ls constructing high quality learning-libre

CHAPTER 2

CONSTRUCTINGHIGH QUALITY LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS FORTWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

LEARNERS

A Sociocultural Constructivist Perspective

La Tefy Schoen

INTRODUCTION

This chapterexaminesthe past,present,and possiblefuture of constructivist philosophiesof education.It explores theorigins, core tenants,andimplications of Constructivismfor twenty-first century educationalpractice. The chapteropenswith an overview of "blockbuster" Mclnerney,2005,p. 10 learningtheoriesof the twentieth centuly thathelpedto forinulate the contemporarycognitive constructivistparadigm.Includedaswell, for the sakeof contrast,is a brief summaryof the behavioristparadigm, on which many traditional approachesto educationare based.

ICCIZIng and Learning: International Best PracticePP. 25-50Copyright© 2008 by Information Age PublishingAll rights of reproductionin any fbrm reserved. 25

26 L:T.scHoEN Constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21st Century Learners 27

Constructivistcontributionsto contemporaryschoolingpracticesand theconstructivism are discussed and several versionsof constructivism,including radicalconstructivism,cognitive constructivism,social constructivism, and socioculturalconstructivismare discussed.Key conceptscommon to mostversionsare identified. Implications for classroom practices,leadershipandmacrolevelconcerns,such as curricula, andpolicy are discussed.Socioculturalconstructivismis recommendedas a guiding philosophy for educationalsystemsof the futurebecauseit is groundedin someof themost influential learningtheoriesof the twentiethcentury. Practicalconsiderations forconstructivistschoolleaders,are identified, includingsuggestedcurricularrevisionsand dealingwith philosophicaldualism.

THE ORIGINS OF COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

In recent years, constructivismhas garnered.much attention in educational andpsychologicalliteratures.To illustrate this, a quick searchof theEducationResourcesInformation Centerdatabase revealed 4,166selections publishedbetween1988 and 2008 using "constructivism" as a keyword, but in the preceding20 yearsonly 90 citationswere identified. Itseemsconstructivismhas explodedonto the learningtheory landscapeinthe past20 yearsandcaptured theimaginationof researchersand practitionersalike.

Constructivismin educationis essentiallya loose setofrelatedassumptions about learning built on foundationalconceptsin educationalpsychology and philosophy of education. A brief review of the literaturesituatesthis "new" paradigmin its historical contextand revealsthat contemporary constructivistthoughtrepresentsa synthesisof many learningtheoriesdevelopedover the last century.The following reviewspansover100 years of researchand theoryandhighlights a few of the biggestideasof the twentieth centurythat informedthe developmentof contemporaryversionsof constructivism.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Educationalpsychologyhas contributed much to our understandingofhuman learning. Categoriesof learning theoriesinclude cognitive constructivism, social constructivismor social learning, behaviorism, andhumanismJoyce,Showers,& Rolheiser-Bennett,1987,as cited in McInerney,2005 Learningtheoriesdiffer in anumberofways, including epistemology i.e. view of knowledge and how it is acquired, views onmotivation for learning, and researchtraditions. This chapteris geared

towardpraxis, the applicationof learningtheory to educational practice;therefore,the focusof the review is on implications forclassroominstruction, schoolcurriculum,educationalleadership,and educationalpolicy.

COGNITIVE THEORIES

Many of the theoriesthat havebeeninfluential in the field of educationhave been discontinuousor "stage" theoriesof human development,which assertthat children progressthrough invariantstagesin a predictable sequence.Stagetheoriesexplain thatchildren developqualitativelydifferent understandings,abilities, and beliefs at each stage Epstein,1990. From an educational standpoint,this understandingresulted inwidespreadacknowledgementthat childrenlearn differently than adults,consequently,schoolsceasedto view childrenas smalladultsandbegantooffer "developmentallyappropriate"learning experiencesfor, each agegroup. Therefore,contemporarykindergartenslook and function differently thansecondaiyschools.A few of the mostprominentdevelopmentaltheoriesare discussedin the next section.

Piaget

COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM

JeanPiaget,a Swisspsychologistborn in 1896, is oneof the best-knownchild psychologistsamongteachers Flavell,1996. Piaget believed thatchildreninnately interactwith their environmentand try to make senseoftheir experiencesPiaget, 1952; Piaget & Garcia, 1986. In Piaget’sview,knowledgecomesfrom action Wadsworth, 1996 and cognitive abilitiesdevelopgradually as the child movesthrough a seriesof stagesin whichmental processesbecome increasinglycomplex and sophisticated. Hedescribedfour distinct stages,each characterizedby the emergenceofnew abilitiesandwaysof processinginformation.

Cognitivedevelopment,accordingto Piaget,occursas children generate schemes,or mental patternsthat guide their behavioi Changesinthinking are producedas childrenassimilatenew objectsand experiencesinto their preexisting schemes, or accommodateby adjusting theirschemeto fit interactionswith a new objector concept.

Piagetstressed thatyoung children needto exploretheir environmentto learn;his work challenged teachersto establishlearningenvironmentsthat allowed studentsto independentlyexplore and interact with dcmentsof their environment. It also helped peopleto realizethe individ

28 L T. SCHOEN Constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21st Century Learners 29

ual nature oflearning, and readinessto learn at given levels.This ledmany teachersto seek alternativesto traditional didactic approachestoteaching.Piaget’smostenduringlegacy is that he helpedto shift the focusof educatorsonto the pwcss of thinking rather than the product Berk,1997,p. 244.

Bloom

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom and associatesBloom, Englehart,Furst,Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956 publisheda taxonomy that classifies instructional tasks into six types i.e., knowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,synthesis,andevaluation, rankedaccordingto thecomplexity ofthecognitive processesrequired.Bloom’s taxonomy hasbeenwidely usedin teacher educationand professionaldevelopmentprogramsto explainthe rangeof cognitive skills learnersshould be ableto execute.

Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a ready way for teachersto structurelearning activities to facilitate different levels of thinking; his workaffectedthe way teachersplan andassesslearning.Theadventof Bloom’sTaxonomy marked the beginning of educatorsfocusing on "thinkingskills." More simplisticcognitive skills on Bloom’s Taxonomy i.e. knowledge recall and basic comprehensionare sometimesreferred to as"Lower Ordei’ Thinking" LOT -and the more complex skills, such asanalysis,synthesis,and,ealuation as "Higher OrderThinking" HOTNewmann & Wehlage, 1993. A number of comprehensivereformapproachesfrom the late I 980s forward have been built around thenotion of encouragingHOT in schools. For example, the Coalition ofEssential Schools,a schoolreform initiative built by American researcherTheodore Sizet; is premisedon the idea that the primary purpose ofschoolingis to teachstudentsto use their mindswell Sizer, 1992, p. 60.

