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22K programme 450

Abeconomics 450absolute impoverishment 278, 280absolute poverty 10, 362, 411Act for the Promotion of Collective Bargaining

Autonomy (Germany) 289activation 245–57, 467activation turn 246, 257adult worker model 86AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent

Children) 328, 339Africa 349, 350, 354, 355, 359–60, 361, 416–32African Americans 328, 334African workers 422–3, 424, 425age 14, 65–6, 300, 303–4, 307, 316–17, 437

East Asian workers 463, 466and economic vulnerability 142and FSWs 477and informal workers 381Latin American workers 379, 409and low pay 127–9, 143, 239and material deprivation 483migrants 99and poverty risk 61, 62, 64, 133–4, 135, 136,

439–40and U-shaped relationship 391young employees 445

aggregation paradox 262, 263, 273agriculture 351, 352–3, 417, 421, 426AirBNB 340Airio, I. 146Akgunduz, Y.E. 265, 266Alcock, P. 9ALMPs (active labour market policies) 245,

246, 247, 248, 249, 252–3, 254, 256–7America 356

Latin 12, 349, 355, 356, 365–92, 395–411see also US (United States)

American dream 329Amsterdam treaty 247Amuedo-Dorantes, C. 148–9ANC (African National Congress) 418anchored poverty rates 11Anderson, P.M. 266Andhra Pradesh, India 479, 487Andreß, H.-J. 201, 397Anglo-Saxon regime 125

Apartheid 416apprenticeships 97Arabs 435, 443–5, 446Argentina 367, 368, 380, 383–5, 386, 391

and EPH 372households 375–8informal employment 366, 381part-time workers 382pensions 370poverty lines 371poverty rates 373, 374, 379unemployment insurance 369

Armingeon, K. 247AROP (at risk of poverty) 174–5Ashkenazim 437Asia 284, 290, 349–51, 355, 361, 449–68

workers 423, 424Asia Floor Wage 230Asian Financial Crisis, 1997 450asset accumulation 354asset-based programmes 356Atkinson, A. 40, 185atypical employment 146–50, 252, 285,

300–301, 408; see also part-time work; temporary employment

atypical workers 280, 449austerity 286, 288Australia 91, 230, 336Austria 31, 297, 298, 299, 302, 303–7, 311

childcare 271economic vulnerability 140low pay 125, 126, 127, 128, 130minimum wage 214poverty risk 131, 132, 133, 136, 137temporary poverty gap 163

automation 340average marginal effects (AMEs) 268average wage 215

Bachelet, M. 398Baltimore, US 237Bane, M.J. 195, 334Bangladesh 359

workers 239bargaining centralization 63, 64Bargain, O. 221Barrientos, A. 360Becker, G. 90–91

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494 Handbook on in-work poverty

Belgium 31, 99, 109, 221, 250discrimination 90economic vulnerability 140, 141in-work benefits 222low pay 125minimum wage 214, 215minority candidate discrimination 93net disposable income 218poverty risk 131, 133social insurance rates 218

benefit recipients’ obligations 247benefits 156, 157, 163, 164, 186, 220–24, 225

and activation policies 247, 252conditionality of 248, 257cuts 253, 257family 183, 185, 220income maintenance 435insurance-based unemployment 249–50Israel 438, 440, 445Italy 321–2, 324passive 246, 248

Bertrand, M. 360Betzelt, S. 247BFB (basic food basket) 370, 371BHPS data 207bi-dimensionality of working poverty 197–8birth, country of 96, 101, 102birth event 196, 320, 323Biswas-Diener, R. 475Blank, F. 247Blasio, Mayor Bill de 341Blinder, A. 156Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition 303BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics)/US 13, 14,

19, 20, 22blue-collar workers 466Bonoli, G. 3, 246, 248Bosch, G. 41Bothfeld, S. 247BRAC 354Brady, D. 50, 55, 109, 331, 473, 476, 477,

478 Brazil 353, 368, 379, 380, 383–5, 387

households 375–8informal employment 361, 366, 367, 381part-time workers 382pensions 370and PETI 359and PNAD 372poverty rates 373, 374unemployment insurance 369

breadwinner model, male 79, 80, 82, 85, 400, 410, 411

Brenner, M. 232Britain, see UK (United Kingdom)

British Household Panel Study 202brokers 478–9Buchanan, J. 287Bulgaria 148, 163, 218, 221, 283Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)/US 2, 11, 12,

27, 331, 333, 334Burger, A.S. 286Burkhauser, R.V. 8Busch, K. 285business conglomerates 451

California 341, 342Canada 91, 230Canberra Group 13Cantillon, B. 251, 253capital accumulation 279capital internationalization 282capitalist structure 451Card, D. 252care sector 240Caribbean 349, 355Carnes, M.E. 399CASEN (Socio-Economic Characterization

Survey) 401, 403, 404, 406cash transfers 252–3casual workers 422, 424, 425, 430CCTs (conditional cash transfer programmes)

369, 385Central-Eastern European countries 349Central European countries 65, 268centralized bargaining 418chaebols 453, 454Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty

Reduction: Targeting the Ultra-Poor (BRAC) 354

Chambers, R. 138Chapkis, W. 478Checchi, D. 38Chi, C.-C. 451childbearing 111child benefits 173, 187, 189, 218, 223–4, 225,

324Israel 435, 438, 440–41, 445, 446Nordic countries 185see also child support

childbirth 196, 207, 320, 323childcare 173, 184, 187, 188, 261–74, 400

East Asia 467Italy 322Latin America 374UK 186US 335–6, 341

child labour 358, 359, 360childless-couple households 464, 465, 466child poverty 77, 113, 114, 223, 318–19

