low earth orbit

• low earth orbit

https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Astronaut Definition

1 As of 8 June 2013, a total of 532 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km (62 mi) or

more in altitude, of which 529 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the

surface of the moon; three of the 24 did so twice: Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene

Cernan. The three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots

Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie.


Communications satellite Low-Earth-orbiting satellites

1 In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to

the ground position quickly


Communications satellite Radio

1 Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into

fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited

number of brief contacts at any given time


Cisco Systems - Hardware

1 CLEO (Cisco Low Earth Orbit router)


Timothy Creamer - NASA career

1 After Expeditions 22 and 23, Creamer focused on all things on orbit

involving I/T, including networking, crew support platforms and also targeting I/T support for missions farther away than Low Earth Orbit

(LEO), including Mars missions.


NASA

1 Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial

body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit


NASA

1 It is currently being assembled in Low

Earth Orbit


NASA

1 For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the Space Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low

Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion


NASA

1 The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other

necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit


Skyhook (structure) - Orbital rings

1 Orbital rings are solid or quasisolid rings that would encircle the Earth

and would spin at faster than orbital speed in low earth orbit. The ring

would support geostationary skyhooks that hang down to the

ground that could be used to carry payloads to high altitude.


Solar sail - NanoSail-D 2010

1 The second backup version, NanoSail-D2, also sometimes called

simply NanoSail-D, was launched with FASTSAT on a Minotaur IV on

November 19, 2010, becoming NASA's first solar sail deployed in low

earth orbit


Transport - Other modes

1 Suborbital spaceflight is the fastest of the existing and planned transport systems from a place on Earth to a distant other place on Earth. Faster transport could be achieved through part of a Low Earth orbit, or following that trajectory even faster using the propulsion of the rocket to steer it.


Spaceplane - National Aerospace Plane

1 President Ronald Reagan described NASP in his 1986 State of the Union address as "...a new Orient Express that could, by the end of the next

decade, take off from Dulles Airport and accelerate up to twenty-five

times the speed of sound, attaining low earth orbit or flying to Tokyo

within two hours..."


Mass driver - On Earth

1 The 40 megajoules per kilogram or less kinetic energy of projectiles launched at up to 9000 m/s velocity (if including extra for drag losses) towards Low Earth Orbit is a

few kilowatt-hours per kilogram if efficiencies are relatively high, which

accordingly has been hypothesized to be under $1 of electrical energy cost per

kilogram shipped to LEO, though total costs would be far more than electricity alone


Mass driver - On Earth

1 To launch a space vehicle with humans on board, a mass driver's

track would need to be several hundreds of kilometers long if

providing almost all the velocity to Low Earth Orbit, though lesser length

can provide major launch assist


Satellite

1 Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and

civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites,

weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit,

polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.


Satellite - Types

1 Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the

purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites

typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.


Satellite - Orbit types

1 The commonly used altitude classifications are Low Earth orbit

(LEO), Medium Earth orbit (MEO) and High Earth orbit (HEO). Low Earth

orbit is any orbit below 2000 km, and Medium Earth orbit is any orbit

higher than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km. High Earth orbit is any orbit higher than the altitude for

geosynchronous orbit.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Satellite - Altitude classifications

1 Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0–2000 km (0–1240

miles)


Satellite - Eccentricity classifications

1 Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at

the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude

of a geosynchronous orbit.


Satellite - Eccentricity classifications

1 Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at

the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude

of a geostationary orbit.


Satellite - Attacks on satellites

1 For testing purposes, satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by

ballistic missiles launched from earth. Russia, the United States and China have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites. In 2007 the

Chinese military shot down an aging weather satellite, followed by the US Navy shooting down a defunct spy

satellite in February 2008.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Satellite Internet access - Acceptable latencies, but lower speeds, of lower orbits

1 Medium Earth orbit (MEO) and low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites do not

have such great delays. For example:



1 As with GPS, the small orbits may cause a low Earth orbit satellite to

only be in the sky for an hour or less before it goes over the horizon and out of range, so a complex relaying and passing-off needs to be done to

hand over the fixed-position terrestrial signal to other satellites

passing overhead.


Megastructure - Orbital structures

1 Orbital ring is an enclosed loop slightly larger than the circumference

of the Earth so that it can maintain low earth orbit.


Great Wall of China

1 A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit (an altitude of as little as

100 miles (160 km))


Orbital ring

1 An orbital ring is a concept for a space elevator that consists of a ring

in low Earth orbit that rotates at above orbital speed, that has fixed

tethers hanging down to the ground.


Orbital ring - Birch's model

1 In the simplest design of an orbital ring system, a rotating cable or

possibly an Inflatable space structure is placed in a low Earth orbit above the equator, rotating at faster than

orbital speed


Internet access - Satellite broadband

1 Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common,

operate at lower altitudes, and are not fixed in their position above the

earth


Non-rocket spacelaunch

1 Present-day launch costs are very high – $10,000 to $25,000 per

kilogram from Earth to low Earth orbit, Launch has been by

expendable rockets consuming a costly craft in a single use, with the exception of the rebuildable Space Shuttle fleet (which averaged one

flight per several months)


Non-rocket spacelaunch - Orbital ring

1 In the 1982 Paul Birch JBIS design of an orbital ring system, a rotating

cable is placed in a low Earth orbit, rotating at slightly faster than orbital

speed


Non-rocket spacelaunch - Hybrid launch systems

1 All forms of projectile launchers are at least partially hybrid systems if

launching to low Earth orbit, due to the requirement for orbit

circularization, at a minimum entailing several percent of total

delta-v to raise perigee (e.g. a tiny rocket burn), or in some concepts

much more from a rocket thruster to ease ground accelerator

development.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Non-rocket spacelaunch - Hybrid launch systems

1 Some technologies can have exponential scaling if used in isolation, making the effect of combinations be of counter-

intuitive magnitude. For instance, 270 m/s is under 4% of the velocity of low earth orbit, but a NASA study estimated that

Maglifter sled launch at that velocity could increase the payload of a conventional

ELV rocket by 80% when also having the track go up a 3000‑meter mountain.


