TheSAGEHandbookofPERFORMANCESTUDIES

EditedbyD.SoyiniMadison Judith HameraUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Texas A&M University

Servei de BibüctequesBiblioteca d'Humanrtats

SAGE PublicationsThousand Oaks • London • New Delhi /-U O (o

Performance Studies at the Intersections

D. SOYINI MADISON AND JUDITH HAMERA

The ongoing challenge of performance studies is to refuse and supercede this deeplyentrenched división of labor, apartheid of knowledges, that plays out inside theacademy as the difference between thinking and doing, interpreting and making,conceptualizing and creating. The división of labor between theory and practice,abstraction and embodiment, is an arbitrary and rigged choice and, like all bina-risms, it is booby-trapped.

—Dwight Conquergood, 2002, p. 153

P erformance is often referred to as a"contested concept" because as a concept,

method, event, and practice it is variously envi-sioned and employed. Three founding scholarsof contemporary performance studies, MaryS. Strine, Beverly W. Long, and Mary FrancisHopkins, formally set forth the idea of perfor-mance as a contested concept in their classicessay, "Research in Interpretation and Perfor-mance Studies: Trends, Issues, Priorities." Theystate,

Performance, like art and democracy, iswhat W.B. Gallie (1964) calis an essentiallycontested concept, meaning that its veryexistence is bound up in disagreement aboutwhat it is, and that the disagreement overits essence is itself part of that essence. As

Gallie explains, "Recognition of a givenconcept as essentially contested implies •recognition of rival uses of it (such as one- 'self repudíales) as not only logically possibleand humanly 'likely,' but as of permanentpotential critical valué to one's own use ofinterpreta tion of the concept in question"(pp. 187-188). Scholars in interpretationand performance in a valorized category,they recognize and expect disagreement notonly about the qualities that make a perfor-mance "good" or "bad" in certain contexts,but also about what activities and behaviorsappropriately constitute performance andnot something else. (1990, p. 183)

On múltiple levéis performance "means"and "does" different things for and withdifferent people. On one level performance is

Xll THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES Introduction

understood as theatrical practica, that is,drama, as acting, or "putting on a show." Forsome, this limited view regards performance asextracurricular, insubstantial, or what you doin your leisure time. In certain áreas of theacademy these narrow notions of performanceha ve created an "anti-theatrical" prejudice(Conquergood) that diminishes performanceto mimicry, catharsis, or mere entertainmentrather than as a generative forcé and a criticaldynamic within human behavior and social

i processes. However, in recent history, perfor-mance has undergone a small revolution. Formany of us performance has evolved into waysof comprehending how human beings funda-mentally make culture, affect power, and rein-vent their ways of being in the world. Theinsistence on performance as a way of creationand being as opposed to the long held notionof performance as entertainment has broughtforth a movement to seek and articúlate thephenomenon of performance in its múltiplemanifestations and imaginings.

Understanding performance in this broaderand more complex way has opened up endlessquestions, some of which both interrógate andenrich our basic understanding of history,identity, community, nation, and politics.Performance is a contested concept becausewhen we understand performance beyond the-atrics and recognize it as fundamental andinherent to life and culture we are confrontedwith the ambiguities of different spaces andplaces that are foreign, contentious, and oftenunder siege. We enter the everyday and theordinary and interpret its symbolic universe todiscover the complexity of its extraordinarymeanings and practices.

We can no longer define performance asprimarily mimetic or theatrical but throughthe múltiple elements that inhere within per-formance and within the dynamic of shiftingdomains of theory, method, and event. Thetriad of theory, method, and event has gener-ally been understood as the following: perfor-mance theory provides analytical frameworks;

performance method provides concrete appli-cation; and performance event provides anaesthetic or noteworthy happening. Althoughtheory, method, and event are components ofthe grand possibilities of performance, DwightConquergood provides a more precise setof triads guiding us more comprehensively tothe substance and nuances of performancethrough a series of alliterations: the i's as inimagination, inquiry, and intervention; the a'sas in artistry, analysis, and activism; and thec's as in creativity, critique, and citizenship.Conquergood states,

Performance studies is uniquely suited forthe challenge of braiding together disparateand stratified ways of knowing. We canthink through performance along threecrisscrossing lines of activity and analysis.We can think of performance (1) as a workof imagination, as an object of study; (2) asa pragmatics of inquiry (both as model andmethod), as an optic and operation ofresearch; (3) as a tactics of intervention, analterative space of struggle. Speaking frommy home department at Northwestern, weoften refer to the three a's of performancestudies: artistry, analysis, activism. Or tochange the alliteration, a commitment tothe three c's of performance studies: creativ-ity, critique, citizenship (civic struggles forsocial justice). (Conquergood, 2002, p. 152)

Conquergood challenges us to understandthe ubiquitous and generative forcé of perfor-mance that is beyond the theatrical. The ques-tion we shall now entertain is: How is thischallenge most effectively debated and dis-cussed in the academy?

THE MULTIDISCIPLINAR Y APPEAL OFPERFORMANCE: PERFORMANCE AS"EVERYWHERE" IN THE ACADEMY?

Across various academic boundaries, perfor-mance is blurring disciplinary distinctionsand invoking radically multidisciplinaryapproaches. From the established disciplinesof history, literature, education, sociology,

geography, antso forth—the iits way into dof interest andare seeking teof performancunderstandingwell as a pedaperformance isemy and as alevéis of analysubject áreas acal frameworksomething greconcept of peíplex questiomapplicability, aqueries into p<bership ranginnow, never th¡as a scholarhthose of us wof performancphyte and vetein the infinitiand thereforeenriching its m

In understinterdisciplinaigrasp what it iand order themanee? Are tiperformance?tifie movementhe broad contto provide amanee ranginj.ment in the niiart and transíera of globaliz.

THE ELOCU

Although perconstituting v;ranged from m

:E STUDIES Introduction xin

•ncrete appli-provides an

ng. Althoughimponents ofanee, Dwight; precise setehensively toperformancethe fs as in

ntion; the a'sism; and thei citizenship.

suited for:r disparate5. We canlong threed analysis.

