogel, Curps, Cvieg, Cwlq, Cwphd97, Cwscout, Cyan, Cybercobra, Cynicism addict, CyrilB, Cyruslinks12, D6, DAFMM, DASonnenfeld, DGaw, DJ Clayworth, DOSGuy, DRAGON BOOSTER, DaGizza, Dablaze, Dabomb87, Daddy Kindsoul, DaeX, Dakar, Dale Arnett, Dan100, DanKeshet, DanTheShrew, DanielCD, Danny, Dante Alighieri, Darguz Parsilvan, DarkXWeatherX, Darkmetaknight64, Darry2385, Dav subrajathan.357, Dav3395, DaveBrondsema, David.Monniaux, DavidA, DavidConrad, Davidsteinberg, Db099221, Dbenbenn, Dbtfz, DeadEyeArrow, Deadcorpse, Deaddebate, Deamon138, Deavenger, Debastein, Deborah909, Debresser, Decumanus, Deeceevoice, Deepak, Deepakcg, Deeptrivia, Delldot, Deltabeignet, Den fjättrade ankan, Deprifry, Desiphral, Destine', Dev1240, DevOhm, Devesh.bhatta, Deviathan, Dewan357, Dhammafriend, Dhanikataria, Dhanveer, Dharmadhyaksha, Diabloblue, Diannaa, Diderot's dreams, DieWeisseRose, Dietary Fiber, DifferCake, Dimitrischristoforou, Dimsim37, Dina, Dinosaur puppy, Discospinster, Dismas, Dj Magnum, Dj questy, Djkimmons, Dkcreatto, Dl2000, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmmaus, Doc glasgow, Docu, Dono, Donreed, Donvito08, Doodlefaceleft, Dougweller, Doulos Christos, Download, Dpickup, Dpilomansion, Dpol, Dpotter, Dr who1975, Dr92, DrOxacropheles, DrRom, DrRon, Dream dare do, DreamGuy, Dreamteam, Drop of Soul, Drpaluga, Drpickem, Dryazan, Ds13, Dudemanbro, DuncanCraig1949, Duncapotamas, Duncharris, Dustimagic, Dvnaveen, Dwaipayanc, Dwalls, Dwslassls, DylanLiebhart, DéRahier, EEMIV, ERcheck, Eclecticology, Ed g2s, Edgar181, Edivorce, Edmusketloader, Edward, Eeemoteb, Eelamstylez77, Effco, EhsanQ, Einstein90, Ejl, Ekabhishek, Ekn, El C, Elefuntboy, ElfMage, Elfguy, Eliyahu S, Ellissound, Elsan, Embryomystic, Emc2, Emerson7, Emijrp, Empion, Encephalon, Enno, EoGuy, Epicadam, Epthehonest, Er Komandante, Eric Yurken, Erielhonan, ErinKM, Errantsignal, Error, Esperant, Esrever, EtLux, Ethan, Eukesh, Evan Robidoux, Evenios, Evercat, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil666, Evlekis, Ewhitney3316, Excells, FQuist, Fabrice Ferrer, Fair Deal, Faizhaider, Fallout boy, Fan-1967, Fang 23, Fang Aili, Farside6, FastFood27, Fat Shinobi, Fauzan, Fdp, Fdt, Fedayee, Fenster, Ferkelparade, Ferret face, Ferrierd, Fetofs, Feyer, Finlay McWalter, Firstorm, Fixer88, Flamingspinach, Flamurai, Flatterworld, Flcelloguy, Flession, Flockmeal, Fonzy, ForIndia, Fourthords, Fowler&fowler, Franco3450, Franjklogos, Freakofnurture, Frecklefoot, Freddy18, Fredfredson, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Freyr, Freyr35, Friday, Friviere, Frostlion, Fruge, Fs, Fulup, Furby100, Fuscob, Fuzheado, Fuzzy510, Fys, GHe, Gagandeep, Gaius Cornelius, Gandhiserve, Ganeshk, Ganfon, Gareth E Kegg, Garion96, Gary King, Gaurav, Gchoitz, GenQuest, Geni, Gentgeen, Georgec, Georgekera11, Ggalav, Ghaleonh41, Gilles paul, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Gimmetrow, Giridhar, GlassCobra, Glen, Glic16, Gnanapiti, Gobeshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Goingoveredge, Golbez, Gold