Space tether - Momentum exchange

1 When in a magnetic field, such as in low Earth orbit, when using an electrodynamic tether, it is possible to re-boost without the expenditure of

consumables. An electrodynamic tether was profiled in the documentary film Orphans of Apollo as technology that was to be used to keep the Russian space station Mir in orbit.

Other schemes involve balancing the momentum flow (such as catching and releasing

payloads at almost the same time) or using conventional rocket propulsion or ion drives.


Space-based solar power - Orbital location

1 A collection of LEO (Low Earth Orbit) space power stations has been proposed as a precursor to GEO

(Geostationary Orbit) space-based solar power.


Space-based solar power - Dealing with launch costs

1 Reusable launch systems are predicted to provide lower launch costs to low Earth orbit

(LEO).


Space-based solar power - Dealing with launch costs

1 This would be the equivalent of between 40 and 150 heavy-lift

launch vehicle (HLLV) launches to send the material to low earth orbit, where it would likely be converted

into subassembly solar arrays, which then could use high-efficiency ion-

engine style rockets to (slowly) reach GEO (Geostationary orbit)


Space-based solar power - Timeline

1 1994: The United States Air Force conducts the Advanced Photovoltaic

Experiment using a satellite launched into low Earth orbit by a Pegasus

rocket.


Space Network - Coverage

1 For spacecraft operating in a low earth orbit (LEO) 73 km to 3000 km

altitude, the SN is capable of providing tracking and data

acquisition services over 100% of the spacecraft’s orbit. Spacecraft sent to more distant or exotic destinations

rely on either Deep Space Network or their own custom, dedicated

networks.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket - Use as a space tug or orbital transfer vehicle

1 An orbital transfer vehicle (OTV)—essentially a "space tug"—powered by a single VF-200 engine would be

capable of transporting about 7 metric tons of cargo from low Earth orbit (LEO) to low Lunar orbit (LLO) with about a six month transit time



1 As with GPS, the small orbits may cause a low Earth orbit satellite to

only be in the sky for an hour or less before it goes over the horizon and out of range, so a complex relaying and passing-off needs to be done to

hand over the fixed-position terrestrial signal to other satellites

passing overhead.


Oxygen

1 At even higher low earth orbit altitudes, atomic oxygen is a

significant presence and a cause of erosion for spacecraft


Google Earth - Weather

1 *Clouds– Displays cloud cover based on data from both geostationary orbit|

geostationary and Low Earth orbit|low Earth-orbiting satellites. The clouds appear at their calculated elevation,

determined by measuring the cloud top temperature relative to surface

temperature.Google Earth: Weather layer, information link -- accessed: 03 March 2009 v5.0.11337.1968 (beta)


Satellite phone - Geosynchronous satellites

1 The amount of bandwidth available on these systems is substantially higher than that of the Low Earth

Orbit (LEO) systems; all three active systems provide portable satellite

Internet using laptop-sized terminals with speeds ranging from 60 to 512kbit per second (Kilobit per

second|kbps).


Satellite phone - Low Earth orbit

1 Low Earth orbit|LEO telephones utilizes LEO (low Earth orbit) satellite technology


Satellite phone - Virtual country codes

1 Low earth orbit systems including some of the defunct ones have been allocated

number ranges in the International Telecommunications Union's Global Mobile Satellite System virtual country code +881.

Iridium satellite phones are issued with codes +881 6 and +881 7. Globalstar, although allocated +881 8 and +881 9 use North

American Numbering Plan|U.S. telephone numbers except for service resellers located

in Brazil which use the +881 range.


History of the Internet - Networking in outer space

1 The first live Internet link into low earth orbit was established on

January 22, 2010 when astronaut T


ARCA (NGO) - Private space program

1 * In the long term (2020s), ARCA is to develop a medium-launch vehicle called

the Super Haas. This is a two-stage rocket that consists of a lower stage that groups seven Haas-2 or Haas-2b rockets and an upper stage that uses two Executor Plus

engines optimized for thrust in a vacuum. The Super Haas is supposed to generate

260kN of thrust at launch and can place a 2.6 metric ton load into low earth orbit.


European Lunar Explorer

1 Fully fuelled, it has a mass of 400 kilograms, including two upper stages that will be used

to propel it from low Earth orbit onto a trajectory towards the Moon. The lander itself

has a monopropellant cold rocket engine, fuelled by hydrogen peroxide, which will be used to slow its descent towards the surface

of the Moon. The target landing site is Montes Carpatus. After landing, the spacecraft is designed to travel 500 metres in order to

explore its landing site.


European Lunar Explorer

1 ELL is the part of the spacecraft that will actually land on the Moon, while

ELE is the complete spacecraft, including the two stages that will propel it from low Earth orbit to a trans-lunar injection|trans-lunar

trajectory.


Aerodynamics - Continuum assumption

1 300,000ft or 91.4km) or satellites

in Low Earth orbit


Nuclear thermal rocket

1 Nuclear thermal space tugs were planned as part of the Space Transportation System to take

payloads from a propellant depot in Low Earth Orbit to higher orbits, the

Moon, and other planets


Nuclear thermal rocket - Nuclear vs. chemical

1 The combination of lower weight and higher performance improved the payload of the Saturn V as a whole from 127,000kg delivered to low earth orbit (LEO) to 155,000kg.


Unmanned resupply spacecraft - Dragon

1 The Falcon Heavy could launch

supplies into low Earth orbit for a cost

of https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Nuclear weapons delivery - Ballistic missile

1 Placement of nuclear missiles on the low Earth orbit has been banned by the Outer Space Treaty as early as

1967. Also, the eventual Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment

System (FOBS) that served a similar purpose—it was just deliberately

designed to deorbit before completing a full circle—was phased out in January 1983 in compliance

with the SALT II treaty.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Interstellar space

1 spaceflight|Space travel has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon for manned flight, and the

Voyager program|vicinity of the Solar System for unmanned vehicles


Interstellar space - Earth orbit

1 A spacecraft enters orbit when it has enough horizontal velocity for its Centripetal force|centripetal acceleration due to Gravitation|

gravity to be less than or equal to the centrifugal force|centrifugal acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a low Earth orbit, this velocity is about ;

by contrast, the fastest manned airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds

achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was in 1967 by the North American X-15.