Bruner

TheAmericanpsychologist,JeromeBrunci; presenteda frameworkforunderstandingprocesseslearnersemploy to developcognitive structurese.g. schema and mentalmodels, organize information, and extractmeaning.According to Brunei; learning involves transforminginformation usingself-generatedcognitivestructuresthatallow the learnerto testand refine new understandingsanddevelopreasoningskills. In this way,learners "discover meaning" and employ cognitive schemesto "gobeyond" the information providedto developnew constructions.

Bruner introducedthe conceptof the spiral curriculum, which advocatesexposureto complexconceptsat an earlyage,andperiodicallyrevisiting them at laterpoints.Throughan activeprocessof discovery, learnerstestearly ideas,constructions,and propositionsagainstprior knowledgeandpresentinformation to developmoresophisticatedunderstandings.

Many contemporary teachersare familiar with discoveiy learningmethodsBrunei; 1966 which involve learnersmanipulatingandexploring ideas in order to deducemeaning,rather than having informationexplained to them. Critics of this approachexpressconcern for theamountof time this processtakes,especiallywhen studentsmake severalwrong assumptionsand must explore and testnumerous ideas before"discovering" the targetconcept.Teachers facedwith high stakesaccountability, basedon standardizedtests of a large volume of material, areunderstandably hesitantto employ this, and similarmethods.

Bruner’s ideasprovide explicit directivesfor structuringthe presentation of information to facilitate learning. I-!is ideas haveimplicationsforclassroominstructional methods,as well as largerscale systemicissuesofcurriculum and instructional design.Today manyteachersare familiarwith publishedspiral texts, commonlyused in Math and other subjects,that presentconceptsbriefly and simplistically in the early stages,thenrevisits them from time to time, gradually exposing learnersto increasingly complex information. Spiral curricula havebeencriticized for notproviding longerexposuretopics,making them difficult to usewith traditional Behavioristmethods,such asdirect instructionSnidei; 2004; seethe upcomingsection titled Behaviorism.

Perry

William G Perry, an educationalresearcherin the mid 1 900s, is bestknown for his work on postadolescentdevelopment. Like Piaget, hebelievedlearnersprogressthrough developmentalsequences,but he feltPiaget’s idea of static stageswas too rigid. He observed that learnersapproachedand understoodknowledgefrom at least threeperspectivesduality, multiplicity, and commitment. Progression through theseincreasinglycomplex conceptualizationsdependson anumberof factorsboth internale.g. personalexperience& observationsand externale.g.,race, culture to the individual. Perry also assertedthat the learner’sframe of referenceis context specific, valying for the samelearnerfromeventto eventor from subjectto subject.This suggests thatlearningprocesses arenot bound to a lockstep progressionthrough preset linearstages,but that developmental transitionsare more fluid as learnersacquire progressivelycomplex learning processesPeriy, 1999. Perry’s

30 L. 1. SCHOEN constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21st Century Learners 31

work supportsthe useof differentiatedinstruction, basedon the learner’sdevelopmentin eachsubjectarea.Oneapplicationof this is ability grouping for instruction, a practicewidely criticized becauseit limits learners’exposureto strategiesusedby others,especially moreexperiencedor successfulpeers.

Maslow

HUMANISM

Humanismis a branchof philosophythat affirms the intrinsic worth ofall humans.There are many variationsof humanisticthought. AbrahamMaslow is perhapsthe mostwell known psychologistin thisvein. Maslowstudied successfuland gifted peoplein the middle of the twentieth century. He developeda hierarchyof humanneedsand theoriesof motivation and personality developmentbasedon environmentalconditions.Humanists, like Maslow, influenced educational practice by drawingattention to the needto focus onthe whole person, rather than exclusively on learning.

Current humanisticresearchis being done by researcherslike AlbertBandura1999,whosework involvesunderstandingsuchconceptsas theeffects of perceptionsof self-efficacy onvarious human endeavorsliketeaching.Humanismintersectswith social constructivismon topics likethe effect of teachercaringon the learning.An exampleof humanismatwork in schools is the provision of mealsor school suppliesto economically disadvantagedstudentsor the housing of counselors,nurses orsocial serviceprovidersat the school site.

BEHAVIORISM

Behavioristlearning theorystandsin starkcontrastto the other learningtheoriesincluded in this chaptei A few of the core conceptsassociatedwith behaviorismare outlined briefly. Unlike the other learning theoriescovered in this chaptei;Behaviorism did not contributeto the development of constructivism,but insteadformed the foundationfor many traditional approachesto education.

Watson

JohnWatson, apsychologistin the early 1 900s,was interestedin stimulus-responsereactions.He applied Ivan Pavlov’s notion of conditionedreflexes,derivedfrom studiesof animals thatsalivatedupon exposureto a

stimulus in anticipation of the reward food that usually followed the

stimulus, to the study of humanbehavioLWatsonwrote that psychology,

from the behaviorist perspective, is a purely objective experimental

branchof natural scienceconcernedwith the prediction and controlof

behaviOiFor Watson,subjectivity hadno placein science.

He thought of knowledgeas action or rules to inform actions i.e., to

know is to do, or know how to do. For Watson, and many behavioriststo

follow, knowledgewas equatedwith objectively vei’ifiable facts. For this

reasonbehavioristare sOi1letilnesreferredto as objectivists, areferenceto

their insistenceon objectivity ii’id Opposition to subjectivity. Watsonbecamepresidentof the American Psychological Associationin I 91 5 and

behaviorisnibecamethe dominanttheoretical frameworkin psychologyfrom about 1920 until the latter part of the centuly.

Behavioristbelieve that the primary aim of educationis the transmis

sion of knowledge,an orientationthat favorsdidacticmethodsof instruction, such as lectures, reading, copyingof notes, memorization and

recitation. Tbday Behavioristassumptions underlaymany educationalpolicies, curricula, andpracticeswidely used in schools Sizei; 1992.

Many teachers, adlministratOrs, and citizens value these methods ofinstruction, despite a decline of Behaviorism in psychological research

since the I 980sMclnerney,2005.

