Low-carbon technologies in 10 countriesBrussels, 14 February 2014

Table of ContentsLow-carbon technologies in 10 countries..........................................................................................................Introduction........................................................................................................................................................Annex I – Overview of the energy mix in 10 countries......................................................................................

Czech Republic........................................................................................................................................France......................................................................................................................................................Germany...................................................................................................................................................Greece......................................................................................................................................................Italy...........................................................................................................................................................The Netherlands.......................................................................................................................................Norway.....................................................................................................................................................Portugal....................................................................................................................................................Spain........................................................................................................................................................The UK.....................................................................................................................................................

Annex II - How far from the emission reduction and RES targets?...................................................................Czech Republic........................................................................................................................................France......................................................................................................................................................Germany...................................................................................................................................................Greece......................................................................................................................................................Italy...........................................................................................................................................................The Netherlands.......................................................................................................................................Norway.....................................................................................................................................................Portugal....................................................................................................................................................Spain........................................................................................................................................................The UK.....................................................................................................................................................

Annex III Place of the technologies in the low-carbon portfolio of the countries..........................................................................................................................................................

Czech Republic......................................................................................................................................France....................................................................................................................................................Germany.................................................................................................................................................Greece....................................................................................................................................................Italy.........................................................................................................................................................The Netherlands.....................................................................................................................................Norway...................................................................................................................................................Portugal..................................................................................................................................................Spain......................................................................................................................................................The UK...................................................................................................................................................

Annex IV Glossary...........................................................................................................................................Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC)..........................................................................................................Land availability......................................................................................................................................Food versus fuel.....................................................................................................................................

ANNEX V References.....................................................................................................................................p 1/25

R&Dialogue tel +31 70 328 3574Mauritskade 33 info@rndialogue.eu 2514 HD The Hague (NL) www.rndialogue.eu

IntroductionR&Dialogue is a European project with that aims to improve the dialogue on how to achieve a low-carbon society. A dialogue between research and civil society communities. We aim to contribute to a joint vision towards a low-carbon society in Europe. Find more on the project, its 17 partners and recent activity on www.rndialogue.eu.

This report gives an overview of the current state of play of low-carbon technologies in the 10 R&Dialogue countries. It is to give the R&Dialogue consortium and the 10 National Dialogue Councils a quick overview of key information of other countries.

Annex I – Overview of the energy mix in 10 countriesCzech RepublicThe power generation in the Czech Republic is mainly dependent on fossil-fuelled power plants (mainly brown coal /lignite/; 61.5% in 2011) and nuclear power plants (32.3% in 2011). RES share on electricity consumption in 2011: 10.28 % (target 13.5 % in 2020).

Brown coal is the main primary energy resource in the Czech Republic; its production represented 42.8 million tonnes in 2011. The share of hard coal as a primary energy resource is small. More than 30 % of energy is generated in nuclear power plants, using imported highly enriched uranium as fuel (Czech Republic is mining uranium ore is not a “net” uranium fuel importer). Regarding hydrocarbon fuels the Czech Republic relies on import. The country’s economy is dependant on import of the crude oil, natural gas and enriched uranium. There is minimum import of fossil fuels used for power generation.

FrancePrimary energy supply has been steadily increasing in France, exhibiting a total increase of 21% over the period 1990-2004. Nuclear energy and oil dominate the primary supply of France with an aggregate share of 73%. The share of nuclear energy is much higher than the EU-27 average of 14%, having increased by 43% since 1990. Although the participation of natural gas in total energy supply has grown significantly in recent years (51% over the period 1990-2004), its share in the energy mix is still below the EU-27 average of 24%. Renewable sources have a contribution in primary energy supply at a level very close to the EU-27 average.1

GermanyThe share of electricity produced from renewable energy in Germany has increased from 6.3 percent of the national total in 2000 to over 25 percent in the first half of 2012.2 Renewable energy share of gross electricity consumption rose from 10% in 2005 to 20% in 2011. The main renewable electricity sources in first half of 2012 were: Wind energy 36.6%, biomass 22.5%, hydropower 14.7%, photovoltaics (solar) 21.2% and biowaste 3.6%. In 2010, investments totaling 26 billion euros were made in Germany’s renewable energies sector. According to official figures, some 370,000 people in Germany were employed in the renewable energy sector in 2010, especially in small and medium sized companies. This is an increase of around 8 percent compared to 2009 (around 339,500 jobs), and well over twice the number of jobs in 2004 (160,500). About two-thirds of these jobs are attributed to the Renewable Energy Sources Act3.

GreeceGross inland consumption has been steadily increasing in Greece over the period 1990-2004, showing a total increase of 37%. 4 Although during the last years, the total final energy consumption has been

1 http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/doc/factsheets/mix/mix_fr_en.pdf 2 http://www.bdew.de/internet.nsf/id/20120726-pi-erneuerbare-energien-liefern-mehr-als-

ein-viertel-des-stroms-de/$file/Strom_Erneuerbaren_Energien_1_Halbjahr_2012.pdf 3 http://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/fileadmin/ee-import/files/english/pdf/application/

pdf/broschuere_ee_zahlen_en_bf.pdf 4 http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/doc/factsheets/mix/mix_el_en.pdf

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cut down mainly by the economic crisis, presenting a total decrease of 12.3% over the period 2008-2011 (http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_STAT-13-23_en.htm).