Interstellar space - Geospace

1 These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can

permanently damage satellite electronics, disrupting

telecommunications and Global Positioning System|GPS technologies,

and can also be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit


Laser propulsion - Ablative laser propulsion

1 Variations of ablative propulsion include double-pulse propulsion in which one laser pulse ablates material and a second laser pulse further heats the ablated gas, laser micropropulsion in which a small laser on

board a spacecraft ablates very small amounts of propellant for attitude control or maneuvering, and space debris removal, in which the laser ablates material from debris particles in low Earth orbit, changing their

orbits and causing them to reenter.


Laser propulsion - Heat Exchanger (HX) Thruster

1 The HX thruster is limited by the heat exchanger material and by radiative

losses to relatively low gas temperatures, typically 1000 - 2000 C, but with hydrogen propellant, that provides sufficient specific impulse (600 – 800 seconds) to allow single stage vehicles to reach low Earth

orbit


Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency - Active projects

1 * DARPA ALASA program|ALASA—Airborne Launch Assist Space Access

—a rocket capable of launching a 100-pound satellite into low Earth

orbit for less than $1 million.


Cremation - Methods of keeping or disposing of the cremated remains

1 One service sends a lipstick-tube sized sample of the cremated

remains into low earth orbit, where they remain for years (but not

permanently) before re-entering the atmosphere


Solar thermal rocket - Solar-thermal design concepts

1 Even the lower specific impulse represents a significant increase over

that of conventional chemical rockets, however, an increase that

can provide substantial payload gains (45 percent for a Low Earth

orbit|LEO-to-Geosynchronous orbit|GEO mission) at the expense of

increased trip time (14 days compared to 10 hours).


Solar thermal rocket - Proposed solar-thermal space systems

1 A concept to provide low Earth orbit (LEO) propellant depots that could be

used as way-stations for other spacecraft to stop and refuel on the

way to beyond-LEO missions has proposed that waste gaseous

hydrogen—an inevitable byproduct of long-term liquid hydrogen storage in the Radiative heat transfer|radiative

heat environment of outer space|space—would be usable as a

Monopropellant rocket|monopropellant in a solar-thermal

propulsion system


Nuclear photonic rocket - Energy requirements and comparisons

1 If a photon rocket begins its journey in low earth orbit, then one year of

thrusting may be required to achieve an earth escape velocity of 11.2km/s if the vehicle is already in orbit at a velocity of 9,100m/s, and 400m/s

additional velocity is obtained from the east to west rotation of the earth


Monopropellant rocket - Solar-thermal monopropellant thrusters

1 A concept to provide low Earth orbit (LEO) propellant depots that could be

used as way-stations for other spacecraft to stop and refuel on the

way to beyond-LEO missions has proposed that waste gaseous

hydrogen—an inevitable byproduct of long-term liquid hydrogen storage in the Radiative heat transfer|radiative

heat environment of outer space|space—would be usable as a

monopropellant in a Solar thermal rocket|solar-thermal propulsion

system


ICBM - Flight phases

1 * boost phase: 3 to 5 minutes (shorter for a solid rocket than for a

Liquid rocket propellants|liquid-propellant rocket); altitude at the end of this phase is typically depending

on the trajectory chosen, typical burnout speed is , up to the speed of

Low Earth Orbit.


Spacecraft propulsion - Delta-v and propellant

1 For a mission, for example, when launching from or landing on a

planet, the effects of gravitational attraction and any atmospheric drag must be overcome by using fuel. It is

typical to combine the effects of these and other effects into an effective mission delta-v. For

example a launch mission to low Earth orbit requires about 9.3–

10km/s delta-v. These mission delta-vs are typically numerically integrated on a computer.


Human - War

1 Satellites in low Earth orbit have made outer space a factor in warfare

as well as it is used for detailed intelligence gathering, however no

known aggressive actions have been space warfare|taken from space.


Pump-fed engine - Delta-v (rocket equation)

1 The required delta-v can also be calculated for a particular

manoeuvre; for example the delta-v to launch from the surface of the Earth to Low earth orbit is about

9.7km/s, which leaves the vehicle with a sideways speed of about 7.8km/s at an altitude of around 200km. In this manoeuvre about 1.9km/s is lost in air drag, gravity drag and potential energy|gaining

altitude.


SM-65B Atlas

1 Ten flights were made. Nine of these were sub-orbital test flights of the

Atlas as an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, with five successful missions and four failures. The seventh flight, launched on 18 December 1958, was

used to place the Project SCORE|SCORE satellite into low Earth orbit, the first orbital launch conducted by

an Atlas rocket.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Artificial gravity - Rotation

1 The Mars Gravity Biosatellite was a proposed mission meant to study the

effect of artificial gravity on mammals. An artificial gravity field of

0.38g (Mars gravity) was to be produced by rotation (32 rpm, radius

of ca. 30cm). Fifteen mice would have orbited Earth (Low Earth orbit) for five weeks and then land alive.

However the program was canceled on June 24, 2009 due to lack of funding and shifting priorities at

NASA.[http://www.marstoday.com/news/viewsr.rss.html?pid=31612 ]


Lockheed Martin X-33 - NASA cancellation

1 This would allow for a vehicle to fly to low earth orbit without the need

for the sort of external boosters and fuel tanks used by the Space Shuttle


Beam-powered propulsion

1 The rule of thumb that is usually quoted is that it takes a megawatt of power beamed to a vehicle per kg of payload while it is being accelerated

to permit it to reach low earth orbit.http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/1214-BWB-2009-08-28.mp3


Beam-powered propulsion - Testing

1 Their goal is to accelerate a one-kilogram microsatellite into low Earth

orbit using a custom-built, one megawatt ground-based laser


Colonization of Mars - Economic drivers

1 With a published price of per launch of up to payload to low Earth orbit, SpaceX Falcon 9 rockets are already

the cheapest in the industry


Anti-satellite weapon - ASAT in the era of strategic defense

1 defense system, a satellite constellation of 4,600 kinetic

interceptors (KE ASAT), of 100lb (45kg) each, in Low Earth orbit, and their associated tracking systems


Anti-satellite weapon - India

1 On February 10, 2010, DRDO Director-General and Scientific

Advisor to the Defence Minister, Dr VK Saraswat stated that India had all

the building blocks necessary to integrate an anti-satellite weapon to

neutralize hostile satellites in Low Earth Orbit|low earth and polar

orbits.