Skinner

B. F. Skinnerpracticedpsychologyfrom the early I 930sthrough 1970.He wis a strict behaviorist concernedwith understandinghow outsideforces determinedbehavior. He developedtheconceptof operant conditioning, the modification of intentionalas opposedto reflexive behaviorwith useof an antecedent orconsequence.Skinnerexperimentedwith theeffects of different types of consequenceson behavioi He exploredtheuse ofpunishmentand reinforcementas methodsto control behavior,andnotedl differencesin effectswhen a new consequencee.g., a punishmentor reinforcementwas addedor anexistingconditionwas removed.Thus,the terms positive and negative punishmentand reinforcement werecoined.

Skinner investigated notonly the effect of a single consequenceonbehavioi;but also theeffect of a seriesof consequences,giving rise to theuseof reinforcementschedules.His work led to theuseof behaviormodification techniquesin schools.The term "positive reinforcement"becamea common phrase,if not practice, among teachersandschools every-

32 L. T. SCHOEN Constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21st Century Learners 33

where. Positive reinforcementis still a popular method of motivatinglearners.

From a behaviorist perspective,the motivation for learning is toattain a favorablecondition through executingtargetbehaviors.A common exampleof this is the grading of studentwork. The influence ofbehaviorism can be seenon teacher preparationprograms that trainteachersto develop "behavioral objectives"for students. Behavioristsfocus on observationsof the execution of intentional behavioras evidenceof learning.

Behaviorists,like Watsonand Skinnei; believein one objective reality,which canbe observedand describedby facts. Facts,from this perspective,are statementsof reality, based on objective observations.Therefore,otherdescriptionsof reality, not objectively verifiable, are notconsideredfact, but subjectiveopinions,or incorrect statements.Subjectivityand scienceare viewedas incompatible.

Behaviorist teachinginvolves conditioning the studentto respondtocertain stimulie.g. the presentation offacts to belearnedthrough reinforcing appropriatebehaviori.e., actionsthat leadto recall of the information. These learning environments focus on transmitting "theknown," from onewho knows i.e., the teacher,to thosewho do not knowi.e., students.Little value is placed on learners constructingpersonalmeaning.Knowledge,and thetransmissionthereof, is centralwithin this.paradigm.Behaviorist methods. havebeen effectively used in computersoftwareand electronicgamesthat drill studentsin skills andoffer consequencesfor corrector incorrectexecutionof targetskills.

Behavioristapproachesto assessmentfavor useof testsand nonsubjective forms of measuringknowledgeacquisition.Uniform assessmentsarefavored becausethe facts are thesamefor all. Standardizedtestingof curriculum contentand masterylearningapproachesare productsof behaviorism in schools,as is the assumptionthat thatdemonstrationof contentknowledgeis the primary means of identifying "highly qualified" NoChild Left Behind Act, 2001 teachercandidates.Constructivistsrejectthis premise becauseit negatesthe importanceof pedagogyin creatingenvironmentsconduciveto studentlearning.

The harshestcritics of behaviorismin educationalpractice are constructivist reformerswho, by and large, rejectthis paradigm.Behavioristclassroomsare characterizedas being "teacher-centered"by constructivists, whb favor "child-centered" environments.At the turn of the twentyfirst century,many educationalpractitionersandpolicymakersfind themselvespulled betweenthese two fundamentallydifferent Hayes, 2007;Schoen& Fusarelli,2008 competingframeworks.Effects of thisphilosophical dualism are discussedin latersections.

PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Dewey’s Pragmatic Social Constructivism

Ainerican pragmaticsocial philosopher,JohnDewey, a contemporaryof Piaget and Vygotsky, wrote extensivelyon learning and educationthroughouthis life 1882-1952.Dewey’s philosophiesseeDewey, 1895/1971a, 1922/1981, 1925/1985,1938/1971b, are somewhatreminiscentofRousseau,the eighteenthcentuly French philosopherwho believed manis essentiallygood and shouldenibracehis naturaltendencies;like pursuing his socialnature.Dewey was concernedwith building a bettersociety.His work in educationdealslargelywith the role of school insupportingdemocracy.

Dewey also wrote about individual thought processesand suggestedinstructional methodsandl curricular emphasesthatwould increasemotivation for learningand enablestudentsto participate morefully in society. He advocateda "democratic" education in which learners have avoice in what they learn. Healso stressedthe importanceof social andphysical activityas part of the learningprocess.He contrastedthesenatural methodsof learningwith the traditional schoolsof his day, which hedescribedas "cold" anddead.

Dewey’s philosophy of educationhas beenreferred to as "pragmaticsocial cOflstructivisrn," primarily becausehis explanationsof how cognition develops bear much similarity to Vygotsky’s social constructivismLarochelle, Bednarz, & Garrison, 1998. Dewey’s learning theoiy hasbeeninfluential in educationalpractice.He urgededucatorsto considerthe entirecontextof learningand its impact on the individual, includingthe environmentalethosof schoolsand the communitywithin which thestudent, as a creativeindividual, must function in organic interconnection" Garrison, 1998, p. 60. However, Dewey warned thateducationmust becarefulnot to focus oncognition to the exclusionof the physicaland the affective domains; forDewey, the three were inseparableandequallyvaluablein learningShook, 2000. He urgedteachersto includethe body, its actions,and its passionsmore predominantlyin the curriculum Garrison, 1998,p. 43.

Dewey’s learning theory was pragmatic; he focused on the practicalaspectsof learning. His theory includedthe following premises:

* Learnersshouldbe active,moving andinteractingwith peopleandobjects;

* Studentsshould engagein projectsand inquiryas tools of learning;

* Studentsshouldl peruse andhavethe flexibility to investigatetheirnatural interests;

34 L. 1. SCHOEN Constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21st Century Learners 35

* Studentsshould do somethingto acquire knowledgein order toreally understandit;

* Acquired knowledge shouldbe usedfor somereal-worldpurpose;

* Social interactionis a necessaiypart of the learningprocess;

* Studentsshould be involved with the communityas a part of theirlearning;

* Studentsshould understandrecognized disciplinary knowledgeandprocesses;and

* Learningis a naturalpartof life, rather thanpreparationfor life.

Dewey’s writings reflect key componentsof constructivistthought.Thenotabledifferencebetweenthe writings of Dewey and the constructivistthinkersdiscussedearlier is that Dewey,being a social philosopher,not adevelopmentalpsychologistbasedhis theoriesnot on empirical research,but on naturalisticobservationsand personalexperience.His ideaswereinfluencedby his viewsof thenature ofmanand his passionatebelief thatthe survival of democracydependson an educatedcitizenry. Consequently, the content of the curriculum was important to Dewey. Hebelieved thatthecurriculum mustbe flexible enoughto allow time for thestudentto actively exploretopicsanddevelop projects that holdmeaningfor them. Dewey stressed thatthe curriculumcontentshouldbe malleableenough to allow studentsto investigate their own interests.He did notagreewith presentingcontent to studentswho had done nothing toacquire the knowledge,becausehe felt that, it was meaninglessto SW-

dents. Like the constructivists,Dewey thought of learning as makingmeaning. He opposedmemorizing information. This was a stark departure from conventional thoughtat the beginningof the twentiethcentury,whenbehaviorismwas in its prime.

