Macronutrients

Carbohydrates

Inorganic vs. Organic Inorganic vs. Organic MoleculesMolecules

Inorganic: Molecules that are not organic

Are generally simple and are not normally found in living things

Organic compounds: Always contain CARBON and HYDROGENCan contain oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur

Macronutrients vs. Macronutrients vs. MicronutrientsMicronutrients

What are the three nutrients that give you energy?

These three nutrients are called MACROnutrients Your body needs a significant amount

of these nutrients MICROnutrients

Your body still needs these nutrients, but in smaller amounts

MICROnutrients do not provide energy

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTSESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Both macronutrients AND micronutrients are essential: meaning, your body needs them to function properly

Organic Molecules: Basic Organic Molecules: Basic StructureStructure

What they are made of and how they are put together.

All the macronutrients we study in Nutrition have the same BASICS of structure Are all organic (contain CARBON, HYDROGEN)

Are made up of one type of unit repeated many times (except lipids)

Macronutrients: Basic Macronutrients: Basic StructureStructure

Single unit is called the MONOmer“Mono” means “one”

Many monomers linked together makes a POLYmer“Poly” means “many”

In other words…In other words…

Each MONOMER is BUILDING BLOCK in the structure of a POLYMERExample: each brick in a brick

house is a monomer. The house is the polymer.

CarbohydrateCarbohydratess

Carbohydrates are an essential MACROnutrient: your body needs a lot of carbohydrates to function

Carbohydrates are organic: they contain Carbon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen “Carbo” = Carbon “Hydrate” = water = H2O

Naming carbohydrates:

The GENERAL name for the MONOMER of carbohydrates is MONOSACCHARIDE Mono = “one” and “saccharide” =

sugar The GENERAL name for the POLYMER

of carbohydrates is POLYSACCHARIDE Poly = “many” and “saccharide” =

sugar

Naming Carbohydrates Cont…

Carbohydrates are recognizable by their

-ose endings

Your mission:Your mission:

To discover the common

MONOMER of carbohydrates!

Discovery of the common monomer

Enzymes are specialized proteins that catalyze chemical reactions

In the simulated activity, an enzyme (specifically, lactASE) catalyzed the reaction that breaks down lactose, the sugar in milk

You are performing an experiment and get the following results. What

happened? Explain these results in terms of monomers and polymers.

Substance Glucose Test

Water Negative

Milk Negative

Milk + enzyme Positive

Monomer? Polymer? We were working with two sugars, lactose and

glucose, trying to figure out which was which When lactose was broken down, glucose is

now present Lactose + enzyme glucose +

galactose Polymer + enzyme monomer +

monomer Look at the other way:

Monomer + monomer polymer Glucose + galactose lactose

Disaccharides & Polysaccharides

Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides bonded together Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide = Disaccharide 1 + 1 = 2

Polysaccharides consist of MANY monosaccharides and/or disaccharides bonded together Mono + mono + di + di ++++++++ = poly 1 + 1 + 1 +++++++ = 100 – 1,000’s

Further Classifying Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides and disaccharides are SIMPLE sugars

Polysaccharides, which are made of MANY simple sugars linked together, are called COMPLEX carbohydrates

Specific examples of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Examples: glucose (C6H12O6), fructose, and galactose

Disaccharides Examples: sucrose, lactose, and maltose 

Specific examples of Specific examples of CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Polysaccharides Examples: starch, pectin, cellulose, and glycogen

General Functions of Carbohydrates

Preferred source of energy for red blood cells, parts of the brain, & nervous system

If the carb is going to provide energy to drive other processes, what must happen?