Solid-fuel rocket

1 Solid rockets are used as light launch vehicles for low Earth orbit (LEO) payloads under 2 tons or escape

payloads up to 1100 pounds.http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LADEE/mainhttp://www.space-

travel.com/reports/LockMart_And_ATK_Athena_Launch_Vehicles_Selected_As_A_NASA_Launch

_Services_Provider_999.htmlhttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Colonization of the Moon - Proposals

1 Clarke proposed a lunar base of inflatable modules covered in lunar dust for

insulation.http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/6/8.cfm available at

[http://web.archive.org Wayback Machine] for June 27, 2007, Lunar Base Designs with history A spaceship, assembled in

low Earth orbit, would launch to the Moon, and astronauts would set up the igloo-like

modules and an inflatable radio mast


Tardigrades - Physiology

1 On September 2007, dehydrated tardigrades were taken into low Earth

orbit on the Foton-M|FOTON-M3 mission carrying the BIOPAN

astrobiology payload


Ion thruster - Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) / lithium Lorentz force accelerator (LiLFA)

1 In a certain configuration, the ambient gas in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) can be used as a

propellant


Ion thruster - Applications

1 Examples of this include orbit transfers, attitude dynamics and

control|attitude adjustments, Drag (physics)|drag compensation for Low

Earth Orbit|low earth orbits, transporting cargo such as chemical fuels between propellant depots and

ultra fine adjustments for more scientific missions


Ion thruster - Planned missions

1 Testing of the engine on ISS is valuable, because ISS orbits at a

relatively low Earth orbit|low altitude and experiences fairly high levels of atmospheric drag, making Orbital station-keeping|periodic boosts of

altitude necessary


Vacuum - Outer space

1 Most artificial satellites operate in this region called low earth orbit and

must fire their engines every few days to maintain orbit


Apollo 1

1 The planned low Earth orbital test of the Apollo Command/Service Module, never made its target launch date of February 21, 1967, because a cabin fire during a launch rehearsal test on

January 27 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 killed all three crew members—

Command Pilot Gus Grissom|Virgil I


Satellite images - ImageSat International

1 EROS (satellite)|Earth Resource Observation Satellites, better known as “EROS” satellites, are lightweight,

low earth orbiting, high-resolution satellites designed for fast

maneuvering between imaging targets. In the commercial high-

resolution satellite market, EROS is the smallest very high resolution satellite; it is very agile and thus

enables very high performances. The satellites are deployed in a circular sun-synchronous near polar orbit at

an altitude of 510km (+/- 40km).


Contemporary era - Contemporary technologies

1 See also: Turbopause; Low Earth orbit|Low, Medium Earth orbit|Medium, and High Earth

orbit


Cisco - Hardware

1 * CLEO (router)|CLEO (Cisco Low Earth Orbit

router)


Broadband Internet access - Satellite broadband

1 Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and 35,786km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common,

operate at lower altitudes, and are not fixed in their position above the

earth


Solar power satellite - SERT

1 * Comparison of orbital launch systems|Launch costs in the range of $100–$200 per kilogram of payload to low Earth orbit are needed if SPS

are to be economically viable.


Solar power satellite - Dealing with launch costs

1 Reusable launch systems are predicted to provide lower launch

costs to low Earth orbit (LEO).Dr. Lee Valentine in conversation on The Space Show aired on the 6th of

October 2010 said there is a potential for a hundred times cost

reduction in the cost of Earth to orbit transportation by using reusable

vehicles. [http://www.thespaceshow.com./detai

l.asp?q=1438 The Space Show]http://www.reactionengines.co.

uk/downloads/ssp_skylon_ver2.pdf


Solar power satellite - Dealing with launch costs

1 This would be the equivalent of between 40 and 150 Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle|heavy-lift launch

vehicle (HLLV) launches to send the material to low earth orbit, where it

would likely be converted into subassembly solar arrays, which then could use high-efficiency ion-engine style rockets to (slowly) reach GEO

(Geostationary orbit)https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Solar power satellite - Timeline

1 *'1994': The United States Air Force conducts the Advanced Photovoltaic

Experiment using a satellite launched into low Earth orbit by a Pegasus

rocket.


Russian Federal Space Agency - Rockets

1 Roskosmos is using a launch family of several rockets, the most famous

of them is the R-7 family|R-7, commonly known as the Soyuz

(rocket family)|Soyuz rocket, capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low

Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton (rocket)|Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to

LEO. Smaller rockets include Cosmos-3M, the German-Russian cooperation

Rockot and other Stations.


Spacecraft - History

1 It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957


Spacecraft - Subsystems

1 Batteries are typically connected to the bus via a battery charge

regulator, and the batteries are used to provide electrical power during periods when primary power is not available, for example when a Low

Earth Orbit (LEO) spacecraft is eclipsed by the Earth.


Spacecraft - Subsystems

1 Typically though, Low Earth orbit|LEO spacecraft include a propulsion

subsystem for altitude adjustments (drag make-up maneuvers) and

inclination adjustment maneuvers


Space Shuttle program

1 The winged Space Shuttle orbiter was launched vertically, usually

carrying four to seven astronauts (although two and eight have been

carried) and up to 50,000Pound (mass)|lb (22,700kg) of Payload (air

and space craft)|payload into low Earth orbit (LEO)



1 The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in

1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low

Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by

the early 1990s



1 For missions beyond low Earth orbit, NASA is building the Space Launch System and the Orion spacecraft.


Space Shuttle program - Budget

1 Early estimates for the cost to deliver payload to low earth orbit were as low as $118 per pound

($260/kg) of payload ($635/pound in 2011 dollars), based on marginal or

incremental launch costs, and assuming a 65,000 pound (30000kg)

payload capacity and 50 launches per year.NASA (2003)

[http://caib.nasa.gov/events/public_hearings/20030423/transcript_am.htm

l Columbia Accident Investigation Board Public Hearing Transcript]


Space Shuttle program - Retirement

1 The Space Shuttle program was extended several times beyond its originally

envisioned 15-year life span because of the delays in building the United States space station in low Earth orbit — a project which eventually evolved into the International

Space Station. It was formally scheduled for mandatory retirement in 2010 in accord with

the directives President George W. Bush issued on January 14, 2004 in his Vision for

Space Exploration.