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Index 495

childrennumber of 111, 114, 115, 120, 121, 196, 207,

222, 435, 441in poverty 119–20, 229, 318, 334, 374, 383–4,

391in single-parent households 171, 172and social assistance programmes 360

child support 173, 186, 187–8; see also child benefits

Child Support Grant (South Africa) 354Chile 354, 366, 369, 395–411Chile Solidario program 400China 12, 283, 284, 350, 353, 354, 355Chin, K.-L. 474chronic poverty 334citizenship 96, 99, 101–2, 247Citizens UK’s campaign, ‘I Care About Care’

240class 53, 307Clergy and Laity United for Economic Justice

237Clinton, President Bill 328cohabitation 114collective bargaining 41, 285, 288, 290, 299,

301Germany 298Italy 312Latin America 366see also trade unions

Colombia 360Coloured workers 422–3, 424, 425company welfare 452conditional cash transfers 354conditionality of welfare benefits 247, 248,

249, 253, 254, 257conservative-corporatist countries 148consumption 11, 13Continental countries 268contracts 406, 408–9Corak, M. 223core workers 453, 454, 457corporatist counties 92, 125, 143, 148, 187COSATU (Congress of South African Trade

Unions) 418Costa Rica 367, 368, 379, 380, 383, 384, 388

and EHPM 372households 375–8part-time workers 382pensions 370, 385poverty rates 373, 374

cost-disease 460costs of childcare 265–6coupled parents 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181;

see also parenthoodcouple households 76, 78, 84

CPIs (Consumer Price Indexes) 371Crettaz, E. 11, 42, 44, 55, 261, 283, 468criminal capital 477Croatia 271Cross-National Equivalent File (CNEF) 200Current Population Survey (CPS) 11curricula vitae (CVs), paired 95Cyprus 99, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130

childcare 271economic vulnerability 139poverty risk 131, 132, 133, 143

Czech Republicchildcare 271economic vulnerability 140income tax credits 218low pay 125, 127, 130LPT 31net disposable income 218poverty risk 136single parents 178working poor 250

Daly, M. 86Davis, J. 476–7Debels, A. 149decommodification 202, 207, 208, 279decomposition analysis 302–3de-industrialization 284, 285, 287, 290Del Boca, D. 265–6Democratic Progress Party (DPP)/Taiwan 450demographic factors 55, 56, 57, 62Denmark 31, 33, 90, 92, 184

childcare 271child support payments 173, 188economic vulnerability 139, 140, 141income tax rate 218low pay 125, 126, 127, 128, 130minimum wage 214parental leave 336poverty risk 131, 133, 136, 137, 143, 177single parents 179–80, 185

Densan 452de-standardization of employment and labour

relations 285–6developing countries 347–62Dewilde, C. 194Diener, E. 475Dingeldey, I. 247, 248DiPrete, T. 195discrimination, labour market 90–91, 93, 94–5,

101, 102, 103disposable income 11, 83, 174–5, 215, 218–19,

224, 251Italy 312in LMCs 349

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Divided We Stand (OECD) 43division of labour, gendered 9, 67divorce 53, 100, 179, 196dual-carer model, Nordic countries 184dual-earner couples 78, 172, 178, 179, 180, 181,

185, 189and childcare 263Nordic countries 184

dual-earner households 43, 110, 172, 322, 324, 334, 430

Duran, G. 397duration analyses 200

earned income 81–4, 85Earned Income Tax Credit (Taiwan) 467earner models 59earnings 58, 59, 60, 62, 72–3, 238–9; see also

low pay/wagesearnings poverty 154–5, 156; see also low pay/

wagesEast Asia 284, 290, 349–50, 449–68East-Central Europe (ECE) 282Eastern European countries 141, 142, 151–2,

268, 283, 349East Germany 298East London Communities Organisation 230Ebbinghaus, B. 299ECB 285ECHP (European Community Household

Panel) 31, 36, 37, 301–2ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin

America and the Caribbean)/UN 370, 385economic crisis, 2007–2008 277, 284, 290, 313,

322–3economic growth, to help reduce poverty 353Economic Policy Institute 332economic vulnerability 138–42, 144economy, sectoral composition of 57Ecuador 367, 368, 379, 380, 383, 384, 385

and ENEMDU 372and FSWs 476minimum wage 366part-time workers 382pensions 370poverty rates 373, 374, 389unemployment insurance 369

education 39, 61, 185–6, 196, 272, 333, 335in Chile 408in East Asia 463, 466and inequality 41and informal workers 381in Italy 318, 320, 323in Latin America 374, 379, 385of migrants 97, 100in South Africa 420, 421, 423, 424, 425, 431

EHPM (Encuesta de Hogares de Propósitos Múltiples) 372

Eichhorst, W. 245, 246, 247, 248, 249EITC (Earned Income Tax Credit)/US 188,

221, 222, 329, 338, 339–40, 341Ellwood, D. 195, 334emerging countries 283–4employment

and activation policies 252–3best route out of poverty belief 245and childcare 263in Chile 400in the EU 285–6, 287–8, 290in Israel 434, 439, 446and living wage 231–3, 234low-wage 26in South Africa 417in the US 329–30, 335–6

employment precariousness 72employment protection 175–6, 182, 187, 188,

458employment rate 39, 250–51enabling welfare state 247–8, 257ENAHO (Encuesta Nacional de Hogares sobre