The share of oil in primary energy supply remains the highest in Greece, although it has declined from 77% in 1973 to 52% in 2010. Lignite is the second largest energy source, accounting for 27% of total primary energy supply in 2010, while natural gas provided 12% respectively. In the last years, the contribution of natural gas in the energy supply has presented the highest growth among all energy sources. Fossil fuels accounted for 91% of total primary energy supply in 2010. Renewable energy supply is relatively low. Biofuels and waste provided 4% of total energy supply in 2010, followed by hydropower with 2%, while solar and wind energy each contributed to 1% of total primary energy supply in 2010 respectively (Energy Policies of IEA Countries, Greece Review 2011, IEA).

ItalyWith limited domestic energy sources, and no nuclear plants, Italy is highly dependent on energy imports and raw materials for production. The country has proven crude oil reserves of 0.7 billion barrels. However, the domestic production of approximately 100 000 barrels per day meets only a limited amount of domestic consumption. In the last decade, the declining production from Italy's natural gas fields and the growing domestic consumption have increased the country's reliance upon gas imports which arrive mainly by pipelines. Natural gas, renewable sources and solid fuels are gradually replacing oil in electricity generation. In 2010, 185,264 tonne of oil equivalent (TOE) were imported, while 30,109 of TOE were exported. As far as the exportation is concerned, to be noted is the increase of 2,9% for solid combustibles, of 3.7% for natural gas, and of 11,6% for oil. Exportation of energy from renewable sources also increased (20,7%), while the exportation of electricity decreased (-13,5%). Final energy consumption has been increasing, while industry remains the most energy-consuming sector.

Compared to a reduction in production of electricity of 5.2% from 2008 to 2011, technologies based on renewable energy have seen an increase in development. In particular, photovoltaic and wind powered energy have had a percentage increase of 5.493,6% and 102,7% respectively, from a production of 4.861,3 GWh to 9.856,4 GWh (wind powered) and from 193 GWh to 10.795,7 GWh (for photovoltaic). Power installed in Italian plants, has increased for all types. In line with the data on energy production, there has been a notable increase of capacity where photovoltaic plants and wind powered plants are concerned. Biomass plants have seen a constant increase of 86,6% of installed power.

Renewable energy sources in Italy have arrived, during the first 8 months of 2013, to cover more than 30% of the national annual electricity needs. With an electricity demand of 212 972 GWh - a decrease of 3.8% compared to the same period in 2012 -67 948 GWh have been produced by green energy sources. Comparing August 2013 to August 2012, Terna (the power distribution manager) highlights a consistent growth for several energy sources: hydropower (+21.0%), photovoltaics (+16.4%) wind power (+22.4%) and geothermal energy (+5.0%), while for thermal generation there was a sharp decline (-18.8%) of the production.

Even though these increases would seem hopeful Italy is still far from being able to satisfy the energy demand and peaks in demand.

The NetherlandsNatural gas and oil dominate the Netherlands primary energy supply, with an aggregate 83% of total (data for 20075). While the total supply has increased by 23% since 1990, the share of oil has increased by 29% and of natural gas by 19%. The shares of oil and gas are much higher than the EU-27 average values (38% and 24% respectively). Solid fuel consumption accounts for a 11% of total supply. Focusing on renewable energy sources an increase in total energy consumption is visible. The consumption of total renewable energy sources has more than doubled since 2000.

The Netherlands is the second largest producer of natural gas in the EU. Proved reserves were 1.45 trillion m3 at the end of 2005 (Source: BP Energy Statistics). Natural gas production showed an increase of 15% in 2004 compared to 2003. The Netherlands also produces small quantities of oil, nuclear and renewable energy (at an increasing rate). Electricity generation is largely based on natural gas with a significant share also contributed by solid fuels. The participation of natural gas in electricity generation has been steadily increasing since 1990

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and accounted for 64% of total gross generation in 2004. Smaller shares of electricity are produced from nuclear, oil and renewable energy sources. Wind capacity has increased significantly over the past decade.

NorwayOver 99% of the electricity production in mainland Norway is covered by hydropower plants. The total production of electricity from hydropower plants amounted to 135.3 TWh in 2007. There is also a large potential in wind power, offshore wind and wave power, as well as production of bio-energy from wood. However, as the bulk of the renewable Guarantees of Origin are exported, the average electricity mix of a Norwegian household was in 2010 only 36% renewable.6

As a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), binding RES targets are also set out for Norway as the RES directive is relevant to the EEA agreement. According to the EU`s renewable energy directive, Directive 2009/28/EC, Norway must increase its share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumtion to 67.5% by 2020. In the 2005 base year this share was 59.9% and reached 61% in 2011. Norway has submitted its National Renewable Energy Action Plan showing how it will attain this increase.

PortugalPortugal is highly dependent on transforming imported fossil fuels to meet its energy needs, as it does not have any commercially exploitable non-renewable energy resources. The country has a high oil dependency (52 % in 2008). Natural gas and RES electricity are gaining ground but the energy mix is likely to hold over the next few years. Portugal’s considerable energy dependence is a great weakness of its economy, inasmuch as it makes the country very vulnerable to price fluctuations of energy products on the international markets, which have substantial impacts in the Portuguese trade balance.In order to obviate that dependence, the Government adopted ambitious targets in terms of the use of renewable energies, aimed at making better use of endogenous resources and reducing the imports of fossil fuels.