Dewey was not in opposition to somestandardizationof content,butfelt that if students experiencethe conceptsin sonic practical way, itmeansmoreto them.For Dewey, theprimary dangerin a standardcurriculuni was that studentswould be handed"cold storageknowledge"without exploring, manipulating, or using it. Hence, they would only learninformation at a rote level, andhave little real understandingof its valueHickman & Alexander, 1998.

Dewey strongly believed thatstudentsshould learn about topics withrelevanceto their life beyondschool.He felt that understandingthe relevanceof content to their life has amotivational impacton the learner,promptingthem to voluntarily becomemore engagedin learningand tonaturally employ strategiesthat help them learn at adeeperlevel e.g.,physically interactingwith objectsand socially interactingwith people.

Dewey’s suggestionssometimescalledinstrumentalismor experimentalism were controversialat the time they werewritten. The ideas of anonstandardcurriculum or of studentself-selectionof what or how hewould learn, were radical concepts,harshly criticized by some, but welcoined by others.His work usheredin the progressiveeducationmovement roughly 1902-1955 in the United States. ProgressiveEducationwas never universallyacceptedby Dewey’s contemporariesMaxcy, 2002,despiteindicationsof its effectiveness. ProgressiveEducationreacheditsheightsin the depression.

Pastand current criticismsof progressiveor neoprogressiveeducationa brief resurgencein the I 960sblamethis learningtheory on many ofsociety’s ills, including declines in traditional values, patriotism, andrespectfor authority, an abandonmentof religion, low standardizedtestscoresand increased discipline problems.While Deweyanthought hasnevei’completely diedout, recentmovementssuch as backto basics, highstakestesting, curriculum standards, andschool accountabilitylimit itsgrowth in someplaces.

Recently, progressiveeducationwas referredto as one of the "Top 10Education Eventsof the Twentieth Century" Brodinsky, 1999. Dewey’slasting influence can be seenworldwide in educationalprograms thatemploy, "active learning," such as the Finish schoolreforms at the beginning of this centuryfor an Overview, seethe chapterby juhani Tuovinen,in this volume,Kimonen & Nevalainen,2001,or Institutefor EducationalResearch,2002. Dewey’s ideas havegreatly affected the evolution ofinstructionalmethods."Hands-onlearning"is no longerconsideredradical by mainstreameducators.Contemporamymethods stemming fromDeweyan theory include whole language,problem-based learning,andintegratedcurriculum. I’roponents of thesemethodssee child-centeredapproachesas more humanizingand a viable antidote to overly impersonalandbureaucraticmodelsof education.

Deweyan thought also influenced curriculum changes.Differentiatedinstructionis a twenty-firstcenturyderivativeof Dewey’s conceptof a flexible curriculum. His ideas alsoinfluencedthe integrationof nonclassicalcontent,or vocational education,into the mainstream curriculum.Classessuch as home economicsand woodworkingcame to beviewed as legitimate,dueto their meaningfulnessto the individual as amember ofsociety.

Perhapsthe most influential Deweyanidea is the relevanceprinciple.Today many constructivisteducationalreform movementsuse Dewey’srelevanceprinciple to reevaluatecurricularcontent.Authenticassessmentand pedagogyNewmann & Wehlage, 1995 approachesare basedoncritical examinations of instructional content, learning tasks, and/orassessmentsusingthe frame of relevanceof content to the students’livesbeyondthe schoolwalls.

36 L. T. SCHOEN

Historically, attemptsat wide-scale implementationof constructivistlearningtheoiy haveproven problematic.Dewey, himself, was frustratedby the implementationof his ideasbecausehe felt that most teachersandschool leadersdhd not understandthe deeperaspectsof his learningtheoiy. He commentedthat changeshe saw were mostly "atmospheric"anddid not "really penetrateand permeatethe foundationsof the educational institution" as quoted in Hayes, 2008 p. 27. Similar difficultieshave beenreportedwith contemporaryteacherstrying to break out of atraditional behaviorist paradigm Ball, 1990; Elmore, 2007; Elmore,Peterson,& McCarthy, 1996;Wilson & Peterson,2006. This implies thatthat teacheror school level integi’ity of the model is a factor in the successul systemicadoption of constructivism. Lackof widespreadunderstanding of, or buy-in to constructivism leads to schools characterizedbyphilosophical dualism, bringingwith it inconsistentlearning goals andprocesses.

CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTIONS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Radical Constructivism

Von Glasersfeid. Ernst Von Glasersfeldis associatedwith a branch ofconstructivism sometimesreferred to as radical constructivism. Hedescribed constructivism.as a theory of knowledgewith roots in philosophy, psychology,and cybernetics.He wrote on the "thinking organism’scognitive isolation from reality" Von Glasersfeld, 1988. In his view,

learning is the product of the brain organizingitself and is an adaptivefunction,wherebyan organismmakessomethingfit or viable p. 13; it is,therefore, impossibleto know towhat extent mental constructionsrepresent anontological reality. Someconstructivistsaccepthis views on epistemology andontology,while othersreject his argumentsas circu1ai

Social Constructivism

Vygotsky. Lev Vygotsky is commonly recognizedas the father of contemporary constructivistthought.Vygotsky, a Russianpsychologist, wroteaboutcognitive developmentin theearly l900s, thoughhis work was notwidely ead in the Westernhemisphereuntil the l970sand l980sMcliierney, 2005; Slavin, 2000. Vygotsky 1978 emphasized therole of thesocializationon the developmentof cognition. He believed that"sign systems" surroundinga child contributeto cognitive development.Sign systems refer to symbols used by a culture to communicateand solve

I

Constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21st Century Learners 37

problems e.g., systemsof speaking, writing, and counting. Vygotskydefined learning as the acquisition of signs through interactionandobservationof others.Hebelievedcognitive developmentoccursthrougha processof "self-regulation" in which the child internalizes observedsignsandusesthem to think andsolve problemsindependently.

Vygotsky’s work on scaffolding and the zone of proximal developmentemphasizethe importanceof social learningBivens & Berk, 1990. Scaffolding refersto the help or assistanceprovide1by morecompetentpeersor adults, whichprovides children the opportunity to develop greaterunderstandingand competence.Typically, scaffoldinginvolvesproviding

a novice with a greatdeal of support in the earlyphasesof learningandthen gradually phasingout the support and requiring the child to takeincreasingresponsibility, untilthe task can becompletedalone.