Space Shuttle program - Successors

1 Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has been replaced

with a very similar beyond low Earth orbit program


Luch 5A

1 'Luch 5A' ( meaning ray and sometimes Romanisation of Russian|

transliterated as Loutch-5A) is a Russian Luch (satellite)|Luch relay

satellite which will transmit data from the Russian Orbital Segment of the

International Space Station, and from other satellites in low Earth orbit. It

will be in geosynchronous orbit.


Luch 5A - Luch

1 The satellite is designed to relay data from the ISS, satellites in low earth orbit and rocket launch vehicles.


ESA - Ariane 5

1 The Ariane 5 rocket is ESA's primary launcher. Its maximum estimated Payload

(air and space craft)|payload is 6-10 tons to Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO and up to 21 tons to Low earth orbit|LEO. The launch craft has been in service since 1997 and

replaced Ariane 4. The Ariane 5 rocket exists in several variants, the heaviest being

Ariane 5 ECA, which failed during its first test flight in 2002, but has since made twenty-

two consecutive successful flights.


Proton rocket

1 Launch capacity to low Earth orbit is about . Geostationary transfer capacity is about . Commercial

launches are marketed by International Launch Services (ILS). In a typical launch of a commercial

communications satellite destined for geostationary orbit, a Proton M/Briz-M can place a spacecraft with mass

at separation of into an orbit with an apogee of , a perigee of and an

inclination of 19.7°.


Proton rocket - Proton-M

1 The latest version is the Proton M, which can launch into geostationary orbit or into a geostationary transfer orbit. It can place up to in low Earth orbit with a 51.6-degree inclination, the orbit of the International Space

Station (ISS).


Satellite geodesy - Satellite-to-satellite tracking

1 * A Medium Earth orbit|high altitude satellite may act as a relay from ground tracking stations to a Low Earth orbit|low altitude

satellite. In this way, low altitude satellites may be observed when they are not

accessible to ground stations. In this type of tracking, a signal generated by a tracking

station is received by the relay satellite and then retransmitted to a lower altitude

satellite. This signal is then returned to the ground station by the same path.


Nickel–hydrogen battery

1 The Hubble Space Telescope, when its original batteries were changed in May 2009 more than 19 years after launch, led with the highest number of Charge cycle|charge and discharge cycles of any

NiH2[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/SM4/main/Battery_FS_HTML.html Hubble

space telescope servicing mission 4 batteries] battery in low earth

orbit.[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/iel5/9582/30300/01392024.pdf?

arnumber=1392024 NiH2 reliability impact upon Hubble Space Telescope battery replacement]


Tsikada

1 'Tsikada' ( meaning cicada), is a Russian satellite navigation system including ten Low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites. It transmits the same two

carrier frequencies as the U.S. Transit (satellite)|TRANSIT satellite system.

Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof, Herbert Lichtenegger, Elmar Wasle, GNSS – global navigation satellite systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo

more, SpringerWienNewYork 2008, p. 5. The first satellite was launched in

1974.


Hubble Space Telescope

1 The 'Hubble Space Telescope' ('HST') is a space observatory|space telescope that was carried into orbit by a Space Shuttle

in 1990 and remains in operation. A aperture telescope in low Earth orbit,

Hubble's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet, visible spectrum|

visible, and near infrared Electromagnetic spectrum|spectra. The telescope is named

after the astronomer Edwin Hubble.


Hubble Space Telescope - Servicing Mission 4

1 The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit, and

therefore cannot be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure, only makes these concerns

more acute


Iridium constellation

1 Satellites are in low Earth orbit at a height of approximately and inclination of 86.4°


Luch 5B

1 'Luch 5B' ( meaning ray and sometimes Romanisation of Russian|

transliterated as Loutch-5B) is a Russian Luch (satellite)|Luch relay

satellite which will transmit data from the Russian Orbital Segment of the

International Space Station, and from other satellites in low Earth orbit. It

will be in geosynchronous orbit.


GNSS reflectometry

1 The UK-DMC|UK-DMC satellite, part of the Disaster Monitoring Constellation built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd, carries a secondary reflectometry payload that has

demonstrated the feasibility of receiving and measuring GPS signals reflected from the

surface of the Earth's oceans from its track in low Earth orbit to determine wave motion

and windspeed.S. Gleason et al., Processing of bistatically reflected GPS signals from low Earth orbit for the purpose of ocean remote


Geostationary Earth Orbit - Practical uses

1 A geosynchronous transfer orbit|geostationary transfer orbit is used to move a satellite from low Earth

orbit (LEO) into a geostationary orbit


Apollo mission

1 It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit;

Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial

body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit


Apollo mission - Saturn I

1 Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially

equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer, to produce of thrust. The S-IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled

RL-10 engines with of thrust. A planned Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur (S-V) third

stage with two RL-10 engines, never flew on Saturn I.#Dawson Bowles|Dawson Bowles

2004, p. 85. See footnote 61.


Apollo mission - Saturn IB

1 The Saturn IB could send over into low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM


Apollo mission - Cultural impact

1 Many astronauts and cosmonauts have commented on the profound

effects that seeing Earth from space has had on them; the List of Apollo

astronauts|24 astronauts who traveled to the Moon are the only

humans to have observed Earth from beyond low Earth orbit, and have traveled farther from Earth than

anyone else to date.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Atmospheric Infrared Sounder

1 AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES), and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS

(AMSR-E). Aqua is part of NASA's A-train (satellite constellation)|A-train, a series of high-

inclination, Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface, biosphere,

solid Earth, atmosphere, and ocean.


Electric power transmission - Wireless power transmission

1 In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1km vertically using a

ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010,

NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the design of laser power beaming systems to

power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power

beams.


Spacecraft magnetometer - By Mounting

1 The simplest magnetometer implementations are mounted

directly to their vehicles. However, this places the sensor close to potential interferences such as

vehicle currents and ferrous materials. For relatively insensitive work, such as compasses (attitude

sensing) in Low Earth orbit, this may be sufficient.


Sputnik

1 The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957


Linear motor - High acceleration

1 The simplest way to use mass drivers for spacecraft propulsion would be to

build a large mass driver that can accelerate cargo up to escape

velocity, though reusable launch system|RLV launch assist like

StarTram to low earth orbit has also been investigated.