The Portuguese evolution in the deployment of low-emission energy electricity technologies has been outstanding in the past decade: the wind capacity raised from less than 130 MW in 2001 to 4500 MW. By the end of 2011, a National Plan for the repowering and construction of additional 2000 MW of hydro power capacity is ongoing and targeted for 2020. As regards PV systems, both the domestic micro-generation systems and the large industrial PV plants have grown at a high pace in the recent years, but progress is now small, for lack of State support and provate investment capacity.

High enthalpy geothermal energy has grown weakly and is used only in the Azores islands. Biomass power plants struggle with unavailability / high cost of raw materials. A large bet on investing and supporting wave power technologies has not produced significant results.

A very important and successful strategy for LC electricity was the closure of nearly all fuel oil power plants, and the replacement of conventional carbon power plants by more advanced ones and especially by combined cycle natural gas power plants.

Various supports schemes to solar thermal systems have been launched from 2001 onwards. The area of solar thermal collectors has grown from a stable roughly 16 000 m² by 2001 to about 800 000 m² nowadays, but additional progress has stalled.

Surveys also indicate that biomass for space heating in residences is widely used, but it is not clear if there has been an increase or a decrease in the global use of this LC energy source.

As regards energy efficiency the panorama is not so sucessful as the introduction of RES. Energy efficiency in buildings has been the main target for the Government policies. This included the implementation of the EPDB Directive (building’s thermal certification) with ambitious technical specifications, as well as support schemes for efficient windows, insulation, and strict requirements for maintenance of stoves and boilers. Public procurement, supporting ESCOs and giving the example of intervention on buildings owned by the State are the most recent trends. However, the progress has been slow, due to economic crisis as well as because of the long renovation time of building and other equipment stocks. “Green” fiscal policies and pollution regulations have been successful for enhancing the efficiency in the transportation sector but are also currently being downplayed because of the economic crisis.6 http://www.ecohz.com/media/29557/120621_varedekl_detaljert_info_2012.pdf

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SpainDespite the reduction of coal consumption in the period 2004-2010 an increase on the coal use of 1.98 % per year is targeted during the period 2010-2020. It is due to the foreseen deployment of CCS technology in the power production and industry.

Renewable energy now covers 11.3% of the primary energy demand, mainly wind, solar and biofuels, which in 2010 have had high levels of activity. After 2005 The Renewable Energy Plan 2005-2010 has promoted the use of renewable in power production, transport and building.

The UKSince the Renewable Obligations’ introduction in 2002, the UK has succeeded in supporting the deployment of increasing amounts of RES generation from 3.1GW in 2002 to 13GW in the first quarter of 2012 and increasing the level of renewable electricity in the UK from 1.8% in 2002 to 9.4% in 2011. It is currently worth around £2 billion a year in support to the renewable electricity industry.

Natural gas and oil dominate the UK primary energy supply, with an aggregate 73% of total (data for 2007). The share of natural gas has increased significantly in recent years (total increase of 85% since 1990) and is higher than for the EU-27 average (24%). Solid fuel consumption has decreased in recent years (40% since 1990) and is slightly below the EU-27 average (18%). The UK is the largest producer of oil and gas in the EU. Proved oil reserves were 4 billion barrels and natural gas reserves were 0.53 trillion m3 at the end of 2005 (Source: BP). The UK was also a significant producer of coal, but production has been decreasing in recent years. Total domestic production showed a 9% reduction in 2004 compared to 2003 and only renewable energies experienced an increase, with production of all other energy sources declining (oil and nuclear by 11% and gas and solid fuels by 7%)7.

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Annex II - How far from the emission reduction and RES targets?Czech RepublicWithin the Kyoto Protocol, the Czech Republic has committed itself to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 8 % from 1998 in the first commitment period (2008 – 2012). In 2010, the reduction reached almost 30.5 %, and the preliminary 2011 data indicate further drop. This means the country will be able to fulfil this goal without serious problems.

The Climate Change Policy of 2004 includes an indicative target for renewables share in the primary energy sources, which is 20 % by 2030. However, the current draft proposal of the reviewed State Energy Policy (not approved by the government yet) assumes only 14 % share of RES in 2030 and 17 % share in 2040. Hence, calculations for 2050 are missing.

The only available long-term (but indicative) climate target comes from the draft State Energy Policy, which is 37.5% reduction of GHGs between 2000 and 2040.

Both the RES target for 2040 and the indicative GHG target for 2040 are far behind the targets proposed in the EU Roadmap.

FranceEmissions are reduced though many actions in France, the transition to LC energy is only one of those. According to EEA9, in 2010 France's total emissions (excluding Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry-LULUCF) amounted to 522.4Tg CO2-eq. These were 6,6% below the 1990 levels. For the energy sector, emissions equalled 370 Tg, that is 2,9% below 1990. If one looks only at CO2 emissions (still excluding LULUCF), their 2010 level is 2,5% below their 1990 level, according to official inventory10.

Member States with a negative target (such as France) shall ensure that emissions in 2013 do not exceed average annual emissions for the period 2008-2010. This starting point, average annual emissions over 2008-2010 is about 525 Tg CO2-eq. Given the slightly declining trend over the last decades, France is on track to meet its starting point 2013 target.

France's endpoint target is -14% from 2005 levels11. According to EEA, in 2005 France emitted 567 Tg CO2-eq of greenhouse gases. The objective is thus 488 Tg CO2-eq. Going from 525 to 488 in ten years requires an abatement of 3,7 Tg per CO2-eq year (0,6% of 525). That order of magnitude corresponds to the emissions a very large industrial establishment. Regarding the second objectives, the national target12 for France is to increase the share of energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy, from 10,3% in 2005 to 23% in 2020.