> as a work:udy; (2) asmodel anderation of'jention, aniking from/estern, we;rformancesm. Or tonitment toíes: creativ-ruggles for02, p. 152)

) understand•ce of perfor-al. The ques-How is thisted and dis-

PPEAL OFNCEASADEMY?

iries, perfor-distinctions

idisciplinaryd disciplinesi, sociology,

geography, anthropology, political science, andso forth—the rubric of performance has foundits way into discussions and debate as a topicof interest and inquiry. Teachers and studentsare seeking to better understand this notionof performance as a means to gain a deeperunderstanding of their own fields of study, aswell as a pedagogical method. The buzz overperformance is nearly everywhere in the acad-emy and as a result múltiple paradigms andlevéis of analysis are formed. As these varioussubject áreas adapt performance as an analyti-cal framework and as a methodological tool,something greater has happened to the veryconcept of performance itself: new and com-plex questions arise relative to its definition,applicability, and effectiveness. These extendedqueries into performance have a broad mem-bership ranging from those of us who, beforenow, never thought much about performance

a scholarly or pedagogical enterprise toasthose of us who have embraced the dynamicof performance for several decades. Both neo-phyte and veteran to performance are engagedin the infinite possibilities of performanceand therefore expanding, complexifying, andenriching its meanings and practices.

In understanding performance as radicallyinterdisciplinary, how then do we begin tograsp what it is? How do we begin to describeand order the varied manifestations of perfor-mance? Are there fundamental principies ofperformance? We will briefly turn now to spe-cific movements and paradigms to lay forththe broad contours of performance studies andto provide a working definition of perfor-mance ranging from the illocutionary move-ment in the nineteenth century to postmodernart and transnational narratives within thisera of globalization and transnationalism.

THE ELOCUTIONARY MOVEMENT

Although performance began in antiquityconstituting varied cultural phenomena thatranged from mimesis, ritual, and ceremony, to

everyday symbolic acts, one modern traditionthat can be understood as part of the historyand origins of performance studies, primarilyin the United States and Europe, is the elocu- itionary movement. Elocution or the "art of •public speaking" was of major importancein the nineteenth century United States andEurope. In an age where telephones, televisión,movies, CD players, and the Internet werenonexistent, it was the art of public speakingthat became the powerful communicativeand entertainment médium of public lifeand thereby influencing central aspects ofcommunity and nation (Conquergood, 2000).The elocutionary speaker was a performerwho could leave his audience on the edge oftheir seats with the turn of an imaginativephrase or a compelling anecdote. The speakercould build the story or the argument to apeak that held the audience captive to the spo-ken word that was filled with the varying reg-isters of a performing presence wrapped indramatic gestare and utterance. The publicspeaker was a performer whose work was tomake the audience listen and learn through adrama of communication.

Elocution was a social event. The audiencegathered to witness the speaker through acollective that brought friends and strangerstogether to meet and greet. This event wasa moment of communal experience, listeningand watching together, but also respondingtogether to what they heard—from reservedclaps of appreciation to uproarious laugherto the insulting taunts of hecklers—theylistened and responded together. The eventwas also a ritual with its customary begin-nings and endings; it was a ritual of informa-tion gathering, persuasión, affirmation, andchange.

Just as the art of effective public speaking .was a creative forcé, it was also a forcé ofhegemonic control. It both perpetrated andsolidified power relations, as well as thevalorization of a bourgeois decorum basedon vocal qualities, gestures of gentility, social

XIV THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES

- class, gender hierarchies, and the color oforte's skin. Conquergood states,

Elocution expressed in another key thebody-discipline imposed on the bourgeoisie,a way for them to mark "distinction" fromthe masses. . . . Elocution was designad torecupérate the vitality of the spoken wordfrom rural and rough working-class contextsby regulating and refining its "performativeexcess" through principies, science, system-atic study, standards of taste and criticism. . . elocution sought to tap the power ofpopular speech but curb its unruly embodi-ments and refine its coarse and uncouth fea-tures. It was the verbal counterpart, on thedomain of speech, of the enclosure acts thatconfiscated the open commons, so crucial tothe hardscrabble livelihood and recreation ofthe poor, and privatized them for the privi-leged classes. (2000, p. 327)

Conquergood goes on to describe how theelocution of the privileged classes could notIwithstand such hierarchical exclusivity dueto the ubiquitous nature of the spoken word."The spoken word dimensión of elocution pro-vided for the 'spillage' from the enclosed writ-ten word that the unlettered poor swept up andmade their own" (p. 329). "This spillage of elo-cution, now appropriated and also owned andenacted by the laboring classes and lumpenproletariat" was revisioned and reformed bythe less privileged classes for their own "subal-tern needs" (p. 329), audiences, and purposes.The elocutionary labor of enslaved Americans

; is testament to this juncture in the elocutionarymovements, e.g., Frederick Douglass andSojourner Truth are among such individuáis,as well as scores of others: labor organizers,women and children's rights activists, aboli-tionists, and so forth.

Nineteenth-century public life was pro-! foundly influenced and shaped by the publici dynamics of elocution as both hegemonic

power and liberating power. The forcé of pub-lic speaking was a site of hierarchical knowl-edge, valué, and bodies marked by whiteness,

j maleness, and homogeneity that Consolidated

and celebrated these identities and affiliations. >But, it was also a site of liberating expressionand a contested space—a site where trou-bled identities could claim their power andstrengthen their hope. The elocutionary move-ment was less about public speaking and moreabout a public performance where audienceand speaker were changing and changed bythe urgent issues of the time and the com-pelling need to speak and witness. Elocutionwas empowered by a performance of persua-sión and in many instances it moved andchanged the nation.

THE ART OF INTERPRETATION

The art of public speaking finds a cióse relation.in the "art of Interpretation" (Bacon, 1979).Just as public speech—from the bourgeoisclasses, enslaved communities, and the lumpenproletariat—could move the hearts and mindsof its audience and persuade the nonbelievers,the art of oral interpretation could bring awork of literature to life, putting flesh, bone,and breath to words and bringing them to life •from the stagnant silence of the written page.