Stur, Goldfinger123, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Googleman2000, GopalSharma, Gored82, Gp2much, Gprince007, GraemeL, Grafen, Graft, Graham87, Granpuff, Grazon, GreatWhiteNortherner, Green Giant, GregAsche, Gregbard, Grenavitar, Grendelkhan, Greventlv, Greyscale, Grick, Groyolo, Grstain, Grubber, Gsingh, Gtdp, Guanaco, Guettarda, Gugilymugily, Guitarledgend109, Gujuguy, Gunray, Gurch, Gurubrahma, GusF, Guy Peters, Gw2005, Gwernol, Gyre, Gzkn, H.b., HFret, Hadal, Haeleth, Hai hello, Hairy Dude, Hajor, Halaqah, HalfShadow, Hall Monitor, Hamiltondaniel, Hammer1980, Hari7478, Harksaw, Harsh 2580, Harsimaja, Hasam, Hawaiian717, Haya shiloh, Haymouse, Hazardasd, Hazhk, HeLLo ThERe, Headbomb, Heimstern, Hekerui, Heman, Hemanshu, Henry Flower, Henrygb, Hermione J. Granger, Heron, Heyy963, Hibernian, Hideki Naganuma, Hijiri88, Hilighter555, Hillsbro, HisSpaceResearch, Hisham, Hisownspace, Historyman07, Hit star31, Hmains, HolIgor, Holothurion, Holy Ganga, HolyEditor, Honbicot, Hooperbloob, Hoponpop69, Hornplease, Horses In The Sky, Horsten, Hpropsom, Htanata, Htims nivek, Hugo999, Hugobone, Huku-chan, Humus sapiens, Huseyx2, Husond, Huysman, Hyacinth, Hydrargyrum, Hydriotaphia, IFaqeer, IGeMiNix, Iamg, Iamthejenk, Ian Pitchford, Ian13, Iced Kola, Ich, Iconoclast, Idleguy, Ilay.msp, Iliank, Ilovezeth, Imc, Immanuel Giel, Immyownworsenemy, ImpuMozhi, Imsobright, In ictu oculi, InShaneee, IndianCow, Indianman20, Indopug, Indrian, Indu Singh, Indu27, Inter, InverseHypercube, Ionius Mundus, Ipaat, Iquadri, Irdepesca572, Irek Biernat, Iridescent, IronDuke, Irving92, Isaac1682, Ishango, Itsnoteasybeingbrown, Ivandunn, Ivazir, Ixfd64, Izalithium, Izehar, J.delanoy, JCarriker, JDP90, JEdward, JFreeman, JGHowes, JHunterJ, JLaTondre, JLawler, JSteinbeck2, JaGa, Jacen Aratan, Jacj, Jack1956, Jackass123, Jackbergin, Jackehammond, Jackmeoff865, JackofOz, Jagged 85, Jaisingh rathore, JamesMLane, Jamesday, Jamie C, Jandalhandler, Janejellyroll, Janggeom, Jankit, January, Jaraalbe, JaredH20, Jarkka Saariluoma, Jason M, Jason131813, Java13690, Jaxl, Jay, Jay-Sebastos, Jaybee, Jaysweet, Jchyde, Jcw69, Jdelphi, Jdforrester, Jdlund, JeLuF, Jeames, Jeandré du Toit, Jebba, Jebur, JeffBurdges, Jelliz, Jemather, JeremyMcClean, Jeronimo, Jerry, Jerzy, Jess marriott, Jesse933, JesseHogan, JesseW, Jesus111, Jesusizrizen, Jethwarp, Jetstreamer, Jguk, Jian5 narag, Jiang, Jimijohn, Jimmah, Jimmy da tuna, Jindo, Jisl, Jjjenka, Jleybov, Jlujan69, Jmabel, Jmeden2000, Jmrowland, JoJan, JoanneB, JoaoRicardo, Jobber, Jobe6, JoeBlogsDord, Joeblakesley, Joefromrandb, Joesmoe111, Joesmoe8, John, John Hill, John Riemann Soong, John kingston, John.lindner, John254, JohnValeron, Johndburger, Johnny Sumner, Johnny raghhhhh, Jojhutton, Jojit fb, Jon Ascton, Jon.bobby123, Jonas Mur, JonasRH, Jonathunder, Jonay81687, Jondel, Jordansmithdabest, Jorge Stolfi, JorisvS, Jorrell, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephabradshaw, Josh Parris, Joshua Issac, JoshuaSpence, Jossi, Joyson Prabhu, Jrrao, Jsbhavsar, Jtkiefer, Ju66l3r, Jubbs123, Judyholiday, Juicyboy 