According to the Renewable Energy Union13, at the dawn of 2010, heat (wood energy, solar, geothermal) is the first product of renewable energy with 9.6 Mtoe (million tonnes oil equivalent). Electricity comes second (hydropower, biomass, wind) with 5.6 mtoe. Finally, Biofuels: 0.7 mtoe. The renewable energy consumption increased by 33% in 5 years but this growth would still be insufficient to achieve the 36.25 mtoe objectives of the Grenelle de l'Environment Forum.

8 for CO2, CH4 and N2O and 1995 for F-gases9 http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/data-viewers/greenhouse-gases-viewer10 http://www.citepa.org/fr/inventaires-etudes-et-formations/inventaires-d-emissions/ccnucc11 Decision No 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the

effort of Member States to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Community’s greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments up to 2020. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32009D0406:EN:NOT

12 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32009L0028:EN:NOT

13 http://www.developpementdurable.com/politique/2011/04/A5945/les-energies-renouvelables-en-retard-sur-les-objectifs-du-grenelle-environnement.html

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GermanyOn the federal level, targets for electricity production will be reached (production from RES) but electricity consumption is still increasing. Thermal insulation rate & efficiency development are behind targets. Electric car targets are likely to be missed. In general, with the measures that have been implemented in Germany so far the overall target (GHG reduction in 2020 of 40%) will not be achieved. Nevertheless, Germany has a chance to exceed the targets for 2020 (reducing emissions to 20% below 1990 levels).

GreeceThe Greek Government, by adopting specific development and environmental policies, proceeded with the increase of its national goal (from 18% to 20%) regarding the participation of renewable in gross final energy consumption. This objective is composed of 40% participation of RES in electricity production, 20% in heating and cooling and 10% in transport. Regarding electricity, the national targets for 2020 are expected to be met with the development of approximately 13.3 GW of renewable. The installed capacity and the licensing process show that Greece is on track to achieve its national objectives.

The country aims to raise the share of renewable energy in gross total final consumption to 20% by 2020, which is 2% higher than its EU obligation and almost triple the 6.9% share in 2005. It has also set a specific target for renewable sources to provide 40% of electricity generation by the same year (the share in 2010 was 15%) and to provide 20% of primary energy for heating and cooling in 2020 and also 10% for transportation. Regarding renewable energy, the national goals for 2020 are expected to be achieved, as far as the electrical energy production is concerned. 13.3GW of electrical energy will be produced which include 7.5GW from wind, 2.5GW from PV (the national goal for PV will be met 2014 and a review of it is considered) by and 3GW from hydropower. Finally, the goal for 2050 will be met via two scenarios that predict 85% - 100% penetration of renewable in the electrical energy production by transforming the existing production and power transportation systems. Also, according to plan, the connection of the islands with the mainland for the energy transportation will be completed until 2025-2030. The storage of electrical power via electrical cars and the use of fuel cells are also foreseen14.

The early RES utilization and installation data figures for 2011, already exhibit that the RES-E shares are in accordance with the trajectory presented in the NREAP (Table 1) (7). The installed RES-E capacity has increased by 45% by the end of 2011 reaching 2.5 GW. The penetration and shares in heating and transport continue to demonstrate a slight but steady growth15.

ItalyIn 2010 greenhouse gas emissions in Italy increased by 2% compared to 2009, bringing it to a value of 3.5% less than those of 1990 (the base value for the Kyoto Protocol). Therefore reaching the goal assigned to the country, a decrease of 6.5% in emissions since 1990, has slipped further away. On the other hand it must be taken into account that the noticeable decrease in emissions in 2009 has been correlated to a unique trend in the economy and industrial production. Due to a partial economic recovery of 2010 an increase in emissions was predictable. This trend in emissions is a consequence of a partial recovery of energy consumption and of industrial production, in particular that of steel, that with the economic crisis of 2009 had its most critical moment. Between 1990 and 2010, the emission of all greenhouse gases that were mentioned in the Kyoto Protocol went from 519 to 501 million tons of CO2 equivalent, that constitutes 85% of the total and is less by 2,1% with regards to those of 1990 (ISPRA) (National Inventory Report 2012- Italian Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2010)16

According to the 2009/28/CE Regulation, Italy is due to replace 17% of final gross consumption with energy from renewable sources. In 2011 Italy consumed 313,791 GHW17 producing about 37,000 GHW from wind power, solar, biomass and geothermal energy (approximately 11-12% of total consumption).

14 National Energy Plan - A roadmap for 205015 NREAP - National Renewable Energy Action Plan in the scope of the Directive

2009/28/EC Greece, Hellenic Republic Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change16 http://www.sinanet.isprambiente.it/it/sinanet/serie_storiche_emissioni/National

%20Inventory%20Report%202012/viewhttp://old.enea.it/produzione_scientifica/pdf_volumi/V2010_04-InventarioEmissioniGas.pdf17 (Terna data),

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As shown in PAN and PAEE, Italy is currently in line with the 2020 target, but to align itself to the requirements of the Roadmap 2050 an ulterior effort is needed. With the current 22,8% of renewable energy produced in 2011 (ISTAT), Italy has already reached and gone over the 2020 target of 17%.

The NetherlandsThe Dutch government has the ambition to reach the European objectives of 2020. There are policy initiatives to increase the implementation of LCTs. The Dutch government mostly aims at wind, biomass and solar power. In 2011, the Dutch government decided to spend yearly € 1.4 billion from 2015 onwards and set rules support the implementation of renewable energy sources and reduce CO² emissions. Their aim is to increase the amount of renewable energy, energy saving measures, nuclear energy and CO² capture and storage in the energy mix.