Wallace Bacon, considered by some to beone of the forefathers of performance studies,articulated the relationship and evolution ofelocution's "just and graceful management ofthe voice, countenance, and gesture" with thatof oral interpretation and the performance ofliterature (as quoted in Conquergood, 2000,p. 326). Bacon celebrated and theorized in his •work the performance of literary texts. He 'augmented and extended the art of readingand reciting a speech in public to the art ofinterpreting and enacting a literary text beforean audience. Bacon states,

The literary text is a manmade form, or"skin," that separares it from its environmentand makes it defina ble. but also serves as itspoint of contact with the environment. Byfirst observing (reading) that outer form, thereader seeks to get inside the skin of the workto the inner form, and comes to know it in

Introduction

much the í-another hutening, bytotal expeíothers, by '

Wallace Iof interpreta ¡"Otherness othis meeting <literary textway of being;reach respectreader givingis engaged wiisis mine). Heintérpreter, bfull awarenesstage in masWallace Bacoin explicating

A person'smost stroritestably evkheightenedperson. Thividual sinksever muchverbiage orunless he oc<his ability tindependen!due, ratherof continuitsomeone asmatter or awith an opeit is to becO'/-hood. (Wh

Wallace Baand the perfoiof performancconceptualizatcarne an inteiwith paradigmas ways of coiperformance. 1

E STUDIES Introduction xv

affiliations.; expressionvhere trou-power and

>nary move-ig and morere audiencechanged byd the com-5. Elocutione of persua-moved and

3N

lose relationcon, 1979).= boürgeoisthe lumpen

5 and mindslonbelievers,uld bring aflesh, bone,them to life•itten page.some to bemee studies,rvolution oflagement ofe" with that:ormance of;ood, 2000,urized in hisy texts. He

of reading> the art ofr text before

form, oraronmentrves as itsiment. Byform, the: the work

much the same way as one comes to knowanother human being—by observing and lis-tening, by relating what is learned to one'stotal experience, by talking about it withothers, by "talking" with it. (1979, p. 157)

Wallace Bacon further enlivened the artof interpretation through his articulation of"Otherness of the Other" (p. 40). For Bacon,this meeting of the art of interpretation with aliterary text is an engagement with anotherway of being; it is to enter beyond the self andreach respectfully into another's world. "Thereader giving rapt attention to the literary workis engaged with the sense of Otherness'" (empha-sis mine). He goes on to further state, "For theinterpreter, belief in the otherness of the text,full awareness of its state of being, is a majorstage in mastering the art of performance."Wallace Bacon was fond of the following quotein explicating what is meant by the Other:

A person's sense of presence is likely to bemost strongly marked and most incon-testably evident in his relationship, at certainheightened moments, with another humanperson. This is as it should be, for an indi-vidual sinks into a deadening egoism (how-ever much he may gild it with idealisticverbiage or mitígate it by outward acts)unless he occasionally exercises and stretcheshis ability to realize another person as anindependent presence to whom homage isdue, rather than as merely an interruptionof continuity in his environment. To knowsomeone as presence instead of as a lump ofmatter or a set of processes, is to meet himwith an open, listening, responsíve attitude;it is to become a thou in the presence of his/-hood. (Wheelwright, 1962, p. 154)

Wallace Bacon's interventions on elocutionand the performance of literature led the fieldof performance to a more layered and extendedconceptualization of the Other, and with itcarne an interest in integrating performancewith paradigms from the social sciences as wellas ways of conceptualizing social processes asperformance. Bacon's Other had no-vv inspircd

a movement that extended textual Otherstoward the politics of worldly Others.

PERFORMANCE ASSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

In performance as behavior, social life isdescribed through an organizing metaphorof dramatic action or what the social criticKenneth Burke describes as "situated modesof action" (1945, pp. 3-93). Burke asks theimportant question: "What is involved whenwe say what people are doing and why they aredoing it?" Burke introduces the idea "dramasof living" by providing a dramatistic paradigmcomposed of five key concepts in response tohis question. His pentad illuminates perfor-mance in the day-to-day motions of social life.His five key terms of dramatism are Act (ñameswhat took place in thought or deed), Scene (thebackground of the act, the situation in whichit occurred), Agent (person or kind of personwho performed the act), Agency (what meansor instrumenta were used), and Purpose (theaim or objective). In explicating the implica-tions of this pentad Burke states,

Men may violently disagree about the pur-pose behind a given act, or about the char-acter of the person who did it, or how he didit, or in what kind of situation he acted; orthey may even insist upon totally differentwords to ñame the act itself. But be thatas it may, any complete statement aboutmotives will offer some kind of answers tothese five questions: what was done (act),when and where it was done (scene), whodid it (agent), how (agency), and why he didit (purpose). (Burke, 1945, p. xvü)

Just as "situated modes of action" areframed through Burke's performance para-digm, we may also understand performancethrough modes of language and the action gen-erated from the words spoken. In 1955 J. L.Austin presented his idea of speech act theoryin his lecture entitled: "How to Do ThingsWith 'Words" for the William James Lccturc

XVI THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES

Series at Harvard University. Briefly defined,"speech-act" is action that is performed whena word is uttered. He stated that language doesmore than describe, it also does something thatmakes a material, physical, and situational dif-ference: "I forgive you;" "You cannot enter;""Guilty!" all do something in the world. Theycréate a particular reality. Language canbestow forgiveness, a blessing, freedom, citi-zenship, marriage, a promise, etc. Languageperforms a reality; therefore for Austin lan-guage was not merely constantive, but perfor-mative. Austin's student, John R. Searle,expanded Austin's performative utterance toassert that language is not only performativeat certain heightened moments or ceremonialevents, thereby separating the performativefrom the constantive—but that all language isa form of doing. Searle believed that wheneverthere is intention in speaking there is also the

¡ performative. While Austin designated particu-lar moments when words produced a speech-act, that is, when words performed, Searle(1969) argued that whenever words are spokenwith intention (and they almost always are)words are performative.