325, Julesd, JunkerMan, Jusjih, JustAGal, Jwoodger, K-UNIT, KC., KJK::Hyperion, KNM, KSK-War, KaElin, Kaal, Kablammo, Kagori, Kahasabha, Kaihsu, Kaisershatner, Kajasudhakarababu, Kaldari, Kannanp, Kanonkas, Karenjc, Karlward, Karpouzi, Kartheeque, Karthikndr, Kbdank71, Kbir1, Kburts, Kchishol1970, Kcordina, Keegan, Keith Azzopardi, Kel-nage, Kendrick7, Kennypro9, Kerotan, Kfasimpaur, Kgrad, Khaosworks, Khazar, Khazar2, Khushi, Kiand, Kidlittle, Kidstutorkids, Kierano, KillerChihuahua, Kim Bruning, King Dracula, King1, KingKane, KingNewbs, Kingpomba, Kingstowngalway, Kingturtle, Kipala, Kirandotc, Kishanjoshi, Kitabparast, Kitejav, Kiwichris, Kjmt, Kkm010, Klipper, Kmisra, KnowledgeAndVision, KnowledgeHegemony, KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, Knverma, Koavf, Koekani, Konman72, Konstable, Koonhoe, Kotjze, Kozuch, KrakatoaKatie, Krich, Krsont, Krzysiek, Ksargent, Ksetlur, Kukini, Kulturvultur, Kumarila, Kungfuadam, KureCewlik81, KurtRaschke, Kuru, KuwarOnline, Kuyabribri, Kwamikagami, Kwekubo, Kyle Barbour, L10vizzk, LJosil, LRBurdak, Lach Graham, Laddiebuck, Lambiam, Launchballer, LebanonChild, Leclaird, Lectonar, Lee, Leeborkman, Leif, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Lemonsky91, Lenschulwitz, Leonard G., LeonardoRob0t, Leonjbrm, Lerdthenerd, LesLein, Lesgles, Lethe, Lhademmor, Liamdaly620, Liczk, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lights, Lightsup55, Ligulem, Lihaas, Lijujacobk, Limetom, Linguisticgeek, Linsnick, Lir, Lisasmall, Litefoot, Littlemarvin, Lklusener, Llywrch, Lo2u, Loganlogn, Lolmaster, Lord Voldemort, LordGulliverofGalben, LordSimonofShropshire, Lordricha, Loren.wilton, LouI, Lownsclear, Lquilter, LtPowers, Lucidish, Lugnuts, Luna Santin, LupSubBrad, Lupin, Luqui, Lxherman, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MASQUERAID, MC10, MD87, MECU, MER-C, MIT Trekkie, MZMcBride, Mac Davis, Macellarius, Machodude25, Macruzq, Madhavacharya, Maelnuneb, Maelor, Magicalsaumy, Magister Mathematicae, Magnus Manske, Mahanga, Mahulkar, Mailer diablo, Malcolm, Malik Shabazz, Malo, Manga-assasin42, Manikond@gmail.com, ManinderKhabra, Manishag007, Manishjoshi19311, Mannafredo, Manupilatus, Manushand, Maor X, Marc Esnouf, Marc-André Aßbrock, MarcMyWords, Marcusvox, Marek69, Mark K. Jensen, Mark Richards, Mark Riehm, Mark philip, Markaci, MarnetteD, Martarius, Martial75, Marzedu, Marznafri, Masako Kawasaki, Master Jay, Masterofpsi, Masur, Materialscientist, Matt Deres, Matt714, Matthew Massey, Mattman00000, Mattvaccaro, Matty j, Mav, Max Power58, Max power, MaxHund, Maximus Rex, Mayumashu, Mazarin07, Mazurczak88, Mboverload, McSly, Mcmillin24, Mdbertram, Mel Etitis, Melaen, Melromero, Menchi, Merchbow, Mercurius, MercyOtis, Mereda, Mexcellent, Mgedmin, Michael Devore, Michael Glass, Michael Hardy, Michael Slone, Michaelas10, Michaelbusch, Mickyates, Micromaster, Mid, Mihoshi, Mike Lewis08, Mike Rosoft, Mike Selinker, Mike1, MikeLynch, Mikegrant, Miketweed, Miljoshi, Millermk, Millosh, Mindspillage on Speed, Minesweeper, Mintguy, Miquonranger03, Mirage5000, MisfitToys, Misza13, Mittgaurav, Mjpieters, Mk5384, Mkarja, Mklobas, Mkruijff, Mkweise, Mmoneypenny, Mmsarfraz, Mnuez, Modest Genius, Moi8642, Moment in