Condiciones de Vida y Pobreza) 372ENEMDU (Encuesta Nacional de Empleo,

Desempleo y Subempleo) 372Engels, F. 2enterprise unionism 452–3, 454EPH (Encuesta Permanente de Hogares) 372ESES (Eurostat’s Structure of Earnings

Survey) 28, 31, 33, 36, 38Esping-Andersen, G. 3, 279, 456Estonia 17, 126, 127, 130, 140

childcare 271income tax rate 218manufacturing 284–5net disposable income 218poverty risk 131, 132, 133social insurance rates 217temporary employment 148

Ethical Trading Initiative 238Ethiopia 355ethnic economies 92–3ethnic minority 53, 239, 240EU (European Union)

and ALMPs 247and childcare 268, 269–71, 272and discrimination 90and earned income 82European employment strategy 245and global economic crisis 277and global production 282–90and ILO 12LMP Statistics 253–4

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Index 497

low pay definition 27and low-wage employment 28, 29, 30, 32–3,

37and minimum wage 214official poverty definition 10, 71and part-time/temporary work 149poverty rates 2, 15, 16–20, 250–51poverty risk of non-standard workers 152,

154–5SILC 95, 96, 97, 101

EU-MIDIS (European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey) 94, 103

Eurofound 31, 281, 285, 286, 288, 289Europe

childcare 268, 269–71, 272immigration policies 91in-work poverty rate 15, 16–20part-time employment 148spells of poverty 195see also EU (European Union)

Europe 2020 targets 245European Commission (EC) 10, 189, 281European Council 285European employment strategy 245European Monetary Union 282European Social Charter 27European Social Inclusion Process indicators

124European Structure of Earnings survey 215Euro-Plus Pact 285Eurostat 2, 11–12, 13, 15, 22, 95, 124, 281

and age criterion 14and child poverty 223and country of birth 96definition of being ‘in-work’ and ‘poor’ 151on low wages 288and poverty rates 19and temporary employment 148

EU-SILC (EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions) 11, 13, 15, 19, 31, 36, 50–51, 95, 96, 97, 101

and activation 246, 253on Austria 301–2and childcare 261, 267and effects of global economic crisis 277and hourly wages 158and hours of work 281on Italy 314on low pay and poverty 124, 125on material deprivation 41and minimum wage 214and non-standard workers 151source for longitudinal working poverty

analyses 200, 201Excessive Deficit Procedure 287

Exchange Rate Mechanism 282exploitation 278, 280–81export-oriented industrialisation 454extreme poverty 10–11, 12, 347, 349, 351, 366,

368

Fairlie, R.W. 169, 303familialism 464families 53, 149, 165, 171–90, 334, 476

benefits 183, 185, 220policies 184, 185, 467as welfare provider 62, 65, 67see also dual-earner couples; single-parent

householdsfamily size 111family status 76–7family structure 110–11, 112–22family transfers 186, 188family wage 464, 465farming 351, 352–3, 417, 421, 426‘fast follower’ model 454fast food activists 236Featherman, D. 302Federation of Korean Industries 453female breadwinners 79female employment 63, 64–5; see also under

womenfemale-headed households 114–15, 117, 118,

119, 425, 426–7, 431, 441fertility rate 464, 465, 467FGT1 and FGT2 poverty gap index 156Fields, K.J. 453Figari, F. 221Fight for $15 233, 234, 239, 240financial transfer policies 176–7, 181–3Finckenauer, J. 474Fine, B. 279Finland 15, 17, 29, 31, 139, 177, 181

childcare 271child support payments 188inadequate wages 184interhousehold transfers 183low pay 125, 126, 128, 130minimum wage 214part-time work 72poverty risk 131, 133, 136, 137single parents 180–81, 185working poor 250

Fiscal Compact 285fixed-term contracts 53, 147, 299, 304, 319–20,

399, 406Fleckenstein, T. 465, 466, 468flexible employment 147; see also part-time

work; temporary employmentFluder, R. 299

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food basket, minimum 11Food for Education programme 359food stamps 339formal childcare services 262, 266, 267, 268,

269–71, 272–3, 276formal sector 361, 392, 422formal workers 372, 380, 391, 399, 400, 406,

408Fortin, N. 169France 31, 33, 92, 93, 141, 179, 218

childcare 271child support payments 173female part-time employment 18–21low pay 125, 130poverty risk 131, 133, 137, 143social contributions and income tax 220social insurance rates 217

Freeman, R. 40‘freeters’ 449FSWs (female sex workers) 473, 474–5,

476–89 full-time, full-year workers 124, 125, 131–8,

139, 140, 143full-time work 15, 52–3full-time workers 20, 22, 33, 42, 280full-year employment 15full-year workers 17

G7 282Gardiner, K. 74Gazier, B. 278gender 9, 53, 61, 84–6, 299–300, 400

differences in working poor in Europe 17–21

and division of labour 9, 67and family structure 118–19and low pay 37, 126–7and part-time work 22, 151and poverty risk 64, 133, 134, 379, 410, 461,

466and wage discrimination 385

gender equality, Nordic countries 184gender gap 411, 461gender inequality 70–71, 72–4, 75, 76, 79, 85–6,

303and earned income 80–82, 83–4in the labour market 114, 190and living wage 239

gender paradox 70, 71–5, 79, 85, 99, 300, 303gender pay gap 317, 441Germany 83, 290, 297, 298–9, 301, 302, 303–7,