According to European directives, in 2020, 14% of the energy mix should come from renewable energy sources (RES). When looking at percentages of the total energy consumption renewable energy sources are in 2011 at a consumption level of 4%.

NorwayUnder the Kyoto Protocol, Norway is allowed to increase its emissions with 1% above 1990 levels during the 2008-2012 commitment period. Through the Climate Agreement Norway is committed to reduce its emissions by 15 – 17 mill tons compared to the 2007 reference scenario for 2020. Two thirds of all cuts in greenhouse gas emissions should be taken in Norway.

According to the EU’s renewable energy Directive 2009/28/EC, Norway must increase its share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption to 67.5% by 2020. In the 2005 base year this share was 59.9% and reached 61 % in 2011 (offshore petroleum sector is not taken into account for the percentages in relation to the RES directive).

In the white paper on Norwegian climate policy (Report No. 34 (2006-2007) to the Storting) the Norwegian emissions were subdivided into four sectors: petroleum and energy, transport, the manufacturing industries and primary industries and waste management. The white paper sets out sectorial targets for these four sectors with the respective ministries as the responsible sector authority.

PortugalIn respect to the Kyoto Protocol, it is foreseen that Portugal will easily reach its objectives, benefiting from the success in handling wastes, controlling wildfires, supporting RES production and energy efficiency. Meanwhile, no doubt the slowdown of economic activity and energy demand has also helped. Beyond 2012, Portugal undertook the goal of limiting the increase in its emissions outside the EU greenhouse gas emission allowance trading scheme by +1% by 2020 (base year: 2005).

To achieve this, starting in 2013, a linear trajectory of annual GHG emission will be established that may not be exceeded. These annual emission values were determined at the end of December 2012 through the National Programme for Climate Change 2020 (PNAC).

Portugal is in line with the EU targets except for biofuels that are not developing as fast as expected.

SpainAccording to the EU Road map the share of renewable energy (RES) raises substantially in all decarbonisation scenarios, achieving at least 55% in gross final energy consumption in 2050 up 45 percentage points from today's level at around 10%. The Spanish Renewable Plan 2011-2020 estimates that the participation of renewable energy will be a 22,75% in 2020 (above the 20% EU target) final energy and 42,3% of the power generation. The Energy Roadmap 2050 is also ambitious when it comes to energy efficiency: It shows that Spain needs to reduce energy consumption by 2050 by a minimum of 32 per cent to maximum of 41 percent compared to the peak in 2005/2006, according to the different scenarios. The Spanish Strategies about energy efficiency work towards an energy saving of 20% in 2020. This is accurate to the Road map scenarios and also to the Energy Horizon 20-20-20.

The accumulated decrease of total emissions in Spain in 2009 is similar to the level of 1999 (8.9 CO2/t per habitant in 2008 and 7.9 CO2/t in 2009). In 2010 the GHG emissions decreased 2.8% from 2009 levels. The influence of the economic crisis is specially detected in the industry. The Spanish emissions 2005-2011, the percentage of reduction of emissions are 27.75% in the whole industrial sector in Spain.

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If the technology is not appropriate the CO2 level will increase significantly as soon as the economic situation improves.

The UKThe Low Carbon Transitions Plan was published in July 2009. It aimed to obtain 40% of the UK’s electricity from low-carbon sources by 2020, including 30% renewable generation, up to four demonstrations of capturing and storing carbon emissions from coal power stations, and facilitating the building of new nuclear power stations.

While the UK can legitimately claim to be on target to meeting its Kyoto GHG emission reduction targets, it is important to realise that this is largely an accidental artefact of other government policies (electricity sector privatisation) or of inventory accounting rules under the UNFCCC which do account for all GHG consumption (i.e. embedded carbon emissions and international aviation and shipping emissions). If consumption-based carbon foot-printing approaches are adopted instead, the UK has not succeeded in reducing its net GHG emissions. And given that successful policies for decarbonisation have been accidental rather than intentional.

To some extent, the already-accomplished emission reductions represent the ‘low hanging fruit’. For instance, the onshore wind farms already represent the more optimal locations in terms of planning, wind speed, infrastructure, etc. Scotland already generates 30% of its electricity consumption from renewables (mostly wind power) but moving from 30 to 60% generation will be a lot more challenging. Likewise the easier to achieve energy efficiency gains have already been taken advantage of by many firms and public sector organisations. There are definitely still many cost-effective options for improving energy efficiency but the readiness with which they might be achieved is likely to be more challenging than already enacted policies and measures.

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Annex III Place of the technologies in the low-carbon portfolio of the countriesCzech RepublicIn the Czech Republic, renewable energy is supported through either a guaranteed feed-in tariff or a green bonus paid on top of the market price. Plant operators are free to choose either option. Furthermore, renewable energy is supported through several subsidies. Operators of renewable energy plants are entitled to priority connection to the grid. The use and the expansion of the grid are subject to general legislation on energy.18 

Wind in Czech RepublicIn the Czech Republic, 43,7 MW of wind power was installed in 2012 and the total production in 2011 amounted to 397 GWh which covered the energy used in approximately 113,000 households. The government foresees wind installations of 1200 MW by 2020, claiming that this is the maximum the limited transmission network could cope with. The Czech Wind Energy Association, on the other hand, foresees higher growth in the market, reaching up to 1500 MW by 2020.