Vygotsky’s discoveiy of the zone of proximal developmentZPDVygotsky, 1978,pp. 85-91 led him to concludethat the internal development of children defined as maturity level or the ability to solve problems independently,p. 86 and their learningdefined as assimilationofthe fundamentalsof scientific knowledge,p. 84 are not the samething.Consequently,internal processesand learning do not progressat thesamerate betweenchildren, nor within a single child.. He asserted thatachild’s actual developmentallevel is indicative of functions that havealready matured, as indicatedby what the child can do independently.Howevei; he notedthat childrencan often completemore complexproblems inthe presenceof others,than theycanalone.

Prior to Vygotsky’s work, psychologistshad given noseriousconsideration to the idea thatwhat children can do with the assistanceof otherscould shed lighton their niental development.Vygotsky’s notion of ZPD,definedas the distancebetweena learner’s actualor independentlevelandhis level of potential develpmentunderadult guidancep. 86, provided insight into maturationil cognitive processesthat arejust developing and enablefurther learningto takeplace.

The conceptof Z1’D called into questionthe role of imitation in learning. Most of Vygotsky’s contemporariesconsideredimitation a mechanical processof no real value in understandingdevelopment.However,Vygotsky demonstratedthat a personcanonly imitate thatwhich is in hisor her developmentallevel by explainingthat no matterhow many timesyou show a persona complex mathematicequationthat is beyond theirlevel, theycannotimitate it. He alsobelievedthat highermentalfunctioning occurs in collaborationwith othersbeforeit existswithin the individual, leading him to state that "human learning presupposesa specificsocial nature by which children grow into the intellectual life of thosearoundthem" p. 88.


Vygotskyian theomy suggests thatteachersshould organizeclassroomlearningexperiencesto includeboth independentactivities that studentscancompleteon their own, and more complex problemsfor studentstosolve collectively. This resultedin the emergenceof moresocially interactive instructional methodsin classrooms,such as the useof cooperativegroupsand peertutoring.

Vygotsky’s assertionthat social interactionfacilitateslearning has alsospilledover intoprofessionaldevelopmentand administrativepractice,as

evidencedby the emergenceof writings on professionallearningcommunities DuFoui; 1998 and calls to restructureteachertime to allow forgreatercollaborativeplanningStoll, Fink, & Earl, 2003.

Another important contribution Vygotsky’s work was redefining thei-ole of the teacher. According to Vygotsky, the teachershould providescaffoldingby giving more assistancein early phasesof learning, butthat

as the lessonprogresses,the learnershould progressivelytakemoreinitia

tive andresponsibility.As studentsprogress,the roleof theteacherdiminishes, and the studentbecomesmore responsiblefor his own learning.Therefore,ultimately the teacherbecomesa facilitator of studentlearning, ratherthan a directorof learning.This concepthasbecomea centraltenantof social constructivistthought.

Contemporamyintei-est inVygotsky’s social learningtheory canbe seenin researchtopics involving the ZPD, scaffolding, mediated learning,reciprocalteaching,distributedlearning, collaborativelearning, learningnetworksandlearningcommunitiesMclnerney, 2005.

SOCIOCULTURAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Mclnerney 2005, p. 7 identifies sociocultural constructivism as a type ofconstructivism thatseeks tounderstandthe role of engagementin widersocial, cultural, amid historical contexts. Constructivismand socioculturalconstructivismhold fundamentallysimilar assumptionsseeCore Constructivist Conceptsabout Learning relative to epistemology andpractice, but differ in the scopeof the factors they investigatewith regardtolearning.sociocultural constructivismextendsits focus to socialand cul

tural factorsthat potentially impactlearning. Socioculturalconstructivistsare concernedin not only contextualvariables affectingthe learning ofindividuals; but also thoseaffecting the learningenvironment.Foi- example, this might include studiesof studentlearning in i-elation to schooldynamks,or educationalpolicy upon teacherselectionof instructionalmethods.Due to the consensuson com-eassumptionsof epistemology andcognitive growth, sociocultural constructivismcould be considei-ed anextensionof social constructivism,the preeminentversion of constructiv

ism.

CONSTRUCTIVISM AND SCHOOLING PROCESSES

Social cognitive constructivismis basedon the view of cognitive development as a process,throughwhich individuals actively constructsystemsofmeanings,and understandingsof reality, through their interactionsandexperiences withtheir envii-onment.In i-ecentyears,this hasbecomethepredominantview of child developmentaround the world, a phenomenon psychologistRobertSlavin 2000 refersto as a "constructivistrevolution."

Most educationalpsychologydepartmentsteach constructivisttheoriesof child development.This conversionto constructivismin highereducation hasresultedin the increasein teachers,graduatesof theseprograms,who believethat they al-c responsiblefor creating conditionsof activeengagementin the classroom.This has,in some instances,ci-eated a stateof disequilibrium in schools,when the constructivistteachingmethodsemployedby these teachersdiffer substantiallyfrom school norms.Thisconceptis exploredin the subsequentsection,A School Divided AgainstItself.

CORE CONSTRUCTIVIST CONCEPTS ABOUTLEARNING AND LEARNING ENVIRONS

While there am-c a numberof versionsof constructivism,they are essentially variationson the samesetof premisesErnst, 1995. Most of the differencesamongconstructivistsinvolve the extentto which knowledgeisviewed as an individual constructionand the extentto which it is viewedas a being coconstructedthrough social interaction. Ernst 1995describedthesedistinctionsas a matter ofdegreeand suggestedthat onemight run the risk of "wasting time by worrying over the minutiae of differences"p. 459. In general,most constructivistsassociatethe followingattributeswith high quality learningenvironmentsadaptedfrom Lebow,1995:

* Active engagement: learnersam-c directly involved in actions thatsupportcognitionand intentionallearning;

* Authenticity andrelevance:learnersattribute valueto the learningtask and see therelationshipbetweenthe knowledgeto be gainedand successfulparticipation in culture;

Collaboration andcommunity: noncompetitivesocial interactionoflearnerswith others aboutthe nature ofthe contentand its meaning to themselvesamid others allowing for the coconstructionofknowledge;


* Learnerautonomy:the learnerhas somedegreeof control overorself-selectionof the contentor methodsof learning;

* Cognitive complexity: learningtasks are sufficiently representativeof reality, with a myriad of web-like interactingforces that mustbeorganizedandmadesenseof;

* Generativity: learner engagement in disciplined inquimy thatinvolves using existing knowledge to discoveror formulate newideas,concepts,or information;

* Multiple perspectivesalso calleddual realities: experiencesallowlearnersto seethe sameinformation in different ways, from differing pointsof view or use itfor different purposes;

* Pluralism: learnersdevelopa flexible view of reality, rather than afixation on one singleview of reality as correct;

* Reflectivity and metacognitiveawareness:learners think abouttheir own learning processes,are involved in identifying strategiesto increasetheir learning,andself-monitorpmogress;

* Self-regulationandownership:learnersare givenagencyandaskedto assumepersonalresponsibility for their own learning;

* Transformation: learnersare expectedto comprehendmeaningand to use insights gained to reorganizesynthesize,or transforminformation into new formsor for somenew purpose;and

* Productivity: learnersame* expectedto do somethingwith knowledgeacquired,or use it insomeway that is beneficial to themselvesor others.

CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

ConstructiviSm is basedon the assumptionof multiple perspectivesofreality or multiple realitiesthemselves;therefore, knowledge canbe subjective. Constructivistteachersam-c less likely to focus onstudentsfindingthe "correctanswei" Teachem-sseekto havestudentsconstructtheir ownunderstandings,with the help of others.Teachersstmess that studentsacceptotherperspectivesandencourage studentsto listen to and to interactwith others,sometimescreatinga newsharedconstructionof reality.

Constructivist classroomsare often referredto as "learner-centered"becausof their emphasison the active involvementof the studentsintheir own learning. As Slavin put it, "in a student-centeredclassm-oom,theteacherbecomes‘the guide on the side’ insteadof the ‘sageon the stage,’helping studentsto discovertheir own meaninginsteadof lecturing andcontmollingall classmoomactivities" 2000, p. 256.

I

For constructivists,the aimof educationis not to passalong knowledgea behavioristaim, but to "teach studentsto use theim- mindswell" Sizem;1999. Jei-ome Brunem; summarizedconstructivepmiorities whemi he said,"We teach asubject not to pi-oducelittle libraiies on that subject, butrather to get astudentto think ... for himself ... to take pam-t in the processof knowledge-getting.Knowing is a processhot a product" 1966, p.72. Constm-uctivistideology can beseenin instructional methodssuch as"discovemy learning" Brunei; 1966,a method that involves studentsingenerating principlesbasedon their experiences.Likewise, "active learning" approaches,such as thoseemployed in Finish reforms describedinthe chapterby Tuovinen; also in Kimonen & Nevalainen,2001; Institutefor EducationalResearch,2002 are based on constructivist principlesBonwell & Eison, 1991. Comistructivistsbelieve that instructional methodsmequiringactive involvementof the learnerarousecuriosity, motivatestudents,and build higher-om-derthinking, and analyticalability Lebow,1995.

Constructivismalso values self-regulation of learning. Self-regulatedlearnersam-c aware of the strategiesthey use tolearn and understandwhen and how to usethem Bandura, 1999. Hence,constructivistteachers often engagestudentsin explainingthe processesthey used to complete theirwork, in order to strengthenmetacognitiveskills, or awarenessof the mental plocessesused in acquiring specific typesof knowledge.

Journalingand guidedreflection am-c common constructiviststrategies.

Challenges Faced by Constructivist Teachers

Constructivistteachersface numnem-ouschallengessuch as,limited pm-ofessionaldevelopmentopportunities, a poor technology infrastructum-e,limited budgets,and a cultureof traditionalism Brooks& Bi-ooks, 1999.Oneof the primary challengesthey faceis the lack of social supportfi-omtheir professionalcommunity. Thesechallengesare evident in casestudies of comistructivist teachers.Recent observations andinterviews of consti-uctivist teachers in a small American high school reveal theirpei-ceptionsof the challengesthey faceworking in a traditional school.Their responseshighlighted the need for social support for teachersinimplementing constructivist methods. The two teachers interviewedexpmessedthat they feel somewhat isolated.They descmibedthe schooland communityas "having nothing going on" with imistiuctiomial technology or activelearningwhenthey arriveda few yearsago.

These teachemsbmoke the mold of traditionalism in their school bybeginning to experimentwith using technology in the class.The twoteachersinstinctis’ely soughteach other out and formedtheir own little


social support group. Teachingfor Miss Burley and Mi Simoneauxis a

creativeprocessof involving their studentsin complex, meamiingful, and

motivational learningactivities. They stressed that comingup with ideasfor new projectsis a challenge,but that they get ideasfi-om discussionswith each other and networking with othem- teachersover the Internet.Theim- comments indicated the importance of discussionswith likeminded teachersin planninglearningcxpeiiences.

The instructional methodsof two innovative teachershave capturedthe attentionof the principalandother teachers,but they say teachersat

their school arc still hesitantabout usingnewer methodologies.Miss Burley and Mr. Simoneauxfeel like they am-c making pm-ogmessin introducingfellow teachersto the possibilitiesthat are available for actively engagingstudentsin relevant curriculum,but lamentthat traditions changeslowly.

Leadershipat theii- school is tolerantof their effoits, but fam hum vision-

amy. Still, despitelack of social reinforcementof their goals by peersseefactors impacting motivation, Watkins, Mclnerney, Lee, Akande, &Regmi, 2002, p. 332 they persist in the belief that they are providingameansfor their studentsto engagewith contentat adeeperlevel. Theystated that they think the way they teach is more difficult. The primamy

reinforcementfor their persistencewith constructivismseemedto tied tothe intrinsicmewardsderivedfrom watchingtheir studentsbecomeexcitedaboutlearningbasedon woi-k in progmcssby author.

Twenty-First Century Constructivist School Leadership

If the schoolsof the futureare to facilitatehigh quality studentlearning in a mannerthat is culturally relevant, then administratorsmustbewell versedin leai-ningtheory andunderstandeffectivepedagogy.Strong

instructional leadership is needed, especially whenmany schools are

plagued by philosophical pluralism. Constructivist learning theoiy inaction places increased demandson school leaders to demonstmateinstructionalleadership,and to leadthe learning ofteachers.Ncwmann,Wehlage, and Secada1995 and many others e.g., Deal & Petcmson,1999; Fullan,2005; Leithwood,Aitken, & Jantzi,2006 havehighlightedthe pivotal role schoolleadersplay in helping to build organizationalcul

tuicswithin schoolsthat support the establishmentand maintenance ofconsistently high quality learning environmentsthi-oughout the schoolandsystem.