Jacques Derrida, however, disagreed withAustin and Searle's suggestion that a performa-tive utterance créates a "doing" or a particularreality. According to Derrida, Austin ignores areality and context that is beyond the presentmoment of speaking. Language is not the causalfactor; the causal factors are repetition andfamiliarity. For Derrida, the idea that a speech-act makes something happen within a particu-lar present moment is to deny the fact of aparticular kind of history. Speech is citational;that is, what is spoken has been spoken many,many times before, and its effects are a result ofits repetition and citational forcé, not a resultof a unique or present moment when wordsare "newly" uttered. Derrida's critique ofspeech-act theory is captured in the idea ofa "metaphysics of presence." Derrida employsmetaphysics of presence as a critical term todescribe a thought system that depends on an

unassailable foundation—an absolute orimmutable truth claim. For Derrida, the termrefers to the problematic or faulty belief in anessential truth that guarantees meaning. "ForDerrida, all that we know and say is based uponwhat has gone before and what we have inher-ited from past actions. If something is done withwords, it is because it has happened beforeand we know out of convention and custom tocontinué to do it" (Madison, 2005, p. 162).

Through a performance studies lens thesevarying claims relative to language, meaning,and human behavior are not in contradiction,but form a dialectic and creative tensión.Words are indeed performative, and they dohave material effects. Obviously, words do,something in the world, and they are reitera-tive (in terms of Derrida) in that speech, mean-!ing, intent, and custom have been repeatedthrough time and are therefore communicativeand comprehensible because they are recogniz-able in their repetition.

From the elocutionary movement, the inter-pretation of literature, and speech-act theory,we may extend the operation of performanceas it functions in language, culture and sociallife by turning to the anthropology of experi-ence and Victor Turner's three-part compila-tion of performance: cultural performance,social performance, and social drama. We willbegin with experience.

PERFORMANCE AS EXPERIENCE OREXPERIENCE AS PERFORMANCE

Turner wrote that expressions are "the crystal-lized secretions of once living human experi-ence" (1982, p. 17). Once an experiencepresses forward from the field of the day-to-day it becomes the incentive for expression; itis then no longer a personal reality but a sharedone. What we experience may blossom intoexpression whether in the form of story, gossip,or humor on the one end, or poetry, novéis,theatre, or film on the other. "The experiencenow made mto expression is presented in the

Introducíio?

world; it otreality. Expeíforth reader.munity, amp. 151). In texpression, 'the thresholdbecomes thewe now concfind its origin

The movesion is not sithat perform;experience; irence that beggood states tthe "perform(1986, pp. 3(there is no sof embodimethat organizearound—expExpression isform and sptConquergood

In the discfirst, experieito recognizeTurner that thegg question.that both carrevokes experiperformance,between expeísented in Tur;performance:performance, ,

Cultural perfcSinger first iperformance"of performancspan, a beginiprogram of aiaudience, andP- xiü). Cultu

:E STUDIES Introduction xvn

absolute or;da, the term/ belief in aneaning. "Foris based upone have inher-; is done withDened beforend custom to>, p. 162).es lens thesege, meaning,ontradiction,tive tensión,and they dov, words doy are reitera-peech, mean-een repeatedmmunicativeare recogniz-

mt, the inter-h-act theory,performancere and socialgy of experi->art compila-performance,ama. We will

NCEORNCE

: "the crystal-iman experi-i experiencef the day-to-expression; it* but a sharedblossom intostory, gossip,íetry, novéis,le experiencesented in trie

world; it occupies time, space, and publicreality. Experience made into expression bringsforth reader, observer, listener, village, com-munity, and audience" (Madison, 2005,p. 151). In the evolution from experience toexpression, we have simultaneously crossedthe threshold of performance. Experience nowbecomes the very source of performance. Canwe now conclude that performance must firstfind its origins in experience?

The movement from experience to expres-sion is not so neat or complete. Some argüethat performance does not always begin withexperience; indeed, they argüe that it is experi-ence that begins with performance. Conquer-good states that it is actually the reverse; it isthe "performance that realizes the experience"(1986, pp. 36-37). Bakhtin states, "After all,there is no such thing as experience outsideof embodiment in signs. It is not experiencethat organizes expression, but the other wayaround—expression organizes experience.Expression is what first gives experience itsform and specificity of direction" (quoted inConquergood, 1986, p. 85).

In the discussions concerning what comesfirst, experience or performance, we cometo recognize through the insights of VíctorTurner that this is similar to the chicken or theegg question. In Turner's work we understandthat both carne first and second. Performanceevokes experience, just as experience evokesperformance. The reciprocal relationshipberween experience and performance is repre-sented in Turner's three-part classification ofperformance: cultural performance, socialperformance, and social drama.

Cultural performance: Anthropologist MiltonSinger first introduced the term "culturalperformance" in 1959, stating that these kindsof performances all possess a "limited timespan, a beginning and an end, an organizedprogram of activity, a set of performers, anaudience, and a place and occasion" (1959,P- xiii). Cultural performances are therefore

understood as more conventional forms of ]performance because they are framed by ¡cultural conventions. Cultural performances ;include plays, operas, circus acts, carnivals,;parades, religious services, poetry readings,weddings, funerals, graduations, concerts, !toasts, jokes, and storytelling. In all these •examples, self-conscious and symbolic actsare "presented" and commúnicated within acircumscribed space.

Social performance: In social performance, \action, reflection, and intent are not marked as ithey are in cultural performances. Social per- !forrnances are the ordinary day-by-day Ínter- jactions of individuáis and the consequences of Ithese interactions as they move through social ilife (Turner, 1982, pp. 32-33). Social perfor->manees are not self-consciously aware that «their enactments are culturally scripted. Social,performances become examples of a cultureand subculture's particular symbolic practices.These performances are most striking whenthey are contrasted against different culturalnorms, e.g., greetings, dining, dressing, dating,walking, looking, and so forth.

Social Drama. In social harmony the workingarrangements within a particular social unitare synchronized. When a social drama occürsthere is a schism or break in the synchroniza-tion. The social unit is disturbed and the partiesinvolved are in disagreement. Turner states,

Social life, then, even in its apparently qui-etest moments, is characteristically "preg-nant" with social dramas. It is as thougheach of us has a "peace" face and a "war"face, that we are programmed for coopera-tion, but prepared for conflict. (1982, p. 11)

Turner defines social drama through a four-phase structure: breach, crises, redressive action,and resolution. In breach, "there is an overt non-conformity and breaking away by an individualor group of individuáis from a shared system ofsocial relations" (Turner, 1974, p. 38).