Proba-2

1 It was launched on November 2, 2009, with the Rockot launch system together with ESA's Soil Moisture and

Ocean Salinity satellite|SMOS mission. The platform was launched

in a Sun-synchronous orbit|sun-synchronous low Earth orbit (altitude

of 725km).


NEMP - Weapon altitude

1 The altitude indicated above is greater than that of the International

Space Station and many low Earth orbit satellites. Large weapons could have a dramatic impact on satellite

operations and communications such as occurred during Operation

Fishbowl. The damaging effects on orbiting satellites are usually due to

factors other than EMP. In the Starfish Prime nuclear test, most

damage was to the satellites' solar panels while passing through radiation belts created by the

explosion.


Sabatier reaction - International Space Station life support

1 This approach requires copious amounts of water to be regularly

transported to the space station for oxygen generation in addition to that

used for human consumption, hygiene, and other uses—a luxury that will not be available to future long duration missions beyond low

Earth orbit.


Objectivity/DB - Typical applications

1 Notable deployments include the wireless sprintpcs|SprintPCS and the Iridium satellite constellation|Iridium

low Earth orbit satellite networks


Space exploration

1 Constellation program|Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a

return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by Review of United

States Human Space Flight Plans Committee|an expert review panel

reporting in 2009.[http://news.sciencemag.org/sci

enceinsider/2009/10/no-nasa-augusti.html No to NASA: Augustine

Commission Wants to More Boldly Go ] Science, Andrew Lawler, 22 October

2009 The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions

beyond low earth orbit (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the

private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Lagrangian point|Earth/Moon L1, the Moon,

Lagrangian point|Earth/Sun L2, near-earth asteroids, and Phobos (moon)|

Phobos or Mars orbit.[http://www.nasa.gov/about/obamaspeechfeature_prt.htm ] Address

at KSC 15 April 2010


Space exploration - Phobos

1 The Russian space mission Fobos-Grunt, which launched on 9

November 2011 experienced a failure leaving it stranded in low

Earth orbit. It was to begin exploration of the Phobos (moon)|

Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be

a trans-shipment point for spaceships travelling to Mars.


Space exploration - Jupiter

1 Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta-v of 9.2km/s, which is

comparable to the 9.7km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.

Fortunately, Gravitational slingshot|gravity assists through planetary

Planetary flyby|flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.


Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee - Findings

1 Destinations beyond low Earth orbit that were considered by the

Committee include the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth objects as well as the

moons of Mars, Phobos (moon)|Phobos and Deimos (moon)|Deimos


Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee - Objectives

1 The review was commissioned to take into account several objectives.

These included support for the International Space Station,

development of missions beyond low Earth orbit (including the Moon, Mars and Near-Earth objects) and use of commercial space industry. These

objectives must fit within a defined budget profile.


Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee - Subgroups

1 Crawley|Crawley leads the Exploration Beyond Low Earth

Orbit subgroup.


Colonization of Jupiter - Technical requirements

1 The energy needed to reach Jupiter from an Earth orbit requires a delta-V

of about 9km/s, compared to the 9.0ndash;9.5km/s to reach a low

Earth orbit from the ground


Astronauts - Definition

1 , a total of 532 people from Timeline of space travel by nationality|36

countries have reached or more in altitude, of which 529 reached low

Earth orbit or beyond.


Astronauts - Definition

1 Of these, List of Apollo astronauts|24 people have traveled beyond Low

Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon; three of the 24 did so twice: Jim Lovell, John Watts Young|John

Young and Eugene Cernan. The three astronauts who have not reached low

Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joseph A. Walker|Joe Walker, Mike

Melvill, and Brian Binnie.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Colonization of Phobos - Earth orbit

1 The main disadvantage of orbital colonies is lack of materials. These may be expensively

imported from the Earth, or more cheaply from extraterrestrial sources, such as the

Moon (which has ample metals, silicon, and oxygen), near-Earth asteroids, comets, or elsewhere. As of 2013, the International

Space Station provides a temporary, yet still non-autonomous, human presence in low

Earth orbit.


Space rocket - Types of launch vehicles

1 For example, a Proton rocket has a launch capacity of into low Earth orbit (LEO)


Space rocket - By size

1 *A small lift launch vehicle is capable of lofting up to of payload into low

earth orbit (LEO)[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/50039

3main_TA01-LaunchPropulsion-DRAFT-Nov2010-A.pdf NASA Space

Technology Roadmaps - Launch Propulsion Systems, p.11]: Small: 0-

2t payloads, Medium: 2-20t payloads, Heavy: 20-50t payloads, Super Heavy: ref name=classes/ref

name=classes/ref name=classes/ref name=hsf200910when|date=June 2012Citation needed|date=June 2012Citation needed|date=June

2012See also| Orbital spaceflightconvert|9300|m/s|

abbr=onConvert|2|km/s|abbr=onConvert|200|km|

abbr=onCitation needed|date=July 2012Convert|20|m|abbr=onConvert|300|m/s|abbr=onconvert|7800|m/s|abbr=onCitation needed|date=July

2012Who|date=August 2009Citation needed|date=June 2012Citation

needed|date=March 2013


Launch loop - Capacity and capabilities

1 To access circular orbits using a launch loop a relatively small 'kick motor' would need to be launched with the payload which would

fire at apogee and would circularise the orbit. For geosynchronous orbit|GEO

insertion this would need to provide a delta-v of about 1.6km/s, for Low Earth orbit|LEO to circularise at 500km would require a delta-v of just 120m/s. Conventional rockets require delta-vs of roughly 10 and 14km/s to reach

LEO and GEO respectively.


Launch loop - Advantages of launch loops

1 Unlike space elevators which would have to travel through the Van Allen belts over several days, launch loop passengers can be launched to low earth orbit, which is below the belts,

or through them in a few hours


Militarisation of space - USSR

1 FOBS was a Soviet Union|Soviet Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBM

in the 1960s that once launched would go into a low Earth orbit

whereupon it would de-orbit for an attack. This system would create a

path to North America over the South Pole, striking targets from the

opposite direction from which North American Aerospace Defense

Command|NORAD early warning systems are oriented. The missile was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the SALT II treaty.