311childcare 266child support payments 173corporatist conservative regime 92

discrimination 90economic vulnerability 140exports 283female part-time employment 18–21high share of male breadwinner couples 82high share of single women in in-work

poverty 80in-work rates and gender 76low paid secondary earners 42low pay 125, 129, 288LPT 30, 31LWI 33, 34–5male breadwinner model 79manufacturing 285minimum wage 214, 289minority candidate discrimination 93part-time work 72poverty risk 133, 137, 143social contributions and income tax 220trade unions 41unemployment 286working poor 251

Ghailani, D. 9Ghent system 41Gießelmann, M. 42, 196globalization 39, 54global poverty 347, 348Goishi, N. 451Gold, S.J. 92Goos, M. 301Gordon, A. 452Grant, D. 232Great Recession 116Greece 31, 125, 133, 143, 171

childcare 268exports 283–4manufacturing 285minimum wage 214social security transfers 182unemployment 286working poor 250work intensity 163

Gutierrez, R. 196

Hagan, J. 477Halleröd, B. 53, 124Harrington, M. 328Hartz IV reforms 298, 301Hauser, R. 302Havnes, T. 266health insurance 417health issues 53heating allowances 218HFCS (Household Finance and Consumption

Survey) 314

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high-general skills 460, 465, 466, 468high pay 238–9Hipp, L. 148Hoang, K.K. 475Homerton Hospital, London 236Hong, P.Y.P. 54, 56Hood, A. 229Hoogeveen, J.G. 416, 418Horemans, J. 156hourly wages 158, 207–8, 222, 235, 239, 280hours worked 281, 287household income 13, 57, 75, 85, 202, 229,

252–3, 257effect of childbirth 207pre-tax/pre-transfer 58, 59, 60, 61, 63see also disposable income

Household Income and Expenditure Surveys (HIES) 11

household panel data 200, 201households 42–3, 53, 75–80, 134–5, 256, 300,

352consumption 356events 198in Latin America 375–8and material deprivation 476–7, 483, 486,

487needs 57number of workers 407–8in poverty 9, 86, 229in South Africa 425–31

housing benefits 218human capital 248, 408, 477, 483, 486–7, 488

accumulation 354migrants 95, 97, 101

human development income transfer programmes 355, 357–9

Human Development Index 368Hungary

childcare 271economic vulnerability 139, 140income tax rate 218low pay 126, 127, 128LWI 33minimum wage 214, 220net disposable income 218part-time poverty gap 163social contributions and income tax 220

hybrid, in-work poverty as a 3, 7, 9, 50, 67; see also bi-dimensionality

Iceland 125, 126, 127, 184, 185economic vulnerability 140, 141poverty risk 133, 136, 137single parents 178, 179

IIS (Israeli Income Survey) 436

ILO (International Labour Organization) 1, 11, 13, 19, 22, 282, 351–2, 402

and age criterion 14on discrimination 93on extreme poverty 347and LMCs 12and LMIs 348–9

Immervoll, H. 215, 217immigrants 443immigration 91, 283, 284, 285, 290, 303impoverishment 277–8, 280inadequate wages 177, 178, 182, 183–4, 185,

187, 188, 189definition 175by occupation 179, 180, 181

income 10, 11, 58, 60, 75, 110, 130–38, 143in Chile 396DPI 113earned 81–4inequality 111market 52pooling of 9see also disposable income; household

incomeincome floors 214–20, 240income gap ratio 316income maintenance benefits 435, 438, 445income pooling 70, 358income sharing 416income support 218income tax 218, 220, 221income tax credits 218income transfer programmes 355, 356, 357–9incorporation regimes 91, 92India 353, 354, 355, 358, 474–5, 479, 487Indian workers 423, 424individual earnings 60, 86individual risk of poverty 86Indonesia 355inequality

and education 41income 111labour market 185, 190wage 38–9, 40see also gender inequality

informal childcare 262, 263–4, 266, 267, 271–2, 273, 276

informal employment 348, 353, 361, 362, 473in Chile 397–8, 410, 411in Latin America 366, 367, 368, 369in South Africa 422

informal workers 2in Latin America 372, 379, 380, 381–2, 399,

402, 406, 408sex workers 475–89

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information technologies, effect on labour 301

Ingreso Etico Familiar 354, 400, 411INSEE (National Institute of Statistics and

Economic Studies)/France 14–15institutional factors 40–42, 54, 55, 56insurance-based unemployment benefit

systems 249–50integration policy 99, 103intellectual skills 466intergenerational dependency 62, 63, 65,

317 inter-household transfers 183, 185, 186International Conference of Labour

Statisticians (ICLS) 14international political economy (IPE)

perspective 277International Standard Classification of

Education (ISCED) 97in-work benefits 220, 222, 225in-work disadvantage 73–4, 76–7, 78in-work poverty rates 15–21, 22in-work rates and gender 76–7in-work tax benefits 221Ireland 31, 34, 35, 59, 149, 163, 182

economic vulnerability 140, 141family benefits 183low pay 125, 128, 129, 130, 181minimum wage 336poverty risk 131, 133, 137, 143and single parents 177, 179, 180, 185–6,

189–90social contributions and income tax 218,

221 Israel 434–46ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statisti) 287Italy 31, 35, 83, 286–7, 289, 312–24

de-industrialization 290exports 283–4high share of male breadwinner couples 82hourly wages 158income tax rate and social insurance

contribution 218in-work rates and gender 76low pay 125, 288male breadwinner model 79manufacturing 285minimum wage 214minority candidate discrimination 93poverty risk 137and social transfers 84work intensity 163