XV111 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES

It is in the second stage, of crises, whereconflict becomes most apparent. The opposingforces are openly at odds, the masks arestripped away or magnified, and the conflictescalates. In crises the breach has enlarged;it is made public. In the third stage, redressiveaction, a mechanism is brought forth tosquelch the crises from further disruption ofthe social system. This may be in the form of amediator, of a judicial system, or of the oppos-ing forces coming together themselves in aneffort to resolve the crises.

The final phase is resolution. It is here,according to Turner, where the "disturbedparties are reconciled and re-integratéd backinto their shared social system" (1974, 1982).The parties may reunite but with changes, orthe other result is the recognition of a "legití-mate and irreparable schism between the par-ties" that will sepárate them from the socialsystem, or they may establish another socialsystem (1982, pp. 8-19). In reintegration thereis usually some kind of ritual act to mark theseparation or a celebration of the unión.

For Turner, performance, whether it is cul-tural performance, social performance, or socialdrama, all takes place under the rubricof structure or antistructure. Structure is all thatwhich constitutes order, system, preservation,law, hierarchy, and authority. Antistructure isall that which constitutes human action beyondsystems, hierarchies, and constraints.

These three realms outlined by Turnerintend to encompass and order the full rangeof performance and its functions in cultureand identity. However, Turner's explication ofperformance in social and cultural life is fur-ther complicated and deepened by the recentdiscussions and debates pertaining to the

\ concept of "performativity."

PERFORMATTVITY

; For feminist critic Judith Butler (1988),performativity is undersioud as a "stylizcdrepetición of acts" that are—like Derridean

citation—"always a reiteration of a norm orset of norms" which means that the "act thatone does, the act that one performs is, in asense, an act that has been going on beforeone arrived on the scene" (Diamond, 1996,pp. 4-6). Performativity becomes all at once acultural convention, valué, and signifier that isinscribed on the body—performed through thebody—to mark identities. In this view of per-formativity, gestures, posture, clothes, habits,and specific embodied acts are performed dif-ferently depending on the gender, as well asrace, class, sexuality, and so forth, of the indi-vidual. How the body moves about in theworld and its various mannerisms, styles, andgestures are inherited from one generationthrough space and time to another and demar-cated within specific identity categories. Theseperformativities become the manifestationsand enactments of identity and belonging.This emphasis on performativity as repetitionor citationality is useful in understanding howidentity categories are not inherent or biologi-cally determined, but how they are sociallydetermined by cultural norms of demarcation.This is an important insight because it opensthe possibility for alternative performativitiesand alternative ways of being. It causes us toreckon with the fact that these categories andtherefore the responses and practices based onthese categories are not a fact of life, but arebased upon repetitions and fabrications ofhuman behavior. The description of performa-tivity as citationality is a critical move, but,for many performance scholars, it is only onedimensión of articulating performativity. But,then the question becomes: "What gets lost inthe reworking of performativity as citational-ity?" (Conquergood, 1998). We may under-stand performativity as citationality, but wemay also understand performativity as anintervention upon citationality and of resistingcitationality. Just as performativity is an inter-nalized repetition of hegemonic "stylized acts"inherited by the status quo, it can also be an

internalized repetition of subversive "stylized

acts" inh:"Subversiv(very citaticenacts" (M.scholar Jillas "the nimarginalizeDolan, persimply citatexperience tof differencality, geogrnial critic, isubversive"performat!rupts, and(1994, pp.

From Hdescriptionsclarify the imativity th;Strine (199where perfcprises the inence, andsubjects ancperformatividentity, exencompassirsex, geograjnecessarily "plexly intercsum, perfonsubstantiatirworld of po^

The querework perf<etition of acevocation oiized constructhen actuallynificantly aniday, yet the>cultural perfimanees whewith a difí

:E STUDIES Introduction xix

>f a norm orthe "act thatarms is, in ang on beforemond, 1996,¡ all at once agnifier that isd through the¡ view of per-othes, habits,erformed dif-:r, as well ash, of the indi-about in theis, styles, andle generation;r and demar-jgories. Thesenanifestationsid belonging.' as repetition•standing how:nt or biologi-y are sociallydemarcation.

:ause it opens¡rformativitiest causes us to:ategories andtices based on>f life, but areibrications ofi of performa-al move, but,it is only one

•mativity. But,lat gets lost in• as citational-e may under-lality, but welativity as annd of resisting

rity is an inter-"stylized acts":an also be anrsive "stylized

acts" inherited by contested identities."Subversive performativity can disrupt thevery citations that hegemonic performativityenacts" (Madison, 2005). Performance studiesscholar Jill Dolan describes performativityas "the non-essentialized constructions ofmarginalized identities" (1993, p. 419). ForDolan, performativity in this light is notsimply citation, but a symbiosis of identifyingexperience that is determined by compilations •of differences: sex, class, race, ethnicity, sexu-ality, geography, religión, etc. The postcolo-nial critic, Homi Bhaba, adds to the idea ofsubversive performativity by invoking the"performa ti ve" as action that disturbs, dis-rupts, and disavows hegemonic formations(1994, pp. 146-149).

From Homi Bhabha's and Jill Dolan'sdescriptions of performativity, we may furtherclarify the meanings and functions of perfor-mativity through the contributions of MaryStrine (1998) and Kristen Langellier (1999)where performativity is a dynamic that com-prises the interpenetrations of identity, experi-ence, and social relations that constitutesubjects and order context. In other words,performativity is the interconnected triad ofidentity, experience, and social relations—encompassing the admixture of class, race,sex, geography, religión, and so forth that isnecessarily "contradictory, múltiple, and com-plexly interconnected" (Langellier, 1999). Insum, performativities are the many markingssubstantiating that all of us are subjects in aworld of power relations.