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

General definition: The process by which cells transforms

energy (Glucose) into a usable form (ATP) Is a series of three reactions:

1. Glycolysis2. Krebs Cycle3. Electron Transport Chain

Aerobic Cellular Respiration - General

Cellular respiration is the name for a series of reactions in which glucose is broken down into CO2, H20; ATP is “produced”

Essential Info

Structure and function of ATP

Cell and mitochondrial structure

Electron carriers

ATPATP Adenosine

tri-phosphate

Can be easily transformed to ADP (releasing energy) and back to ATP, making it an effective molecule for this process

ATP/ADP Cycle

Electron Carriers - Coenzymes

Non-protein molecules that assist enzymes in biochemical reactions; carry electrons and hydrogen ions from one reaction to another

NAD+ NADH (“carrying”)FAD FADH2 (“carrying”)

Bio Review: Cytosol

The fluid portion of the cell’s cytoplasm

Mitochondrial StructureMitochondrial Structure

Mitochondrial Structure

Glycolysis - General

Takes place in cytosol of the cell

Breaks down 6C glucose molecules into 3C pyruvic acid (pyruvate) molecules

Produces a net gain of 2 molecules of ATP (form of energy we can use), and 2 molecules of NADH

Between glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle…

3C pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters the mitochondria where additional steps prepare it to enter the Krebs cycle

1. Hydrogen atoms are stripped from pyruvic acid and transferred to NAD+

2. Carbon atom is stripped and lost as carbon dioxide

The now 2C compound bonds to the carrier, CoA now acetyl CoA (acetic acid)

Pyruvic Acid Becomes Acetyl CoA

Step 2: Krebs Cycle (also called Citric Acid Cycle):

Mitochondrial Matrix 3C pyruvic acid from glycolysis loses a

carbon molecule and becomes a 2C molecule called acetyl CoA

Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle Bonds with a 4C compound oxaloacetate

becoming 6C Citric Acid During a series of steps, produces ATP, H

ions, and electrons carried by NAD+ (now NADH) and FAD (now FADH2)

Carbon dioxide as waste

Pyruvic acid goes to the Krebs Cycle

The Electron Transport System -

Inner Membrane Electrons from glycolysis and the

Krebs cycle enter the ETC As the electrons move across a

series of complexes in the membrane, hydrogen ions are pumped across the inner membrane (from matrix intermembrane space)

At the end of the “chain” the electrons bond with hydrogen atoms & oxygen to form water

Anaerobic Respiration

If no oxygen is available, aerobic respiration can’t happen – no final electron acceptor

In anaerobic conditions, only glycolysis can take place – and this is called anaerobic respiration or lactic acid fermentation We will come back to this process

Summary: Step 3, the ETC Electrons from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

(carried by NAD+ and FAD) “fall” down a chain of complexes in the mitochondrial membrane

The energy from the electrons “falling” pumps H+ from inside the membrane to outside

Electrons and hydrogen combine with oxygen located at the bottom of the chain and form water (H20)

With the ETC…

On one side of the membrane is now an accumulation of hydrogen ions (H+)

The human body wants to be at equilibrium After the ETC, there is a high imbalance of +

charges (b/c of H+) one side of a membrane (this is called a proton gradient)

The H+ ions “want” to diffuse back to the other side of the membrane and “even out” but the 2nd mitochondrial membrane is preventing that

Chemiosmosis

Embedded in the membrane is an enzyme called ATP synthase

H+ ions flow through the ATP synthase to “even out” the charges on both sides of the membrane

As H+ ions flow through, their energy is used to make ATP from ADP and a P

This process is called chemiosmosis

The ETS / Chemiosmosis

ETS / Chemiosmosis- View #2

AnimationsAnimations

Electron transport: http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~terry/images/anim/ETS.html

Proton gradients and chemiosmosis: http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~terry/images/anim/ATPmito.html

Summary/Overview

Step 1: Glycolysis Step 2: Krebs cycle Step 3: Electron transport system/chemiosmosis

Cellular Respiration

Overall Overall equationequation

??Glucose + oxygen ATP + water + carbon dioxide

Reactants: C6H1206, O2

Products: ATP, H20, CO2