time, Moncrief, Monk Bretton, Monkeyblue, Montanean, Moontorch, Moorlock, Mori Riyo, Moriori, Mortense, Mortus est, Motorizer, Mowgli, Mpieckowska, Mr. XYZ, MrFish, Mrmdog, Ms2ger, Muboshgu, Mudassir Rizwan, Mufka, Mugunth Kumar, Mukerjee, Muntuwandi, Murphy4709, Murtasa, Musical Linguist, Musicpvm, Mwanner, Mxn, Myanw, Mynamespatrick, Mysidia, Mywikieditor2007, N-k, N0thingbetter, N12345n, N5iln, NPrice, Naddy, Nahtanoj04, Naimesh.thakkar, Nakon, Naniwako, Naohiro19, Nash17, Nathan Johnson, NawlinWiki, Neal wells, Necrophilebeast, Necrotaylor, Ned Scott, NeilN, NeoJustin, Netoholic, Neutrality, NeutronTaste, NewEnglandYankee, Newbrak, Newnoise, Nichalp, Nick C, Nick Number, Nicke.me, Nietzsche 2, Nightingale, Nightscream, Nihar S, Nihiltres, Nikai, Niketsundaram1977, Nikkimaria, Nikkul, Nileshbansal, Nima Baghaei, Ninja Kurosai, Ninly, Ninsheart, Niranjanmehta, Nirav.maurya, Nirax, Nirvana2013, Nishkid64, NittyG, Nixeagle,

Article Sources and Contributors 33

No Guru, Nobleeagle, Nok163, Noozgroop, Norsci, Npillai91, Nrabinowitz, Nscheffey, Ntennis, NuclearWarfare, Numbo3, Nv8200p, Obli, Obradovic Goran, Octernion, Od22, OfficeGirl,Ohconfucius, Ohsnowsoft, Oliver s., Oliverdl, OllieFury, Ollieegg, Olliejd11, Olliejd12, Olorin28, Ombudsman, Omegatron, Omicronpersei8, Oneworld25, Onlytalent, Onorem, Ontario54,Openpage, Orangemarlin, Ornil, Osama bin dipesh, Ospalh, Ostarbursto, Ottre, Owen, OwenX, Oxymoron83, Ozsvensk, P0lyglut, P3Pp3r, PDH, PFHLai, PJM, PKtm, PMDrive1061, PahariSahib, Pakaran, Paleorthid, Pallab1234, Panserbjorn, Papna, Paradawx87, Parerga, Park3r, Parsecboy, Parth196, Parthian Scribe, Pass a Method, Patrickneil, Patstuart, Paul August, Paul W, Paulventer, PaulHanson, Paulinindia, Paulmlieberman, Pavel Vozenilek, Pavn123, Paxse, Paxsimius, Pb30, Peaceout22345003, Pearle, Pecher, Pensil, Pepsidrinka, Peripitus, PerryTachett,Peruvianllama, PeterBFZ, Peyna, Peyre, Pgan002, Pgilman, Pgk, Phantomsteve, Pharmakos, Phelix06, Phenz, Phil Boswell, Phil R, PhilHibbs, Philip Trueman, Philip1992, Phlegat, PhnomPencil,Phoe6, Photonique, Picaroon, Piccadilly, Pigsonthewing, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pilotguy, Pimpmaster, PinchasC, Piniricc65, Pinkadelica, Piotrus, Pippu d'Angelo, Pisharov, Piyush 2006,Pizzadeliveryboy, Pizzaparty99, Pjoef, PlasticFork, Plasticlax, Plm209, PochWiki, Polarscribe, Politepunk, Politics19, Postdlf, Pournami, Power level (Dragon Ball), Prabhu Prasad Tripathy,Pradeeptubati, Pranathi, Prashmail, Pratheepps, Praveen chandar, Praveen goud, Pravsingh1, Prdindian89, Premkumaranne, Presearch, Preserver, PrimroseGuy, PrinceA, Princeofdark07,Princhest, Priyanath, Prodego, Prof.Thamm, Prof75, Profitoftruth85, Profvk, Psantora, Pseudomonas, Pshent, Psneog, Psychotroll, Psymier, PubliusFL, Puneetbahri 82, Pure rabari, Purpleturple,Purslane, Puruvara, PuzzletChung, Pyroorb, Qaz, Qtoktok, Quietbritishjim, Quinacrine, Quotemstr, Quuxplusone, R'n'B, RG2, RGS, RJHigginson, RMHED, Rahul RJ Jain, Raj2004,Rajananand456, Rajeshbiee, Rajeshd, Rajeshja, Rajkummarb4u, Rak3sh, Rakeshkraja, Rama's