A public survey on renewables proved that there was relatively low support (38 %) for building new wind turbines.

The Director of the Energy Regulatory Office and some politicians from big political parties are openly fighting against RES (mainly wind and solar), supported by representatives from the “traditional” energy and mining industry and some energy experts and engineers.

Local communities are often against LCT projects affecting their neighborhood.

Solar in Czech RepublicThe Czech Republic had almost 2 GW of PV at the end of 2010, but only installed 10 MW in 2011 due to the feed-in tariff being reduced by 25 %, after installing almost 1,500 MW the year before.

From 2009-2010, the Czech Republic was flooded with hundreds of utility-sized ground-mounted PV parks spread all over the country. This has resulted in a huge solar boom in 2010 when the Czech Republic had the third highest PV installed capacity in the world, at 12 kWp annually.

However, in February 2010, the CEPS (Czech Transmission Grid Operations) banned the interconnection of all new PV plants to the grid in the Czech Republic. The solar boom was thus constrained and ended. Since then, it has not been possible to interconnect even a 1-kilowatt PV installation. This situation turned around as of January 2012. At that point, all three Czech power distribution companies (CEZ, PRE and E.on) decided to enable the interconnection of small new PV systems into the grid.

According to surveys, 50 % of Czech respondents support increase in the number of solar panels on roofs, but there is rather small support of PV power plants on land (19 %).

Smart grids in Czech RepublicThe Czech Republic is planning on updating the current high-voltage power grid with an investment of around 12 billion CZK. The main goal is to get power from large power plants (fossil, nuclear) to homes.The effect of smart grids and smart metering is questioned by Czech government officials. They claim the current policies of the HDO-system (regulates appliances such as electricity boilers) are adequate. International experts for Czech environmental CSOs made an alternative “Smart Energy” scenario for the future.

CCS in Czech RepublicAt present, there is no comprehensive decarbonisation strategy that would comply with the EU Roadmap goals. The new State Energy Policy assumes ca. 20 % share of coal-fired power plants (without CCS) on power production in 2040 (21,000 GWh), which would roughly correspond to 17 million tonnes of annually emitted CO2 from coal-fired power generation only.

Biomass in Czech Republic

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The Green Savings Programme of the Ministry of Environment (2009-2012) focuses on investment support of energy savings measures (especially insulation) at reconstructions of existing buildings and construction of new ones, but also of heating installations utilising renewable energy sources. The programme supports good-quality insulation of family houses and non-panel multiple-dwelling houses, replacement of environmentally unfriendly heating by low-emission biomass-fired boilers and efficient heat pumps, installations of these sources in new low-energy buildings, as well as construction of new houses in the passive energy standard. The Czech Republic has raised funds for this programme from the sale of emission credits under the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions. The overall anticipated programme allocation is up to 25 billion Czech crowns (ca. 1 billion EUR).

FranceIn France, electricity from renewable sources is promoted through a feed-in tariff and tax benefits.

Wind in FranceFrance aims to meet 23 % of energy demand through renewable power by 2020. The country has 7000 MW installed onshore wind power and has great potential for further developing this technology. The French government launched a second tender to build offshore wind last year, and a third one will follow in 2013, as the country seeks to become a leading player in the industry.

According to polls, two thirds of French people would have accepted to have wind turbines in an area of one kilometer close to their homes. There are emerging limits to LCTs implementation/use: e.g. issues of reliability, lack of sites, etc.

The onshore wind industry in France argues that reworking and lightening the regulation framework is necessary to accelerate the growth. They point out that the “5 mast minimum” rule blocks a large number of projects.

Social dialogue and local protest movements appear to be part of the resistance to the development of windmills.

Solar in FranceFrance had about 4,000 MW of installed solar capacity installed to the grid at the end of September 2012, up from 2,950 MW in 2011. France’s Energy Minister said in January 2013 that France has doubled its target for new solar projects to at leat 1,000 MW in 2013. France is pushing for “ecological patriotism” to help make its solar energy competitive and create jobs, the Minister said.

The Heat Fund is a major commitment of the Grenelle de l’Environment. It aims to develop the production of heat from renewable energy sources by financing these kinds of projects ensuring a lower price than the heat generated from conventional energy.

However, the French PV industry is currently facing several issues that penalize its growth: instability of the legal framework; administrative instruction delays; insufficient annual targets; inadequacy of the quarterly tariff revision mechanism; inadapted tender mechanism; increasing grid connection costs since 2010 and, finally; a weak protection of French products. Industrial development is also impacted by the absence of a national strategy to promote innovation. Start-up’s funding and transfer of R&D to industry are difficult and it is necessary to strengthen industry-government partnerships to conquer export markets.

Professionals consider it essential to establish a sustainable and sufficient market, with a target of installed cumulative 20 000 MW by 2020 and 40 000 MW by 2030. Combined with a stable support framework, for both the supply and demand, this is the first condition for the development of a strong national industry and job creation in the sector. To this end, professionals would like to see: a higher target, extended feed in tariff conditions; building codes that are more inclusive of solar power; and more national/European preference.

According to surveys conducted in 2012, French people support renewable energies; 60 % would have chosen them for heating (28 % solar).

Smart grids in France

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The French recently founded Smart Grids – CRE19 in order to foster the development of smart energy networks.