Effective constructivistleaderstakedeliberateaction to establisha collaborative culture of continuouspm-ofessional leamning for teachems, inwhich routine structuresam-c establishedto facilitate the expansionofteacherknowledge andskills Newmann et al., 1995, pp. 290-292.

I

Supporting teachers’ developmentof expertise is crucial to successfuladoption of new methodsand cum-ricula; learner-centem-edpi-ofessionaldevelopmentcanassistteachersin implementingConstructivism, becauseit models appropm-iate methods Murphy & Alexander, 2007. Thedemandsof implementing constructivist-learningtheoiy e.g., keepingstudentsactively involved and motivated while working interactivelyoncomplex tasks can be overwhelmingfor teacherswith no social supportsystem. Competentwell-infom-mned instructional leadem-shipcan assistteachersto createand maintain the rich andengaginglearning emivironmentscalledfor in twenty-first centumyschools.

A School Divided Against Itself:Philosophical Dualism Presents Leadership Challenges

Constmuctivism and behaviorism represent opposingassumptionsabout the nature ofkmiowledge including what it meansto teach, learn,and demonstrateacquisitionof knowledge.Many schoolsat the dawnofthe twenty-first cemitumyarc strugglingwith theeffects ofconflicting philosophicaloriemitations.This lackof unity andsham-cdpurposecanlimit theom-ganizational effcctivemiessof schoolsLeithwood et al., 2006. Competing philosophicalorientationscan causetensionswithin schools and districts and should be iecognized and addmesscdby school leadcms. Forexample, comistructivist teachers assume thatinteractive methods like"learning by doing" and discovery learning are more legitimate.Theseteachem-smay fl-own on methodsusedby other teachers,feeling that studentsin more traditional classes arenot learningmateiial at adeeplevel.In constm-uctivistclassi-oonis,discussions,debates,experiments,projects,andthe like replacediiect instruction. Thiscanviolate the sensibilitiesofBehaviorist tcachei-s oradministrators,who understandthe pum-poseofschoolingto be the transmissionof information.

Educatorswith traditional behaviorist orientations may value quietoideiiy classrooms,conduciveto deliveryof content to students."Noisy"constructivist classi-oomscan make behavioristsuncomfortable,as theyunderstandlearningin veiy diffei-entways, andmay assumethenoiseandmovementis a signof disorderliness,chaos,or lack of teacherconti-ol. Fora constructivist,the noiseand movemental-c neccssaiylearningpmocesscsand am-c not problematicas lomlg as leai-nem-s i-emain focusedon learningtasks.

Likewise, assessmentmethodspieferied by teachersmay ‘amy accoiding to philosophicalassumptions.Behavioristsmay pm-efcr to teststudentsto verify retentionof the factstaught,whei-e as constructivistsmight prefer moreauthenticassessment.Thesephilosophicaldifferencesam-c partic


ulamly problematicwhen teachersare expectedto engagein collaborative * mecognizc the importance of individual and coconstmuctiomi of

planning or team teaching.Philosophicaldualism interfcmeswith estab- knowledge;

lishmentof a sharedvision, a commonly i-ecognizedattmibuteof effective * iequil-e studentsto think aboutcontent in complexways;schools.A majom challengeof the twenty-first centuryschool leaderwill be *

involve studentsin metacognitive strategiesto promoteself-rcgulato clarify the orientationto learningto beemployedat the schooland to tioli;secuiea faculty of teacherswho areunified in pumposeandprocess.This

S involve studentsin usingknowledge andskills fom- meaningfulpurmeansbeing pioactive in recruitmentof tcacheiswho hold a similar phi-

losophy of learning, and providing professionaldevelopmentand pm- poses;

cesses tosupport continuedprofessionallearningand social support for participatein a noncompetitivecommunitywhei-e theyal-c responsible for supportingthe learning ofeachother; all function as bothteachers.teachersandlearmiers;

* utilize technologyfoi- learningandfor conimumiication;

HIGH QUALI1Y TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY * studentsand teachersroutinely reflect on experiences,experiment,LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS and refine their individual understandingsand common knowl

edgebase;Constructivismprovidesa promisingframewomk for guiding educational pmovide social support fom- teachersto participatein a professionalpolicy and practicebecauseit is built on timelessprinciples of human community;development.Socioculturalconstructivism,in particular,offemsguidance

S provide focused,on-siteprofessionalIcam-ning oppom-tunities;in understandingorganizationaland societalelementsthat contributeto

creatinghigh quality learningenvironments-environmentsthat enhance * assesslearning in ways consistentwith instmiictional goals andmethods;amid

studentleamning.

What then do high quality twenty-fimst centuryschools look like from a * usetime amid spacein flexible and meaningfulways.

socioculturalconstructivistperspective?The answeris that they look dif

fement in different places, but they should exhibit some common

attributes.Pmominentamongtheseare that they: Reassessing Relevance:Considering Curriculum at a Systemic Level

* fosterapproachesthat maximizestudentengagementin learning;Traditional school curi-icula weredevelopedearly in the twentieth cen

* hold a sharedvision for teachingand learning;tuiy by peoplewho had no conceptof the world of the twenty-first cen

* am-ticulate authentic aims of education based on competencics tum-y. Themefoie, curmicula should be critically examinedwith an eyeneededto function successfullyin societ’; towam-d relevancefoi- the socialmcalitiesof this centumy.That is not to say

* encouragestudentinteractionand inquimy that existing content am-eas am-c obsolete, butsimply that they wem-c

* involve studentsin interpreting the meaningor significance of designedto meet the needsof studentsleaving secondaiyschools and

information; entering into an industrial or agricultural economy. It is important toconsiderhow employment andsocial life has changedand will continue* allow some degreeof self-determinationof learning content orto changein the futtmi-e.strategies;

Knowledge of a core of basic factswas adequatein the last centumy* accommodate needsof individual learnersand allow for differeti-

vlien facts wereseenas static,but today information is constantlychangatedinstmimctiOn; mng and knowledgeis understoodas fitmid, subject to changewith the

* engagegm-oups of leatnersin addressingcomplex real-world prob- adventof new information. In this cultural environmemit, technologicalhems; sophisticationis m-equim-edto equip studentsto function effectively as citi

* haveteacherswho serveas coaches,rather than disseminatorsof zens ina high-techglobalizedsociety.New competenciesam-c requim-edfom

information; even low level jobs. Chief amomig theseis the ability to self-instructand

46 L. 1. SCHOEN Constructing High Quality Learning Environments for 21St Century Learners 47

self-monitorlearmiing.Sti-ongself-regulationand metacognitiveawamcnesse.g., understandingtheir own learningprocesseswill serve this generanon of studentswell, becausetheir lives will most certainly involve constant change and adaptation. School ctmrricula should develop adispositiontowamdlifelong learningto equip studentsfoi- whatevercomestheir way.