Iwai, H. 451Iwata, M. 451IWP 27, 28–9, 33, 34, 36, 37, 42

Jann, B. 169Japan 449–50, 451, 452–3, 455, 456–8, 463,

464–5, 467employment skills 459–60LWI 33poverty risk 461, 466work intensity 468

job rotation 452Jobs Act (Italy) 287Jobseeker’s Support Law (Japan) 467Johnson, K.M. 111Johnson, President Lyndon 328

Kampelmann, S. 214, 215keiretsu 452Kenworthy, L. 246, 248, 249Key Indicators of the Labour Market (ILO)

11 Kinkel, S. 284Kluve, J. 252Konle-Seidl, R. 249Korea 450, 451, 453–4, 455, 456, 463, 465,

467 employment skills 459–60fertility rate 464labour market 457–8LWI 33poverty risk 461, 466work intensity 468

Korea Development Institute 450Korea Employer Federation 453Kremerman, M. 397

labourdivision of, gendered 9, 67and labour-power 279, 280

labour market 184decentralization 435deregulation 449, 456discrimination 90–91, 94–5, 101, 102flexibilization 297–307, 454inequality 114, 185, 190and institutions 40–42Italy 315Japan 452Korea 457–8regulations 54, 398–9, 410, 445, 446Taiwan 458see also ALMPs (active labour market

policies)labour relations 285–6; see also trade unionslabour supply 285, 290, 453–4

and labour-power 279low degree of participation 102mobility 283

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recommodification of 247, 248, 253, 254, 257

and social assistance 359–60, 362Lack, K. 247Lagos, R. 400Langenbucher, K. 254latent class analysis 138, 200Latin America 12, 349, 355, 356, 365–92,

395–411poverty rates 374, 379, 389

Latinos 334Latvia 30, 148, 218, 220Lawton, K. 235leave 181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189Lee, B.-H. 453Lee, Y.J. 451Lefresne, F. 246, 247Lester, T.W. 232Levine, P.B. 266LFS (Labour Force Survey) 281, 286, 288liberal welfare regime 92, 143, 202Lichter, D.T. 111life course 194–7Light, I.H. 92Lim, L.L. 477LIS (Luxemburg Income Survey) 113–14, 174,

451, 460literacy 477, 483, 486, 487Lithuania 29, 125, 126, 127, 130, 148, 220

childcare 271economic vulnerability 140, 141minimum wage 30net disposable income 218poverty risk 131, 132

Littman, D. 236livelihood wage 452living standards 10Living Standard Surveys (LSS) 11living wage 9, 224, 228, 229–30, 231–40,

340–41Living Wage Commission (UK) 234LMCs (low- and middle-income countries) 12,

347, 348–62Lohmann, H. 42, 50, 56, 201, 261, 397

on age and in-work poverty 391on welfare states 279, 384

longitudinal data 199–202Los Angeles 237Los Angeles Alliance for a New Economy

237 Losing Ground (Murray) 328Loughran, T. 477low-educated persons 37, 39low-general skilled workers 3, 458, 459, 460,

465, 466

low pay/wages 8–9, 26–7, 28–44, 52, 196, 228–9, 252, 422–30

in the care sector 240compared with earned income 81contingent on employers’ decisions 235and discrimination 102in East Asia 450, 468in the EU 288, 290for full-time, full-year workers 124–44and gender 72–4, 75in Italy 288, 312, 322, 323in Luxembourg 177and migrant discrimination 93and part-time/temporary work 149–50in the UK 239in the US 187, 239, 332

low-wage countries 282–3low-wage workers 8, 315, 316, 319LPT 27, 28, 30–31; see also low pay/wagesLuce, S. 233, 237Lucifora, C. 38Luxembourg 125, 130, 163, 178, 180, 187–8,

189childcare 271economic vulnerability 141and hourly wages 158low pay 128, 130, 177net disposable income 218poverty risk 131, 132, 133, 136working poor 250

Luxembourg Income Study 314Luxembourg Wealth Study 314LWE 27; see also low pay/wagesLWI 27, 28–44; see also low pay/wages

Maître, B. 8, 130, 136, 141majority workers 93male-breadwinner model 79, 80, 82, 85, 400,

410, 411Malta 17, 268manual skills 466manual workers 304manufacturing 284–5, 287, 288, 417, 456Mares, I. 399marital status 114, 117–18, 121, 410market income 52marriage 100, 109, 110–11, 115, 334, 410Martin, J.P. 215, 217Marx, I. 86, 173, 261, 279material deprivation 41, 474–89maternal employment 264–7, 272, 322; see also

under womenmaternity leave 176Maurizio, R. 381Mayhew, K. 31, 37, 39

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McCarthy, W. 477McManus, P. 195means-testing 91–2, 395, 399, 400, 408, 409,

410for single parents 186, 218

menand earned income 82in Italian labour market 317and part-time employment 172and poverty risk 133, 134single workers 80

Mexico 354, 359, 476Michinaka, L. 451middle-income countries 12Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX)

103migrants 89–103, 256, 300, 303migration 53, 57, 284, 290, 300, 307Millar, J. 74Minimum Living Standards Scheme (China)

354minimum wage 30, 31, 62–3, 214–17, 218, 220,

230–31Brazil 353East Asia 467Germany 41, 289Latin America 366, 381role of 224South Africa 422, 430, 431, 432UK 228, 240US 8, 187, 239, 336, 337, 340–41, 342

mining 421–2minority workers 93MIT 229Mizrachim 437mobility into and out of poverty 194–5moderate poverty 12, 347, 351Mogstad, M. 266Moisio, P. 138monopsony 40motherhood 76; see also under womenmulti-person households 77–8multiple-earner households 134, 135, 136, 137,