Commercialization of space - Space transportation

1 The commercial space transportation industry derives the bulk of its revenue from the launching of satellites into the Earth’s orbit. Commercial launch providers

typically place private and government satellites into Low Earth

Orbit (LEO) and Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). In 2002,

commercial space transportation generated 6.6 billion dollars, which made up 6% of the total gross of

commercial space activities.


Submillimeter astronomy - Submillimetre astronomy from space

1 The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) was launched into

low Earth orbit on December 5, 1998 as one of NASA's Small Explorer

Program (SMEX) missions


Thiokol - Products

1 On March 1, 2006, NASA announced that Thiokol will be the prime

contractor for the new Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle|Crew Launch

Vehicle (CLV), to be known as the Ares I, which will put the Orion

spacecraft (formerly known as the Crew Exploration Vehicle) into low

earth orbit, along with the five-segment SRBs for the heavy-lift

Cargo Launch Vehicle (CaLV), known as the Ares V.


Space Shuttle - Retirement

1 The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public as a Space Truck, which would, among other things, be used to build a

United States space station in low earth orbit in the early 1990s


Reusable launch system - History

1 , the VTHL Boeing X-37|X-37 has completed initial development and

flown an initial Classified information|classified Low Earth orbit|orbital mission of over seven months

duration.


Lunar space elevator

1 Since the docking port would be connected to the cable in a

microgravity environment, these and other drives can reach the cable from

low Earth orbit (LEO) with minimal launched fuel from Earth


Atmospheric entry - Real (non-equilibrium) gas model

1 The five species model is only usable for entry from low Earth orbit where

entry velocity is approximately 7.8km/s


Atmospheric entry - Entry vehicle design considerations

1 The upper limit for manned return to Earth from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) or

lunar return is 10 Gs.[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740007423_1974007423.pdf Pavlosky, James E., St


NanoSail-D2 - Chronology

1 FASTSAT was deployed into a low Earth orbit with a circular orbit of of altitude and 72 degrees of inclination


Space architecture - Origins

1 Following space missions gradually improved living conditions and quality of life in low earth orbit


Space architecture - Ideology of building

1 When a shuttle is operating in low earth orbit, the ISS serves as a safety

refuge in case of emergency


Space architecture - Bigelow Aerospace

1 On July 12, 2006 the Genesis I experimental space habitat was launched into low earth

orbit


Space architecture - Project Constellation

1 The two payloads were to Earth orbit rendezvous|rendezvous in low earth

orbit and then head to the moon from there


Space architecture - Von Braun and other early proposals

1 Each vessel would be constructed in low Earth orbit, requiring nearly 100 separate launches before one was

fully assembled


Space architecture - Von Braun and other early proposals

1 Early Martian architecture concepts generally featured assembly in low

earth orbit, bringing all needed consumables from Earth, and

designated work vs


Project 921-3 - Shenlong Space Plane

1 It has been proposed that the vehicle is fitted with a Russian-designed D-30K

turbofan engine, which would likely not provide enough power to reach Low Earth orbit. A larger Shenlong model, however, would be capable of carrying a payload to orbit. Analysts had previously reported on a late 2006 Chinese test flight of what is believed to be a scramjet demonstrator, possibly related to the Shenlong vehicle.


European Data Relay System

1 The 'European Data Relay System' ('EDRS') system will be a constellation of

geosynchronous orbit|GEO satellites intended to relay information and data

between satellites / spacecraft and Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAVs and ground stations. The system will allow almost full-time communication even with satellites

in Low Earth orbit which often have a very reduced visibility from any ground station.


Chinese space station

1 The 'Chinese space station' (CSS) is a planned artificial satellite to be placed in low

earth orbit. It is part of Project 921 of the Chinese space program. It is a third generation modular space station,

comparable to the Soviet/Russian Mir, Russian OPSEK and the ISS. Operations will be controlled from the Beijing Aerospace

Command and Control Center|Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Centre in

the People's Republic of China.


Chinese space station - Orbital debris

1 The CSS will be operated in Low Earth Orbit, 340 to 450 kilometers

above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42 to 43 degrees, in the

centre of the Earths Thermosphere


Chinese space station - Radiation

1 Stations in low earth orbit are partially protected from the space

environment by the Earth's magnetic field


Chinese space station - Radiation

1 The Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other

radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere


Falcon 9

1 Both stages of this two-stage-to-orbit vehicle use liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1|rocket-grade kerosene (RP-1)

propellants. The current Falcon 9 can lift payloads of to low Earth orbit,

and to geostationary transfer orbit. All three Falcon 9 vehicles are

situated in the Medium lift launch vehicle|medium-lift range of launch

systems.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Falcon 9 - Launch prices

1 SpaceX formally announced plans for the Falcon 9 on September 8, 2005,

describing it as being a fully reusable heavy lift launch vehicle. A Falcon9

medium was described as being capable of launching approximately

to low Earth orbit, priced at $27million per flight ($1286/lb).


Sub-orbital spaceflight

1 Sub-orbital spaceflights are distinct from flights that attain orbit but use

retro-rockets to deorbit after less than one full orbital period. Thus the

flights of the Fractional Orbital Bombardment System would not be considered sub-orbital; instead these are simply considered flights to low

Earth orbit.


Halley's Comet - 1986

1 Two Space Shuttle missions – the ill-fated STS-51-L (ended by the Space

Shuttle Challenger disaster|Challenger disaster) and STS-61-E – were scheduled to observe Halley's

Comet from low Earth orbit


Copenhagen Suborbitals - Suborbital space flight

1 Peter Madsen is scheduled for the first flight, then Kristian von

Bengtson will attempt a low earth orbit mission.


SpaceX reusable launch system development program - Economic issues

1 Michael Belfiore of The Rocketeer wrote that at a published cost of per

launch to low Earth orbit, Falcon 9 rockets are already the cheapest in

the industry. Reusable Falcon 9s could drop the price by an order of magnitude, sparking more space-

based enterprise, which in turn would drop the cost of access to space still further through economies of scale.


SCISAT-1

1 SCISAT was placed in low Earth orbit, or LEO, by a Pegasus rocket

launched from a NASA Lockheed L-1011 carrier aircraft on August 12, 2003 from Vandenberg Air Force

Base. Expected to operate for two to five years, it was still operational in 2012. Current information may be

obtained from the ACE Mission Information for Public Data Release

report.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

SCISAT-1 - ACE-FTS

1 A high inclination (74 degrees), low earth orbit (650km/400 miles) will provide ACE coverage of tropical, mid-latitudes and polar regions.