ADEME, the French national agency in charge of environmental and energy conservation, produced a set of forward-looking technology roadmaps. This included smart grids integrating renewables. Also, this agency holds a risk mutual fund of €150 million to finance funding gaps for a.o. smart grids projects.The process of implementation can be slow, it takes a new service electrical connection about seven years to be implemented.

CCS in FranceThe Initial Inventory of France does not mention a government policy on CCS. There is however significant involvement in the area of CCS: The demonstration project of Lacq, The effort of French Government to apply CCS to the steel plant in Florangeseveral globally active organisations such as Alstom, EdF, IFPEN, Air Liquide, Schlumberger

Biomass in FranceAs large agricultural country, France has an important potential of biomass energy, either as heat, electricity, or fuel. Many processes come into play, such as fermentation, gasification, combustion, cogeneration.

Sectors of renewable energy from biomass have very different degrees of maturity and development in France. Four major production sectors can be distinguished (in addition to wood heating discussed above): incineration of household waste; biogas; electricity generated from the combustion of wood; and biomass fuels derived from plants. The two most important sectors in terms of energy quantity are biofuels production and waste incineration.

First generation biofuels produced already provide close to 6% of the fuel consumed in France. These biofuels (ethanol and biodiesel) are directly incorporated into the gas and diesel distributed at the pump. Their proportion should rise to 10% in 2020.

Heat and electricity produced at the 130 municipal solid waste incineration plants operating in France constitute the second largest source of biomass energy. Indeed the definition of biomass includes our waste foods, meats and vegetables of our garbages. As such, 50% the energy produced by these incinerators is considered renewable.

Biogas produced by the fermentation of organic plant matter or animal, is only a small share of renewable energy consumed in France (less than 2%). This sector is expected to grow in the coming years and diversify its recovery methods (injection of biogas into the grid natural gas, production of automotive fuels ...). New production technologies are also developing such as gasification.

Electricity generation from combustion biomass is still very limited in France. The installed production capacity is less than 200 MWe, but the development objectives set for 2020 are very important. Almost all facilities use cogeneration (simultaneous production of electricity and heat).

Like any industry, energy production with biomass value chains need stable legislative and regulatory conditions for their development. This is especially true when chains are young and need to invest in production tools, which sometimes are innovative and capital-intensive (biofuels,biomass cogeneration...). Investors are averse to support policies with ups and downs, as was the case for electricity biomass in 2009-2010. Some forms of support are currently inadequate.

The biogas aid policy suffers from a lack of clarity about the size and type of facilities necessary to meet the objectives of the Grenelle. The production of biomass electricity is barely taking off despite two support schemes: tenders and feed in tariffs. The incineration of household waste, despite the important work to respect pollutants emission standards, continues to suffer from a poor image. The energy produced by incinerators is an opportunity for nearby heat users (heating network of local, industries ...). It is too little used.

GermanyIn Germany, electricity from renewable sources is supported through a feed-in tariff. The criteria for eligibility and the tariff levels are set out in the Act on Granting Priority to Renewable Energy Sources (EEG). The EEG also introduced the so-called market premium and the flexibility premium for plant

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operators who directly sell their electricity from renewable sources. Moreover, low interest loans for investments in new plants are provided for by KfW Renewable Energy Programme – Standard. 20

Wind in GermanyGermany had an installed capacity of wind power of 29075 MW in 2011, with wind power producing about 8 % of Germany’s total electrical power. More than 21607 wind turbines are located in the German federal area and the country has plans to build more wind turbines. The Energy Package of June 2011 introduces the measures to speed up the development of renewable energy.

The support of renewable technologies is generally quite high in Germany and the support of wind energy has remained stable, but there has been some local opposition.

In addition, onshore wind is increasingly facing the lack of suitable sites. This is being addressed by the financial incentives for repowering of old wind turbines to new, more efficient installations. A particular challenge is the development of the overlay power grid, both for on- and offshore-LCT, in terms of lack of investment and low social acceptance. There is some discussion when it comes to nature protection and whether or not wind energy has a place in nature conservation areas.

Solar in GermanyGermany is the world’s top PV installer, with a solar PV capacity as of December 2012 of more than 32.3 GW. The German new solar PV installations increased by about 7.6 GW in 2012, and solar PV provided 18 TWh of electricity in 2011, about 3 % of total electricity. Some market analysts expect this could reach 15 % by 2050.

In 2012, the German government said that it would be forced to cut subsidies for solar panels, because demand was so high it could no longer afford to support the green technology. The government explained its decision as a way of slowing the rapid growth in the sector, saying it was one of Germany’s success stories, but had been allowed to grow too fast and had been too heavily subsidized.

Generally, surveys show that most Germans have a very positive view on solar energy (88.6 % in 2011/2012). The debate centers only so much around the usefulness of PV (even if there are actors who doubt that PV is sensible in a country with low solar intensity), but rather around cost and the incentive instrument EEG which fuels the “explosion of PV”. Therefore, wind energy supporters are opposing further PV, fearing lack of acceptance for energy transformation.

Smart grids in GermanyIn terms of technology, grid development/high voltage power lines (and CCS) do not feature prominently in the R&D and product portfolio of research organizations and businesses. Research organizations often deal with them as part of their electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and energy management focusses. The region however does feature an IT-based pilot scheme for grid development at Aachen, including a smart metering setup. The project is called Smart Watts21.