The question then becomes, when werework performativity beyond a "stylized rep-etition of acts" into the more deeply relevantevocation of performativity as "nonessential-ized constructions of identity," what does is itthen actually look like? Performativities are sig-nificantly and powerfully layered in the day-to-day, yet they are heightened and embossed incultural performances. It is in cultural perfor-mances where performativities are doubledwith a difference: they are re-prcscntcd,

re-located and re-materialized for the possibilityof a substantial re-consideration and re-exami-nation. Elin Diamond reminds us: "When,performativity materializes as performance in ¡that risky and dangerous negotiation betweena 'doing' (a reiteration of norms) and a thingdone (discursive conventions that frame ourinterpretations), between someone's bodyand the conventions of embodiment, we haveaccess to cultural meanings and critique"(1996, p. 5). These performances that "materi- ¡alize" performativity and that open meaningsand critique, encompass film, music, theatre—the conventions of embodiment—but theyalso profoundly constitute and are constitutedby the stories we tell one another and thenarratives we live by. Langellier explains thenecessary interpenetration of performance,performativity, and narration:

Why add performativity to performance?By performativity, I highlight the way speechacts have been extended and broadened tounderstand the constitutiveness of perfor-mance. That is, personal narrative perfor-mance constitutes identities and experience,producing and reproducing that to which itrefers. Here, personal narrative is a site wherethe social is articulated, structured, and strug-gled over (Butler, Twigg). To study perfor- •manee as performativity is, according to ElinDiamond, 'to become aware of performanceitself as a contested space, where meaningsand desires are generated, occluded, and ofcourse multiply interpretad' (4). In performa-tivity, narrator and listener(s) are themselvesconstituted ('I will tell you a story'), as isexperience ('a story about what happened tome'). Identity and experience are symbiosisof performed story and the social relationsin which they are materially embedded: sex,class, race, ethnicity, sexuality, geography,religión, and so on. This is why personal nar-rative performance is especially crucial tothose communities left out of the privileges ofdominant culture, those bodies without voicein the political sense. (1999, p. 129)

In these more consciously subversive ren-dcrings of performativity wc may now cxtcnd

XX THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES

our discussion of performativity and takeup connections between performance andtransnational narratives.

PERFORMANCE AND GLOBALITY

The world has grown smaller. Air travel, theInternet, digital technologies, and telecommu-nication have brought far away places into ourhomes and lives, just as representations of whowe are and what we do are brought into thelives and cultures of those sometimes so for-eign to us that we can not lócate or ñame theirhomelands on the map. The irony is that dis-tance is no longer solely measured by kilome-ters or miles, but by time and access for thoseof us who reap the benefits of "first world" tech-nologies and economies: how many hours fly-ing time to Mozambique or how many cablestations on your TV, or the speed of your com-puter. Zygmunt Bauman reflects the fact thatdistance is compressed by time by a global éliteclass:

Indeed, little in the elite's life experiencenow implies a difference between 'here' and'there,' 'ínside' and 'outside', 'cióse by' and'far away'. With time of communicationimploding and shrinking to the no-size ofthe instant, space and spatial markers ceaseto matter, at least to those whose actionscan move with the speed of the electronicmessage. (1983, p. 13)

What are the implications for transnationalnarratives in this era of globalization or of "theno-size of the instant" for those of us who areparticularly concerned about the transnationalimplications of performance? First, perfor-mance becomes the enactment and evidenceof stories that literally and figuratively bleedacross the borders that national boundaries"cut up" (de Certeau, 1974/1984, p. 12). Forexample, performing the local is enmeshed inwhat it means to be a U.S. citizen and that isenmeshed in the facts of U.S. foreign policy,•world txadej civil society, and war. Sccond, wx

are who we are in our nations because of -our placement—for better and worse—among !other nations of the world and that literarily ispills into the microstructures of our neighbor- !hood, families, and lives. Third, as we travel to !lands far and foreign, performance directs us to ¡the symbolic universe of indigenous life. Signsand symbols hold meanings and histories, butmore, they are the expressive formations oflocal knowledge and desire. Performance leadsus to the social dramas, cultural performances,and embodied stories that make culture live.Performance travels transnationally between ithe local and global so we may be witnessesand co-performers of a politics of culturebeyond our own borders. The idea of "terri-tory" in this time of globalization has greaterimplications than ever before. The way the"local" is affected by transnational communi-cation and affiliations has extended our under-standing of "community," "nation," and"identity." Conquergood states,

According to Michel de Certeau, "whatthe map cuts up, the story cuts across"(1984:12). This pithy phrase evokes a post-colonial world crisscrossed by transnationalnarratives, Diaspora affiliations, and espe-'cially, the movement and múltiple migra-tions of people, sometimes voluntary, butoften economically propelled and politicallycoerced. In order to keep pace with sucha world, we think of "place" as a heavilytrafficked intersection, a port of cali andexchange, instead of circumscribed terri-tory. A boundary is more like a membranethan a wall . . . our understanding of localcontext expands to encompass the histori-cal, dynamic, often traumatic, movementsof people, ideas, images, commodities, andcapital. It is not easy to sort out the localfrom the global: transnational circulationsof images get reworked on the ground andredeployed for local tactical struggles.(2002, p. 145)

The crossings between the local and theglobal form complex terrains of progress,strugglc, and cumcscation. In rhis collection,

Introductioi

we illumin;constellatiorcrossings anthem. The jtions from srepresentedbecause thepower at musubjectivitiesthe writersexamine ethretically, peerange of spatare representat one end a <ered on thelocations raíanees of po\symbolic unicontent, desiThe politicsup the multiformed undepleasure andnew and othtboth foreignmanee as prais questioned.and affirm 1obscure, andacts and oral

PERFORMAREPRESENT

Richard Schecmanee studiesas "restored rner brought 1reputation asto performancinspired schol.ceptual and jperformance,(see also Schet

E STUDIES Introducüon xxi

because of:se—amongiat literarilyir neighbor-we travel todirects us tois life. Signsistories, but•mations ofnance leadsrformances,:ulture live..ly between>e witnessesof culture

:a of "terri-has greaterle way the1 communi-I our under-tion," and

u, "whats across"es a post-isnationaland espe-le migra-itary, butpoliticallyvich sucha heavilycali and

)ed terri-lembraneg of locale histori-ovementsities, andthe local

rculationsound andstruggles.