Italian Space Agency - Launcher development

1 Currently ASI is a partner in the Ariane 5 launcher programme and more recently is the major (65%)

backer of the ESA Vega (rocket)|Vega small launcher, capable of putting a payload of 1500kg to low Earth orbit.


Spaceport - Spaceports beyond Earth

1 Human-tended outposts on the Moon or Mars, for example, will be spaceports by definition.[] The 2012

Space Studies Program of the International Space University studied the economic benefit of a network of spaceports throughout the solar system beginning from

Earth and expanding outwardly in phases, within its team project Operations And Service Infrastructure for

Space (OASIS).http://www.oasisnext.com/, OASIS official website Its analysis claimed that the first phase, placing

the Node 1 spaceport with space tug services in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), would be commercially profitable and reduce transportation costs to geosynchronous orbit by

as much as 44% (depending on the launch vehicle)


Defense Research and Development Organization - Anti-satellite weapon

1 The defence ministry in 2010 had even drafted a 15-year Technology Perspective and Roadmap, which

held development of ASAT weapons for electronic or physical destruction of satellites in both Low Earth orbit|

LEO (2,000-km altitude above earth's surface) and the higher

geosynchronous orbit as a thrust area in its long-term integrated

perspective plan under the management of DRDO.


Karman line - Definition

1 An orbiting spacecraft only stays in the sky if the centrifugal component of its movement around the Earth is enough to balance the

downward pull of gravity. If it goes slower, the pull of gravity gradually makes its altitude

decrease. The required speed is called orbital speed|orbital velocity, and it varies with the

height of the orbit. For the International Space Station, or a space shuttle in low Earth orbit, the orbital velocity is about 27,000km

per hour (17,000 miles per hour).


Planetary Society

1 The first phase involves sending carefully packaged microorganisms

into low earth orbit on a space shuttle.[http://www.planetary.org/life/index.html Shuttle LIFE homepage],

The Planetary Society


Indian Space Research Organization - Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

1 The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its

abbreviation ASLV was a 5-stage solid propellant rocket with the

capability of placing a 150kg satellite into Low Earth Orbit|LEO


Indian Space Research Organization - Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

1 At present, it is ISRO's heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is

capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit


Artemis (satellite) - Operations

1 Artemis is used operationally for data relay from ESA's satellites in low Earth orbit; a SILEX link to SPOT (satellites)|SPOT-4 is established daily. It can also be used on an

emergency basis; for example, it was used to relay information from the Jules Verne ATV|automated transfer

vehicle Jules Verne while mission control at Houston was unavailable

due to a hurricane.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-low-earth-orbit-toolkit.html

Advanced Gemini

1 'Advanced Gemini' is a number of proposals that would have

extended the Project Gemini|Gemini program by the addition of various

missions, including human spaceflight|manned low Earth orbit, circumlunar and moon landing|lunar

landing missions


Advanced Gemini - Gemini Ferry

1 Several Gemini Ferry spacecraft were proposed to provide transportation of crews and cargo to NASA and USAF

space stations in low Earth orbit


Advanced Gemini - Circumlunar missions

1 Other proposals involved launching the Gemini spacecraft on a Titan IIIC,

and refueling in low Earth orbit before proceeding to the Moon, and a

single launch architecture using a three stage variant of the Saturn IB.


Advanced Gemini - Lunar orbit missions

1 The Gemini spacecraft would have rendezvoused with stacked Centaur and

Agena upper stages in low Earth orbit. The Centaur would have placed the Gemini and Agena onto a circumlunar trajectory, along which they would coast until they reached

the Moon. The Agena would then have been used to perform Lunar orbit insertion.

Following the completion of activities in Lunar orbit, the Agena would have been fired

again for trans-Earth injection.


Advanced Gemini - Lunar landing

1 The spacecraft would have been tested in Low Earth orbit before the Lunar missions, using two Titan II

launches


Advanced Gemini - Other proposals

1 The enlarged reentry module was also considered for a spacecraft

proposed at the same time, which would have been used to rescue the

crews of manned spacecraft that were stranded in low Earth orbit


Advanced Gemini - Other proposals

1 Another proposed mission would have seen a Gemini spacecraft

rendezvous with a Pegasus (satellite)|Pegasus satellite in low

Earth orbit


Long March (rocket family) - Payloads

1 The Long March is China's primary expendable launch system family.

The Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou spacecraft and Chinese Lunar

Exploration Program|Chang'e lunar orbiters are also launched on the Long March rocket. The maximum payload for Low Earth orbit|LEO is 12,000kg (CZ-3B), the maximum

payload for Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO is 5,500kg (CZ-3B/E). The next generation rocketLong March 5 rocket family|Long March 5 variants will offer more payload in the future.


Long March (rocket family) - Long March 9

1 LongMarch 9http://www.chinesedefence.com/forums/chinese-

strategic-forces/3353-cz-9-chinas-next-gen-rocket-moon-landing.html (LM-9, CZ-9, or

Changzheng 9) is a China|Chinese super-heavy carrier rocket that is currently in study. It is

planned for a maximum payload capacity of at least 130,000kghttp://www.americaspace.com/?

p=22881 to Low Earth orbit|LEO or at least 50,000kg to Lunar Transfer

Orbit.http://scitech.people.com.cn/GB/14054670.html


Mir

1 'Mir' (, ; lit.Peace or World) was a space station that operated in low

Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, owned at first by the Soviet Union

and then by Russia


Terminator (solar) - Scientific significance

1 Low Earth orbit satellites take advantage of the fact that certain

polar orbits set near the terminator do not suffer from eclipse, therefore their solar cells are continuously lit

by sunlight


CryoSat-1

1 The CryoSat spacecraft was intended to operate in low Earth orbit for three years


Israel Space Agency - Ofeq Satellite Series

1 To date, nine such satellites in the Ofeq reconnaissance satellites series were developed and launched to Low Earth Orbit. The most recent satellite is the Ofeq-9 which was launched on June 22, 2010. The Ofeq-10 is set to be launched in early to mid 2014.


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