Arrow, Ramanpotential, Ramitmahajan, Randalllin, Randhirreddy, Randomfrenchie, Randy Kryn,Rangers1007, Ranveig, Rasputin Rumplestiltskin, Rathat48, Raul654, Raven in Orbit, Raven4x4x, Ravenhull, Ravichandar84, Ravikiran r, Ravneek, Rbanzai, Rcsprinter123, Rd232, Rdikeman,Rdsmith4, Redthoreau, Redtigerxyz, Redvers, Reedy, Reenem, RegentsPark, Relata refero, Renegadegill, Restname, Rettetast, Revolutionary, RexNL, Reywas92, Rhindle The Red, Rhobite,Rhsimard, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richard75, Richardcavell, RickK, Rifleman 82, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rlevse, Rlove, Rma212, Roadahead, Robert K S, RobertG, Robertoalencar,Robertson-Glasgow, Robin klein, Robsteadman, Rocastelo, Rockromeo, Rohita, Rohitbd, RonaldDuncan, Ronhjones, Ronline, Ronz, Rorschach, Rory096, Rossheth, Rouge8, RoyBoy, RoyalMaratha, Royalguard11, Royboycrashfan, Rphansalkar, Rrjanbiah, Rsrikanth05, Rsseck17, Rudeboyskunk, Rudjek, Rudra79, RudyB, Rueben lys, Rummey, Rumpelstiltskin223, Rushikesh.tilak,Rusl, Ruy Lopez, Rwessel, RyanEberhart, RyanFreisling, Ryulong, S h i v a (Visnu), S13, SJP, ST47, SYSS Mouse, SaadRajabali, Sabinabraham, Sabretooth, Sachinvenga, Sahara4u,Sailingstefan, Saiswa, Saiyanfan13, Sajita, Salasks, Salimi, Salmachisti, Sam Blacketer, Sam Francis, Sam Korn, Sam Li, Sam Vimes, SamLin, SameerKhan, Samuel J. Howard, Sandeep4tech,Sango123, Sanjay Tiwari, Sanjaychoudhry, Sapovadia, Saramohanpur1940, Sarangsaras, Saravask, Sardanaphalus, SarekOfVulcan, Sarvagnya, Sarvajna, Sashko295, Sasquatch, Satyadev, Saulesauliite, Savidan, Sayerslle, ScaldingHotSoup, Scarian, Schauba, Scheibenzahl, Schzmo, Scifiintel, Sciurinæ, Scotsboyuk, Scottandrewhutchins, Scottishchick, Scottperry, Scshute, Seabhcan,Sean Karol, Seans Potato Business, Seb Patrick, SebastianHelm, Sebco7, Seglea, SelfQ, Semi Virgil, Sendrin, Senorsquiggles, Sephiroth554, Sepro, Seraphim, Sermadison, Serpent-A, Sesesq,Sesshomaru, Sether, Sevela.p, Severa, Sfahey, Shadow1, Shadowjams, Shahab, Shahrameshb, Shalimer, Shandris, Shanel, Shanen, Shanes, Shantavira, Shantrika, Shanugulati, Shatrunjaymall,Shaun3000, ShaunES, Shem1805, Sheogorath, Sherepunjab4u, Sheridan, Shi Hou, Shii, Shijaz, Shimmera, Shiva's Trident, Shmitra, Shorty5220, Shousokutsuu, Shreevatsa, Shrigley,Shutyerclam, Shyamal, Shyamsunder, Sicking, Siddharth ballal, Siddharthd101, Sidha, Sietse Snel, Silence, Silly rabbit, Sillybilly, Simeon, Simon D M, Simon1108, SimonP, Simpson3883,Sinha007, SiobhanHansa, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sir Paul, Siredwlynch, Siroxo, Siryendor, Sixswansflying, Sixty6, Siyavash, Sjorford, Skapur, SkerHawx, Skomorokh, Skull150,Skumarla, Skyscrap27, Slark, Slarre, Slashmore, Slicing, Smartinfoteck1, Smee, Smellsam44, Smitty1337, Smooth O, SnappingTurtle, Snowolf, Snoyes, Soam Vasani, Softlavender, Sohmc, Soir,Solar, Soman, Some jerk on the Internet, Somegeek, Someone65, Someone963852, Somnius Kenate, Soul Train, Soumyasch, SouthernNights, Sp1nd01, SpaceFlight89, SpacemanSpiff, Spartaz,Spartian, Spartiate, Spdracr99, Speedboy Salesman, Spettro9, Spidermen, Spike