:al and the>f progress,; collection,

we illuminate performance in its variousconstellations in ways that consider thesecrossings and evoke deeper questions aboutthem. The possibilities and political implica-tions from such a constellation of discussionsrepresented in this volume is far reaching,because the authors implicate operations ofpower at múltiple locations and within variedsubjectivities. What does this mean? It meansthe writers in this volume have chosen toexamine ethnographically, historically, theo-retically, pedagogically, and imaginatively arange of spaces both hidden and apparent thatare represented by the silences of the subalternat one end and by the exegesis of the empow-ered on the other. This polyvocal range oflocations raises questions relative to imbal-ances of power, forms of resistance, and thesymbolic universe of expressive forms of dis-

; content, desire, and alternative possibilities.The politics and praxis of performance openup the multivocality of expressions that areformed under necessity and duress, as well aspleasure and inspiration toward envisioningnew and other realities in the everyday acts ofboth foreign and familiar locations. In perfor-mance as praxis, the form of knowledge itselfis questioned. Performance asks us to identifyand affirm knowledges that are 'contested,obscure, and often demeaned in the embodied

; acts and oral traditions of such locations.

PERFORMANCE AND/ASREPRESENTARON

Richard Schechner, another founder of perfor-mance studies, famously defined performanceas "restored behavior" (1985, p. 33). Schech-ner brought his considerable experience andreputation as an experimental theatre directorto performance studies, and his perspective hasinspired scholars to examine the intricate con-ceptual and pragmatic connections betweenperformance, repetition, and representation(see also Schechner, 2002).

In Unmarked (1993) and The Ends ofPerformance (1998), Peggy Phelan offersa politicized reconception of relationshipsbetween these three terms. She writes,

The pleasure of resemblance and repetitionproduces both psychic assurance and politi-cal fetishization. Representation reproducesthe Other as the Same. Performance, insofaras it can be defined as representation with-out reproduction, can be seen as a model foranother representational economy, one inwhich the reproduction of the Other as theSame is not assured. (1993, p. 3)

For Phelan, this transíales into a particularethical stance toward performance and/asrepresentation.

What lies before the field of performancestudies is precisely a discipline: a refusal toindulge the killing possessiveness too oftenbred in admiration and love. The lessons wemost need to learn are lessons in mourningwithout killing, loving without taking. Thisis the end toward which performance aims.(1998, P. 11)

Philip Auslander is also concerned withpresence and absence in discussions of perfor-mance in/as representation. His focus is theissue of "liveness," and particularly the notionthat the live performance seems to have aself-evident realness and valué that the pur-portedly secondary "mediatized" ones do not:"However one may assess the relative symbolicvalúes of live events, it is important to observethat even within our hyper-mediatized culture,far more symbolic capital is attached to liveevents than to mediatized ones, at least for themoment" (1999, p. 59). Auslander argües thatperformance studies scholars must criticallyexamine this hierarchy of valúes, and heactively interrogates the presumptions under-girding both the notion of "liveness" itself, andthe symbolic capital that accrues to it.

Conceptual reworking of, and interventionsin, performance and/as representation appear

XX11 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES Introduction

in works by a wide range of artists. Indeed theinterdisciplinary nature of performance studiesitself is also reflected in this work, and in thebackgrounds of the artists who produce it.This interdisciplinarity, along with irony, pas-tiche, and a suspicion of master narratives,has led some performance scholars to describeaesthetics in these pieces as "postmodern"(Carlson, 1996, pp. 123-143). Many of thesesame practices can also be found in the workof early twentieth century avant-garde theatreand performance practitioners (see Goldberg,1979).

Two examples of performances thatactively engage and trouble conventionalnorms of representation are illustrative. Thefirst is "Food for the Spirit," completed in1971 by artist and philosopher Adrián Piper(Jones, 1998, pp. 162-164). Piper is a light-skinned African American woman. In onephoto-document from this "prívate loft per-formance," she stands nude before a mirror,a camera held beneath her breasts (p. 162).Piper's performance exists betwixt andbetween the moment of "live" performanceand the moment in which an audienceremoved from the event itself confronts thephoto. In that liminal space, Piper simultane-ously "exposes the assumption of whitenessimplicit in the 'rhetoric of the pose'" and chal-lenges the stability and self-evidence of racialidentity. She writes,

I am the racist's nightmare, the obscenity ofmiscegenation. I am a reminder that segre-gation is impotent; a living embodiment ofsexual desire that penetrares racial barriersand reproduces itself. . . . I represent theloathsome possibility that everyone is"tainted" by black ancestry: If someone canlook and sound like me and still be black,who is unimpeachably white? (quoted inJones, 1998, p. 162)

Consider, too, the work of Spiderwoman,a performance company of three NativeAmerican sisters. Mindful of the ways Native

Americans enter representation—as "vanished,"as archeological "specimens," "noble savages,"or the loci of nostalgia, Spiderwoman exposesand critiques these constructions throughburlesquing and parodying them. As RebeccaSchneider (1997) observes,

Laughing, Spiderwoman is sending upsomething extremely serious. Who arethe "primitives" that have been created bywhite nostalgia? Much of Spiderwoman'swork is related to the issue of "Indianness,"adroitly played in the painful space betweenthe need to claim an "authentic" nativeidentity and their awareness of the appro-priation and the historical commodifica-tion of the signs of that authenticity. Theirmaterial falls in the interstices wheretheir autobiographies meet popular andaesthetic constructions of the "primitive,"specifically the primitivized AmericanIndían. (p. 161)

Performance studies scholars also créateperformances that rework and interrógate rela-tionships between, and conventions of, perfor-mance and/as representation. This work isanother example of performance at the inter-sections of method, of research, object ofresearch, and method of representing research(Alexander, 2002; Jackson, 1998; Johnson,2003; Jones, 1997).

Performance studies scholars tease out andrefashion relationships between performanceand representation on the page as well as onthe stage. In her influential essay "PerformingWriting" (1998), Della Pollock discusses "SixExcursions into Performative Writing." Suchwriting, she explains, is evocative, metonymic,subjective, citational, and consequential. It isparticularly well suited to the complexitiesof setting bodies—and theories—in motioninto language. A number of contributors tothis handbook use performative writing intheir essays, demonstrating that critiquein performance studies, like performance itself,is inventive, generative, and "on the move"(Conquergood, 1995).