141, 142, 143–44, 149Murakami, M. 451Murray, C. 328

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme 354, 358

NEA (not economically active) 418–19near poor 12needs, above-average 53, 94, 102NEETs 449neoliberalism 282, 399‘net-café refugees’ 449

net disposable income 215, 218–19, 224; see also disposable income

Netherlands 31, 33, 179, 218, 221and discrimination 90, 93economic vulnerability 139and inter-household transfers 183low-educated persons 37low pay 125, 128, 130and part-time/temporary employment 148poverty risk 131, 132, 137working poor 251work intensity 213

Neumark, D. 169New Deal programs (UK) 111, 116, 120, 121New Deal (US) 239New York 236, 341, 342New York State wage board 233New Zealand 230NIDS (National Income Dynamic Study)

417 Nikkeiren 457Nolan, B. 86, 261Nollmann, G. 56non-metropolitan area 53non-nuclear families 427–8non-regular workers 453, 456–8, 467; see also

part-time work; temporary employmentnon-standard employment 263, 300–301,

313; see also part-time work; temporary employment

non-standard workers 146–65Nordic countries 65, 184–5, 188, 213; see also

individual countriesNorthern European countries 141, 142; see

also individual countriesNorway

economic vulnerability 139, 141and inadequate wages 184low pay 125, 126, 128minimum wage 214poverty risk 131, 136, 137and single parents 185

nuclear households 427numerical flexibility 458

Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition 169Oaxaca, R. 156OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development) 33–4, 50, 149, 220, 312, 331–2

Active Labour Market Policies Database 253–4

Divided We Stand 43earnings database 28, 33Jobs Study 329

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on low-wage employment 27, 187on minimum wage 215

offshoring 284Oliveri, M.L. 384OMC (Open Method of Coordination) 247,

285on-call jobs 53One-Parent Family Payment (OFP) 186ONS 37open-ended contracts 406, 407Oportunidades 359opportunistic diversification 454organized labour 285original equipment manufacturing (OEM)

466 Orsini, K. 221The Other America (Harrington) 328own-account workers 379, 380, 381Ozler, B. 416, 418

‘Package for the Future’ (Zukunftspaket) 288paid leave 181, 182, 184, 185, 188paired résumés audit 95Pakistani workers 239panel data 201parental leave 176, 184, 187, 189, 335, 336parenthood 53, 75, 76; see also single-parent

householdsPark regime (Korea) 453Parolin, Z. 338, 342part-time work 33, 37, 72, 146–65, 181, 196,

263, 299in the EU 285, 290in Italy 313, 319, 322, 323in Luxembourg 187in the US 334and women 18–21, 172

part-time workers 22, 59, 124–5, 170, 304, 478in East Asia 457, 465, 466in Latin America 382poverty risk 132, 143secondary earners in a household 42in the UK 239

passive welfare benefits 246, 248, 253pay 238–9; see also low pay/wagesPeña-Casas, R. 9Pennycook, M. 234, 235pensioners 359–60pensions 248–9, 287, 358, 359–60, 369–70,

384–5, 417, 419Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity

Act (US) 116Peru 372, 379, 380, 384, 385, 390–91

informal workers 367, 368, 381pensions 370

poverty line 371poverty rates 373, 374, 382–3

PETI 359Piñera, S. 400Pinochet, A. 399Plantenga, J. 265, 266PNAD (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de

Domicilios) 372Poland 126, 127, 130, 148, 158, 284–5

childcare 271economic vulnerability 140net disposable income 218poverty risk 131, 133social contributions and income tax 217,

220 working poor 251work intensity 163

polarization thesis 39pooling resources 9, 62poor worker, definition 202Portugal 31, 34, 72, 80, 83, 99, 148

childcare 271exports 283–4low-educated persons 37low pay 125net disposable income 218poverty risk 133, 143social transfers 84work intensity 163

Posel, D. 360post-socialist countries 125, 143post-tax/post-transfer incomes 59, 60, 61, 63,

67, 113post-transfer poverty rates 385, 403, 405, 407post transfers poverty risks 414–15potential workers 14poverty gap, standard and non-standard

workers 156–64poverty line 60, 61, 330, 370–71, 397, 401–2,

418, 436US 11

poverty, mobility into and out of 194–5poverty pay/wage, definition 9–10poverty rates 8, 11, 15–21, 333, 334, 336

Chile 396, 404East Asia 461–2, 465, 467EU 2, 250–51Israel 434, 438, 442Korea 450Latin America 368, 373, 374, 382–3South Africa 418, 419, 420, 422, 424, 425,

430Taiwan 467US 188, 330–31, 332, 334

poverty spells 194, 195, 197, 199, 205, 208, 334

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poverty thresholds 10–11, 12, 13, 15, 27, 113

and earned income 81East Asia 461in LMCs 347–8, 350in the US 330

poverty threshold wage 229poverty trajectory 199PP (Project Parivartan) 474, 475, 476, 477, 478,

487precarious employment 53, 147, 300; see also

atypical employment‘Pre-K’ 341pre-school services 187pre-tax/pre-transfer income 11, 58, 59, 60, 61,

63pre-transfers poverty rates 385, 403–4Pribble, J. 400primary earners 42–3primary sector workers 421, 424private household workers 421, 422, 424, 425,

430production, relocation to low-wage countries

282–3, 284, 290Productive Safety Net Programme 355Productive Welfare 450productivity 279–80, 340professional occupations, and single parents

179, 180, 185, 187profit, rate of 279Progresa/Oportunidades 354, 359, 360Protestant ethic 329PSID (European Statistics on Income and