Wilbury, SpikeToronto, Splash, Splat, Spondoolicks, SpookyMulder, Spug, Spundun, SpuriousQ, Squash,SqueakBox, Squeezeweasel, Sriharsh1234, Srikeit, Srini81, Srinikasturi, Srithern, Srkris, Ssri1983, Stalmannen, Stan Shebs, Standardfact, Starx, Staxringold, Stealthound, SteamWiki,Stefan2004, Stelio, Steph-mals, Stephen Compall, Steve Dufour, SteveChervitzTrutane, SteveHFish, Steven J. Anderson, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Stochata, StonedIrishman, Street Scholar,Stuartmiddleton, Stumink, Stuttgart1950, SubTACanWor, Subbuktek, Sudarshanhs, Sugarfish, Suidafrikaan, SumSumne, Sumanch, Sun Creator, Sundar, Sunray, Sunzlvy, Super cyclist,Supernathan, Supernova0, Supertigerman, SuprCookie, Susurrus, Svarukala, Swaroopch, Swatjester, Swedengirl, Swedenman, Swollib, Syiem, Syrthiss, Syvanen, Szajd, THEunique, TKD, TOO,TR, Tabletop, Taciturnip, Taco325i, Tagorgora, Tailpig, Talon Artaine, Tamfang, Tamravidhir, Tangotango, Tanmay best, Tar-ba-gan, Tariqabjotu, Tarquin, Tarquin Binary, Tasc, Tascha96,Tatra, Tawker, Tbhotch, Tchoutoye, Tds247, TeaDrinker, Teardrop onthefire, TedE, Teetotaler, Teiladnam, Teknolyze, Templars26, Terminator50, Tesseran, Tezpur4u, Thaejas, Thalakan, TheFamous Movie Director, The Haunted Angel, The Madras, The Squicks, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The lollipop kids, The.megapode, TheHyksos, TheKMan,TheMandarin, TheOldJacobite, TheRanger, TheRingess, TheSnacks, TheTruth12, TheTruthiness, Thebombzen, Thebretthuntsman, Thebudman2008, Thecurran, Theevilbob, Theflyingeyebrows,Theoneandonlyother, Thesunkenroad, Thhist, ThinkingYouth, Thisthat2011, ThomasGFunk, ThomasHarte, Thomasdav, Thomasionus, Threeafterthree, Throwaway85, Thue, Thunderboltz, Tiderolls, TigerShark, Tigger69, Tim Drew, Tim!, Tim1965, Timneu22, Timrollpickering, Tinpisa, Tintin1107, TintininLisbon, Tinton5, Tiptoety, Titodutta, Titoxd, Tjdw, Tjj, Tktru, To refine,Tobacman, Tobby72, ToddFincannon, Toddcs, Tom harrison, Tom k&e, Tomandlu, Tomeasy, Tomstoner, Tony Fox, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, Tony360X, TonyClarke, TonyTheTiger,Tonybowyer, Top Slacker, Topsynergy, Torgo, Toussaint, Tpbradbury, Tpetschauer, Trakesht, Travelbird, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Treesmill, Tregoweth, Trevor H., Trevor MacInnis, Tri400,Trinidade, Triplejumper, Tristessa de St Ange, Triwbe, Trojan traveler, TrufflesTheLamb, Trödel, Tsmall2231, Tubezone, Tuncrypt, Twilsonb, Twinxor, Tylercosgrove, Tzartzam, UKSF,UberScienceNerd, Ubiquinoid, Ulric1313, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Umair123456789, Umapathy, Umar Zulfikar Khan, Unblessed, Underaverage05, Unfocused, Unknownworld, Unschool,Unugy, Uppayi mappila, User27091, Utcursch, V4R, Vaibhavs80, Vald, Valermos, Valfontis, VanDykeBrown, Vanischenu, Vanished User 4517, Vanished user kjn lsr35kjhwertsek4,Vanquish406, Vary, Veazul, VegaDark, Vegaswikian, Vensatry, Ventura, Versus22, Vgnome, Vibhutemahesh, Vibsir2, Vice regent, Vicksburg360, Victorgrigas, Viggyjiggy, Viki9896899778,Vikram ramesh, Vikrambedekar, Vikramsingh, Vilerage, Vinay84, Vinodmp, Vipinhari, Virad, Vish 