In addition to new basiccompetencies,thei-e is an mci-easedneedtoemphasize criticalthimiking skills. The piohiferation of readily accessibleinformation brings with it an increasedneed to be able to evaluatethevalidity and reliability om cm-edibility and tm-ustworthinessof information.Creativity and innovativenessare valuable to both individuals and toevolving societies,as they face newsocial, physical, and political dilemmas. Defining comc twenty-first century competencicsand restructuringcurrictmla to include them am-c imperativesfor pi-oviding a culturally andsocially m-elevanteducation.

Considerations forcurricularrevisionsthat promotecultural relevancein globalized,information-basedtechnologicalsocietiesinclude:

* Multilingual Competence: studentswho am-c hot hi or multilingual am-cat adisadvantagein the global society.

* Conzputin.g skills: studentsnot pm-oficient in using pem-somialcomputem-s to voi-k will not havethe advantagethat their tech savvy peerswill enjoy. , -

* Inquiiy Methods: a kmiowledge is inci-easinglyviewed as less static,but evolving, studentswho understandthe piucessesof inquimy andanalytical thinking will be bettersuitedto evaluateinformation andto producenew understandingsin the future

* Numeracv: studentswith inadequate mathematic ability will beexcludedfiom manyjobs, and may be lessableto evaluateinformation to makeinformed judgments.

Social Tolerance: thosewho have not learned social toleranceandconflict-i-esolution skills will perpetuatemisunderstandingsandviolence, as they will be exposedto diverseperspectivesandcultumes much mom-c thanpreviousgenerationswere.

S

The genemationsof the twenty-first centurywill be facedwith complex,lam-ge-salcpm-oblemsof an overcmowdedplanet,such as competingwith aworld market for employment,developingways to protect the environment and atmosphere,and developingamid expandingthe use of renewable fuel soum-ces.They will also inherit age-old concerns forimprovingthe humancondition, such as balancingthe food supply to i-educehungem; and expanding basic human rights for maiginalized populations.

Thosewho do not possessessentialtwenty-first centurycompetencieswillbecome the underprivileged and dependentclasses inthe ftmture. Anawarenessof theseneedsshould lead most localities to critically examineandievise the contentof schoolimigseealso Rowe & Rowe,this volume.

QUESTIONS REMAINING ABOUT CONSTRUCTIVISM AND PRAXIS

Past efforts to systemically adopt consti-tmctivist principles have beenfl-aught with difficulties, stemming fi-om lack of understandingof constmiictive learningtheories,lack of supportfor teachem-s,and philosophicaldualism. Much is still unknownaboutpersonal,institutional, andculttmralfactoms that affect learningwithin this paradigm.Thei-e is a needfbr continued researchon the institutionalization of constructivism, to understand the factorsassociatedwith its successor failure. Them-c is also a needfoi mom-c i-eseam-chcomparingconsti-uctivistmethodswith other methodsof instruction to documentits effectiveness.The imnpactof constructivistleai-ning envii-onmemits on special populations, such as students diagnosedwith attention deficit hyperactivitydisoi-dem;is still unknown.

CONCLUSION: A TIME FOR REFLECTING

Dramaticsocietalchangeshaveoccurm-edat a fastpaceover the past centumy, leavingeducationalsystemsand schoolsstruggling to keepup. Educatois and policy makersneedto critically examine educationalsystemsfor underlyingepistemiiologicalassumptions.What outcomesam-c valued?Ai-e policies, processes,strtmctum-es,and nom-ms consistentwith producinglearningenvii-onmentsthatwill supportthe typesof leam-ningand knowledgewe value? Is the curriculummelevantto students?Am-c schoolspmepaming studentsfor the world they will face? Ate we sending studentsinto acomptmtem-ized,digital age armedwith the knowledgeand skills of theirgi-eat gm-andpam-ents?Do the experiencesthey encounter in schoolsdevelophigheroi-der thinking skills that will enablethem to addlmessthecomplex issuesthey will face in their lives? The turningof the centurymai-ks an oppom-tunetinie for school leadem-s, policymakers,educators,and citizensto reflect on schoolingpm-ocesses.High quality leam-miing envi1-onnientsof the twenty-first centumy are those that make the best useoftile twentieth centui-y learningtheomy and arc responsiveto the culturalmealitiesof life in the twenty-first century.


NOTE

The Eight Year Study ProgressiveEducationAssociation,1942 compared

grades,extracurricularparticipation, dropoutrates, intellectual curiosity,

anch resourcefulnessof 1,500 progressivelyeducatedstudentsto matched

peersin traditional schools.The study fotmnd that theexperimentalgroup

did as well as their conventionallyeducatedpeersin all respects,and bet

ter in some.The ProgressiveEducationAssociationcommissionconcluded

that "the further a schooldepartedli-om the traditional collegepmepara

tory program,the better therecordof its graduates."Critics dismissechthe

study due to sampling issues.The Eight Year Study is describedin Hayes

2008.

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CHAPTER 3

LEARNING THECRAFT OF TEACHING AND

LEARNING FROMWORLD’S BEST PRACTICE

The Case of Finland

Juhani E. Tuovinen

What lessonscanwe draw from internationalcomparativestudiesof studests’ learmiing for improving teachingand learning? For example, theOm-ganizationfor EconomicCooperationand DevelopmentOECD hasnow condumctcdthree major internationalcomparisonm-ounds, in a seriescalled Program forInternational StudentAssessmentPISA, of 32 to 57OECD and other associatedcountriesin 2000, 2003,and 2006. Certaincountriesperform comisistemitlywell in thesetests. Forexample,in i-eadingliteracy teststhe coumntrieswith the bestavcmagcsin 2000, 2003,and 2006were Finland, Finland, and Korea Finland being number 2 in 2006OECD, 2001, 2004,2007. Similarly, PISA test scores in scienceandmatheniaticsliteracywere outstandingfoi Finland. Imi Table3.1 the position of Finland in all these areasfor the threePISA testsis shown.

Teaching and Learning: International Best Practicepp. 5 1-77Copyright © 2008 by InformationAge PublishingAll rights ofreproductionin any form reserved. 51

ls constructing high quality learning-libre

Documents

social constructivism

sociocultural constructivism

versions of constructivism

radical constructivism

itseems constructivism

social learning

contemporary constructivist

influential learning