WHYAHAhPERFORMAI

Many of the csubject áreas;categories at cteachers of ptoverlap severatheory, historyous other corcollection, wedomains as sepand contributotidisciplinary awithin their sp.plished recordemploy theorieother subject aiand extend thspecific domairmultidisciplinaibecause, as editrich tapestry ticrossing a rangícrosses a rangefor students, tithose interestecemploy perforncally, and artisttion is as follow

Performance an

Performancelinked. Performaliterary worlds. 1it conjoins the \¡maginings, ancthose of the liteition discuss thecal, analytical tthe institutiona!studies throughthe oral traditi-theatre; the relatitestimony and

E STUDIES Introduction xxin

"vanished,"ile savages,"nan exposesas throughAs Rebecca

iding upWho are:reated byrwoman'slianness,"e betweenc" nativehe appro-imodifica-:ity. Theires where>ular andirimitive,"American

also créaterrogate reía-is of, perfor-lis work isat the inter-L, object of:ing research8; Johnson,

:ase out andperformances well as on"Performingiscusses "Sixiting." Suchmetonymic,

uential. It iscomplexities—in motionitributors to: writing iniat critiquemanee itself,i the move"

WHY A HANDBOOK OFPERFORMANCE STUDIES?

Many of the contributors in this volume crosssubject áreas; that is, they write from severalcategories at once. For example scholars andteachers of performance may intégrate andoverlap several áreas, such as ethnography,theory, history, literature, and politics in vari-ous other combinations. However, for thiscollection, we have organized each of thesedomains as sepárate topical áreas. The editorsand contributors for each section all use mul-tidisciplinary approaches; yet, they are expertswithin their specific domains with an accom-plished record of research and teaching. Theyemploy theories and paradigms from variousother subject áreas of performance to enhanceand extend the core concepts within theirspecific domain of interest. As a result of themultidisciplinary nature of performance, andbecause, as editors, it is our intent to honor therich tapestry that constitutes performance, incrossing a range of subjects this collection alsocrosses a range of readers. This book is meantfor students, teachers, practitioners and allthose interested in how to understand andemploy performance, pedagogically, theoreti-cally, and artistically. The thematic organiza-tion is as follows:

Performance and Literature

Performance and literature are intimatelylinked. Performance is a path by which we enterliterary worlds. Performance is polyrhythmic asit conjoins the words, experiences, behaviors,imaginings, and bodies of the reader withthose of the literary text. Chapters in this sec-tion discuss the use of performance as a criti-cal, analytical tool for examining literature;the institutional formation of performancestudies through its links with literature inthe oral tradition, in oratory, and in thetheatre; the relationship between performance,tcsúniuny and the personal narradve; and

performance as, itself, a form of textualrepresentation and artistic production.

Performance and Pedagogy

This section explores the productive inter-sections between critical pedagogy and per-formance. Each essay demonstrates that theproduction, consumption, and disseminationof knowledge are critical performances inti-mately linked to activism as well as to the for-mation of institutional practices and identities.This section examines performance as consti-tutive of pedagogical theory and praxis fromvarying sites that both trouble and honorthe meanings and consequences of knowledgein action. Pedagogy is explored as embodiedprocesses and as a politics of hope.

Performance and Politics

Performance implicates power in the situ-ated nature of human interaction as well as inthe symbols that simultaneously motivate, sus-tain, and contest its legitimacy. Performancerequires locating the complexly layered microand macro enactments of politics to identifyhuman conditions and yearnings relative topower, authority, strength, and forcé. Theessays included in this section explore the prin-cipies of politics as it encompasses freedomand human desire, particularly within therealms of race, sexuality, gender, globality,caste, and class.

Performance and Ethnography

Performance is variously and simultane-ously employed as a theory, method, and eventin research and travel to ethically enter thedomains of Others. Performance and ethnogra-phy combine in this section to explore the valuéand ubiquity of performance within the ethno-graphic enterprise: in illuminating relationsand theories of space, place, and Other; in theembodied, dialogical dynamics of ñeldwork:

XXIV THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERFORMANCE STUDIES Introductioi

methods; and, in the scholarly representationand advocacy praxis of public performance.Therefore, the essays in this section examinethe uses of performance in the analysis, engage-ment, and presentation of ethnography and itsprocesses.

Performance and History

The relationship between performance andhistory goes far beyond studies of specific per-formers and specific periods, though these,of course, are vitally important. Included inthis section are discussion of the theatricalconstruction of the nation, of the relationshipsbetween performance and forms of civic andsocial life, and performance as a heuristicguiding both archiva! methodology and histo-riography. Chapters in this section willexplore varying aspects of the multifacetedrelationship between performance and history.

Performance and Theory

Performance and theory conjoin to expli-cate the meanings and implications that inherein human experience and social processes.Performance theory is employed across disci-plines to decipher the múltiple operations ofperformance (performativity and the perfor-mative) within a written text, a life world, andin domains of cognitive and imaginary expres-sions. The essays included in this section willexamine the dynamics of performance theory,e.g., its taxonomies, interrogations, andqueries. Moreover, the essays will reflect theperformance turn in western academic theoryas it invokes more embodied, subjunctive, andtransgressive claims regarding the ontology ofdifference.

CONCLUSIÓN

This handbook serves as both a forum and as aresponse to a cali for those who are interestedin employing performance whether it is

through the strategies of performance theory,the methods of performance ethnography, thepolitics of performance pedagogy, the illumina-tions of literature and performance, the revi-sionings of performance history, the claims inthe politics of performance, or the overarchingways performance is performed as a stagedevent. AJÍ these dimensions of performance aredeeply invoked while elements of each richlyoverlap with elements of the others. The poli-tics, theory, pedagogy, literature, and ethnog-raphy of performance are distinct sites ofinquiry; however the ways they naturally andinherently intersect with each other becomesa rich montage of meanings, questions, andclaims. This volume opens a range of para-digms and meditations on performance to thereader in order to illuminate and clarify thevarious ways performance can be employedacross subjects of interest and disciplinary divi-sions. Moreover, we have placed various argu-ments about and ideas of performance togetherin this collection to créate a dialectic of com-parisons and contrasts between and withinperformance studies conversations.

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