106, Vishalgupta95, Vishwas, Viskonsas, VivaEmilyDavies, Vivekmandan, Vivsriaus, Vivvt,Viz, Vjz666, Vkvora2001, Vlad b, Vladmirfish, VolatileChemical, Vrghs jacob, Vrlobo888, Vsmith, Vstata, Vzbs34, Wafulz, Waggers, Walkiped, Wallie, Waqas1987, Ward3001, Warfvinge,Wassermann, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Wayward, Wdchk, Wdyoung, Wesley, Wetman, Weyes, Where'stheanykey, WhisperToMe, Whoisitnow, WikHead, Wiki alf, WikiDao, WikiFlier,WikiRuncorn, Wikignome0530, Wikikoti, Wikipedical, Wikirishiaacharya, Wikitiki89, Wikkrockiana, Will Beback, Will Beback Auto, William Avery, William Caputo, Wilt, Wimt, Windja2,WinstonRothchild, Wittylama, Wknight94, Wodrow, WoggyWoggy, Wolfdog, WoodstockEarth, Woohookitty, Wookipedian, Woozle, World, World8115, Wratmann, Writtenright, Wvaughan,Wytukaze, X-showboat-king-x, X201, X3210, XJaM, Xabiboy, Xeno, Xhaoz, Xnux, XxZamorakxX, Xxagile, Xxnadine+amyxx, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Yakudza, Yamaguchi先 生, Yamamoto Ichiro,Yann, Yansa, Yashkochar, YellowMonkey, Yellowdesk, Yesitsraining, Yogesh Khandke, Yossarian, Youandme, Youssefsan, Yr Wyddfa, Yug, Ywong137, Zadenk, Zaf, Zaile61, ZainEbrahim111, Zanimum, Zanin, Zazaban, Zeerak88, Zepheriah, Zero0000, Zibistor, Zloyvolsheb, Zmaz0ox, Zntrip, Zone46, Zpb52, Zsinj, Олеґ, Свифт, לערי ריינהארט, सुभाष राऊत, రవిచంద్ర, 3394anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:MKGandhi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MKGandhi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Airwolf, Berrucomons, Dpkpm007, FischX, Jovianeye,Korrigan, Psubhashish, Roland zh, Tiptoety, YannFile:Gandhi signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: derivative work: MissMJ (talk)Gandhi_sign.jpg: Original uploader was Sumanch at en.wikipediaFile:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, Tehdog, 2 anonymous editsFile:Young Gandhi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Young_Gandhi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rockfang, Roland zh, Túrelio, 1 anonymous editsFile:Gandhi and Kasturbhai 1902.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_and_Kasturbhai_1902.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fountain Posters, Reddevil 666, Roland zh, YannFile:Gandhi South-Africa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_South-Africa.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ranveig, Red devil 666, Roland zh,YannFile:Gandhi suit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_suit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ranveig, Red devil 666, Roland zh, Yann, 1 anonymouseditsFile:Gandhi Kheda 1918.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dpkpm007, RegentsPark, Roland zh,YannFile:Gandhi spinning.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_spinning.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gerrit41, Nirvana2013, Roland zh, YannFile:Gandhi home.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_home.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Dave MorrisFile:Mahadev Desai and Gandhi 2 1939.