Living Conditions) 31, 37public childcare 173, 184, 188, 261public transfers 349, 385, 408, 409; see also

transfers

racial inequalities 239, 240Rajahmundry, India 479Rantzau, L.M. 235ration card 481, 483, 488Rawls, J. 195RDS (respondent-driven sampling) 479recession, 2004 to 2010 116recommodification of labour 248, 249, 253,

254, 257redistribution 59, 181–3, 184, 185, 186, 187,

189–90redistributive financial transfers 172–3Reed, E. 475, 476, 477, 478refugees 284regular workers 456–7Reich, M. 232relative impoverishment 278, 280

relative income poverty 130–38, 143, 348, 404–5, 411

remittances 102, 349reservation wages 54retirement age 248–9rights, social 91Robinson, R.V. 476Rofman, R. 370, 384Romania 15, 148, 218, 221, 283, 284–5

childcare 268, 271working poor 250

Room, G. 279Rothstein, J. 222, 340Rowntree, S. 2–3, 82, 194rural areas 53, 351, 431Russell Sage Foundation (RSF) 33, 40–41Ryckx, F. 214, 215

Sabia, J.J. 8SACP (South African Communist Party)

418 Sainsbury, D. 91, 92Salverda, W. 31, 37, 38, 39San Francisco 233Scandinavian countries 249–50, 268; see also

individual countriesSchneider, B.R. 399Schneider, F. 398Schulze Buschoff, K. 247Seattle 233secondary earners 42, 43secondary earnings, impact of 85–6secondary sector workers 424sectoral determinations 418, 422Sehnbruch, K. 397selective benefit system 223self-employed workers 53, 100, 125, 196, 407

Chile 399, 409South Africa 422, 425, 430, 431

Sen, A. 370seniority-based wage system 452, 460, 463,

464, 466sequence analysis 200Serrano-Padial, R. 148–9service workers 304, 307, 333–4, 340, 353,

456 Chile 406, 408, 409

sex work 473–5, 476–89Shaefer, L. 42Shah, S. 474–5Shinzo, A. 449–50SHIW (Survey on Household Income and

Wealth) 314SHP (Swiss Household Panel) 301–2shunto 452

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single-adult households 43, 110, 117–18, 121, 165, 427

and childcare 263coupled parents 179, 180, 181and part-time work 164

single-breadwinner families 264single-earner households 8, 80, 135–6, 137,

138, 142, 219, 252Italy 319–20, 322, 323and minimum wage 216, 217South Africa 430US 334

single mothers 76–7, 171, 360single-parent households 53, 75, 121–2,

171–90, 196, 428and childcare 263East Asia 464, 466and income support 218–20Israel 435, 437, 441, 443, 446and minimum wage 216, 217US 334, 338, 339

Six-Pack 285skill-biased technological change (SBTC) 39skill formation system 465–6, 468skill poaching 453Slovakia 125, 127, 130, 218, 271, 284–5

economic vulnerability 139, 140poverty risk 133working poor 251

Slovenia 125, 129, 218, 220, 271economic vulnerability 140poverty risk 131, 133, 143

SMEs (small- and medium-sized enterprises) 451, 454

social assistance 218, 225, 347, 348, 353–62, 400, 417

Chile 408, 409East Asia 467South Africa 432US 188, 189

social benefits 53, 91–2, 93–4, 102, 252social citizenship rights 247social classes, lower 196social-democratic regimes 92, 125, 143social insurance 91, 217, 218, 358social investment 189, 246, 247, 467social pensions 358; see also pensionssocial policy 103social protection 369–70, 392, 457, 467social rights 91social security 91–2, 182, 189, 220–21, 224, 238social services, Israel 435social transfers 54, 84, 135; see also transfers‘social wage’ 41socio-economic household panels 200

SOEP (Socio-Economic Panel)/Germany 301–2

sole household earner 128–9, 134, 141, 143, 144

Solidarity Sponsoring Committee 237Song, J.-E. 453South Africa 12, 354, 359–60, 416–32, 477South Asia 349–51, 353, 361Southern European countries 65, 125, 141,

142, 143, 149, 151–2, 312; see also ItalySoviet Union, immigrants from 443Spain 31, 93, 140, 148, 179, 283–4

childcare 266, 271discrimination 90low pay 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130minimum wage 214poverty risk 131, 132, 133, 143social contributions and income tax 221work intensity 163

Spannagel, D. 261state-led capitalism 451statistical discrimination 90Statistics on Income and Living Conditions

(EU-SILC), see EU-SILC (EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions)

strictness indicator 254strike, right to 285structural adjustment programs 286sub-Saharan Africa 350, 355, 361subsidies 358–9SUEST (seemingly unrelated estimation) 302supply and demand, labour 40Sweden 79, 83, 84, 92, 93, 130

child support 173economic vulnerability 139in-work rates and gender 76low pay 125, 126, 127, 128minimum wage 214parental leave 336poverty risk 131, 133, 136, 137

Switzerland 158, 163, 297, 298, 302, 303–7, 311childcare 271labour market 299

Taiwan 451, 454, 455, 456, 460, 463, 465fertility rate 464labour market 458low wages 450, 468poverty rate 467poverty risk 461, 466

Taiwan Social Change Survey 451TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy

Families) 111, 188, 328, 339taste discrimination 90taxation 61, 218, 220–21, 223, 224, 287, 399

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tax–benefit system 220–24tax credits 22, 217, 238temp agency jobs 53temporary employment 37, 146–7, 148–65,

170, 181, 196, 263in the EU 290in Italy 313, 316, 319, 322, 323

temporary workers, East Asia 457tertiary sector workers 424Thévenon, O. 176Thiede, B. 334, 336Thompson, M. 476The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism

(Esping-Andersen) 279Tornarolli, L. 402Townsend, P. 10Trades Union Congress (TUC) 288trade unions 41, 290, 301

Israel 435, 445Italy 312South Africa 418UK 238, 288US 237, 336, 338

traditional areas 420, 424, 426, 431Trampusch, C. 297, 307transfers 61, 172–3, 176–7, 181–3, 186, 349,

353–61for children 189in Chile 404, 408, 409insufficient 252–3inter-household 185in Italy 324in Latin America 385, 391in the US 188, 338, 339–40

transition analyses 200, 202–8Trautner, M.N. 232Treaty of Amsterdam 247The Truly Disadvantaged (Wilson) 328Trump, D. 341–2Turkish economy in Berlin 92tutelage relationships 477two-adult households 429; see also couple

households; dual-earner couples; dual-earner households

Uber 340Uggen, C. 476UIF (Unemployment Insurance Fund) 417UK (United Kingdom) 109, 111–22, 287–8,

289, 290childcare 271discrimination 90economic vulnerability 140exports 283family benefits 183

income tax credits 218incorporation regime 92in-work rates and gender 76–7liberal welfare regime 202living wage 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 235,

236, 237, 238, 239, 240low pay 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 181LPT 30LWI 33, 34–6manufacturing 285minimum wage 31, 336part-time poverty gap 163poverty risk 83, 92, 131, 133, 143single parents 177, 179, 180, 185–6,

189–90 social insurance rates 217–18social transfers 84unemployment 286Working Tax Credit 221, 222, 223work intensity 164

ULCs (unit labor costs) 283, 285underemployment 53, 116, 382‘Understanding Society’ 202unemployment 53, 54, 68, 116, 446

in the EU 285, 286, 287, 290in Italy 313in Latin America 365, 367in South Africa 416, 417, 431

unemployment benefits 189unemployment insurance 186, 369, 398, 399,

467unemployment rate 256unemployment transfers 183unified theory 54, 434unions, see trade unionsUnited Nations Conference on Trade and

Development (UNCTAD) 284universal benefit system 223Universal Credit 186upskilling 248urban areas 420–21, 423, 426Uruguay 366, 369US (United States) 109, 111–22, 328–42

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) 11child support payments 173EITC 221, 222–3family size 111how female employment is affected by

childcare 265immigration policies 91income tax credits 218incorporation regime 92informal economy 476living wage 228, 230–31, 232–4, 235, 237Living Wage Calculator 229

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Index 507

low pay definition 27low-wage employment 28, 29, 31, 37,

177 LWI 33, 35, 36manufacturing 284married couples 110migrants 89, 90minimum wage 8, 239net disposable income 218non-standard jobs 146part-time workers 42poverty line 10–11single parents 171, 179, 181, 187–8, 189spells of poverty 195, 334wage inequality 38

Vandelannoote, D. 222Van Lancker, W. 148Vanwesenbeeck, I. 475Venezuela 369Venkatesh, S.A. 476Verbist, G. 222Vermont 338Vietnam 475Villa, J.M. 360vulnerable households 429, 430, 431

wage bargaining system 435, 445, 452wage floor 214–20, 240wage inequality 38–9, 40wage rates 51, 52, 53, 57, 59wages 185

average 215discrimination 90–91, 385in the EU 286, 288in the US 336see also inadequate wages; low pay/wages

wage-setting policy 285Wallerstein, M. 62Walmart 340Weishaupt, J.T. 247, 248, 249welfare benefits 246, 247, 248, 257, 438welfare capitalism 455welfare corporatism 452welfare policy 445, 446welfare regimes 92, 99, 125, 137, 143, 279, 280,

290Latin American 396liberal 202

welfare states 50, 52, 92, 279, 384Chile 399–400enabling 247–8, 257Nordic 184retrenchment 435, 445

Wernet, S.P. 54, 56

Western Europe 277–90; see also individual countries

When Work Disappears (Wilson) 328white-collar workers 466White workers 423, 424Wilson, W.J. 328womanomics 450women

in Chile 400, 410, 411and divorce 196and earned income 81, 82in East Asia 461, 462, 466, 467and employment and childcare 264–7,

335–6 employment rate 299–300as head of household 117–18, 425–7,

431 increasing share of the workforce 118in-work disadvantage 73–4, 76in Israel 441, 442in Italy 313, 317, 323, 324in Latin America 379and living wage 239and low pay 9, 37, 72–3, 126–7, 130, 143,

423, 424and part-time work 18–21, 63, 64–5, 148,

152and poverty risk 133, 134, 303, 307as secondary earners 85–6and sex work 474–89, 476as single mothers 171–2as single parents 188as single worker 80in South Africa 420and wage discrimination 385as working poor in Europe 17–21

work events 198work–family balance 324work–family conflicts 173work–family policies 184workfare state 247, 248, 249, 251, 254, 257,

467 working hours 222, 280, 281, 286, 288–9, 290,

320The Working Poor (documentary film) 449Working Tax Credit (UK) 221, 222, 223working time 287Working Time Directive 286work intensity 51, 52, 53, 54, 57, 59, 61, 164,

165, 281, 303and childcare 262, 271, 272, 273definition 15, 267–8in East Asia 468effect on household 300in Italy 320

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low 67, 196, 253and mothers 322for part-time/temporary workers 163–4in the US 334, 341in Western Europe 304

World Bank 347, 352World Development Indicators 352

Yoon, J.H. 453young adults living with parents 65, 66

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