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahadev_Desai_and_Gandhi_2_1939.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Dpkpm007, Jkelly, Jusjih, Kenb215, Mattes, Miljoshi, Nevit, RegentsPark, Roland zh, Yann, 4 anonymous editsFile:Gandhi and Nehru 1942.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Officer, Pieter Kuiper, Roland zh,Yann, 1 anonymous editsFile:Gandhi Jinnah 1944.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_Jinnah_1944.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Officer, Red devil 666, Roland zh, Yann,1 anonymous editsFile:Mountbattens with Gandhi (IND 5298).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mountbattens_with_Gandhi_(IND_5298).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:No 9 Army Film & Photographic Unit

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 34

File:Gandhi Memorial.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_Memorial.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Abhishekjoshi,Chaser, FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly, 1 anonymous editsFile:Funeral Procession of Mahatma Gandhi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Funeral_Procession_of_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:KarthikndrFile:Tagore Gandhi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tagore_Gandhi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dpkpm007, Roland zh, Saravask, YannFile:Gandhi Tolstoy Farm.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_Tolstoy_Farm.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nirvana2013, Red devil 666, Rolandzh, Sportdirektor, Yann, ZyephyrusFile:God is Truth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:God_is_Truth.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mohandas K. GandhiFile:Gandhi at Darwen with women.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_at_Darwen_with_women.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Materialscientist, YannFile:Gandhi and Indira 1924.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_and_Indira_1924.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:YannFile:Young India.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Young_India.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Debastein, Dharmadhyaksha, Dpkpm007, Man vyi,Roland zh, Yann, 1 anonymous editsFile:Gandhi Graffiti San Francisco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_Graffiti_San_Francisco.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:VictorgrigasFile:USSR stamp M.Gandi 1969 6k.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USSR_stamp_M.Gandi_1969_6k.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Processed byAndrei SdobnikovFile:Gandi bista Novi Beograd.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandi_bista_Novi_Beograd.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was ИванЋурчић at sr.wikipediaFile:Gandhi Memorial Kanyakumari.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhi_Memorial_Kanyakumari.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Tony Jones

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/