CCS in GermanyGermany does at present not include CCS in its decarbonisation strategy. It has a CCS law since 2012 (implementing the EU-directive) which is generally perceived as a research & development law at best; all CCS-demonstration projects failed due to political/societal resistance in potential carbon storage areas and partly for economic reasons. The current federal legislation effectively allows the Bundesländer to veto CCS on their respective territories, and apparently no Land (including NRW) intends to allow it. So in the course of the CCS legislation, the potential operator RWE has shelved plans for a CCS demo plant at Hürth (NRW) and Vattenfall did so for another one at Jänschwalde (Brandenburg).

Biomass in GermanyIn Germany, the support of renewable energies is generally high (cf. Fig. 1). However, the support of biomass is visibly lower than the support of solar, wind and hydroelectric energy. Over time, the support of biomass has clearly decreased, whereas the support of solar energy has done so slightly. The support of wind and hydroelectric energy has remained stable.

20 Source: http://www.res-legal.eu/search-by-country/germany/21 Their website: http://www.smartwatts.de/home.html

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There are more roadmaps, e.g. from biomass, in particular the National Biomass Action Plan for Germany

Commonly proposed is to use biomass for energetic purposes based on the European Union’s Renewable Energies Directive in agriculture with its sustainability criteria for both the production and the energetic use of biomass.

For NRW, due to the high number of stakeholders and their highly differentiated interests when it comes to details of energy policy only some tendencies can be outlined here:Environmental NGOs generally support all forms of renewables but also raise environmental and occasionally social concerns (wind – species and habitat protection, solar – land consumption, biomass – social and ecological problems associated with single-crop farming, efficiency).

GreeceGreece has implemented various measures in order to foster the development of RES in the Greek system over the last two years. Electricity from renewable sources is mostly promoted through a feed-in tariff, subsidies and tax exemption. Another positive initiative has been the aligning of targets for the long-term development of renewable energy with the 20-20-20 EU renewables strategy, with the main focus being on wind energy.

Wind in GreeceExtended curtailments of electricity produced by intermittent RES plants (mostly wind plants) have not taken place so far in the interconnected system, as the current penetration level is rather low. However, in the near future, rules must be set by the Hellenic Transmission System Operator and all the necessary infrastructure must be designed, in order to facilitate this type of action in view of decreased penetration of wind power ensuring at the same time the security of the electricity system.

Opinion polls in Greece show a positive attitude and support of the general public towards renewables, but this attitude seems to have a strong NIMBY component. This was evident in the commercial development of wind energy in Euboa Island, which faced increasing local opposition (from environmentalists, cultural clubs, some municipal authorities, part of the local population etc.) leading to stop any further wind park development in many areas of the island. Reasons offered to resisting wind parks development include optical harmful effects, noise, land devaluations etc., but also perceived health problems to people and animals, negative impact on local tourism, effects on the ecosystems and the landscape, little or no benefit to the local economy, etc.

Greece’s wind-powered electricity rose more than 23 % in 201, according to the Hellenic Wind Energy Association. Installed capacity rose to 1626 MW in 2011 from 1324 in 2010.

Solar in GreeceGreece has expressed its wish to focus on solar power as a means to maneuver its way out of the current economic situation. Since the first initiative to support and promote solar energy, many fields were covered by PVs that took the place of cultivated products. Extended curtailments of electricity produced by RES plants have not taken place so far in the interconnected system, as the current penetration level is low. The cap on the use of PV for residential PV was removed in 2010.

A Eurobarometer survey from 2011 showed a high awareness of solar energy in Greece (84 %) and unanimous support for its development (100 %).

Smart grids in GreeceIn Greece, the need for availability of the necessary capacity in the Greek electricity grid system for new RES power plants is recognised.

CCS in GreeceThe Greek National Energy Strategy Committee developed an Energy Road Map for Greece for the period 2020‐ 2050. In this road map a limited use of CCS is foreseen.

Biomass in GreeceSince the first initiative to support and promote solar energy, many fields were covered by photovoltaics that took the place of cultivated products. The same happened with the biomass. Extended curtailments of electricity produced by intermittent RES plants (mostly wind plants) have not taken place so far in the

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interconnected system, as the current penetration level is rather low. However, in the near future, rules must be set by The Hellenic Transmission System Operator and all the necessary infrastructure must be designed, in order to facilitate this type of action in view of increased penetration of wind power ensuring at the same time the security of the electricity system(7).

At present, there are no RES district heating networks, with the exception of some pilot geothermal applications for district heating and cooling. Nevertheless, the existing legislative framework and all fiscal initiatives favour the development of RES district heating and cooling applications. This includes solar and shallow geothermal applications to be utilized mostly for unit building applications while biomass and medium enthalpy geothermal plants will likely cover some district heating applications.

Biofuels in GreeceThe Biofuels directive 2003/30 has been adopted by the Greek government as Law 3423/05 Agrofuels have become a major issue in recent years, not only because of the adverse developments in the energy sector worldwide, but also due to their environmental and economic benefits. In this respect, Greece, together with all other EU MSs has committed in 2007, in the context of the adopted by the EU Spring Summit “Energy Policy for Europe” to increase the use of biofuels to 10% of total fuel use by 2020. More specifically, according to Law 3423/2005 that has incorporated EU Directive 2003/30 into the national legislation, biodiesel and bioethanol consumption in Greece should reach 160,000 ton and 400,000 tons respectively. According to the climatic and physical context of Greece, a feasible yield is calculated to 12 tons per ha per year of energy crops. Already 4 biodiesel production plants are in operation in Greece (in Kilkis, Volos, Patra and Lamia) that have already supplied 300,000 Klt of biodiesel to the market through refineries.

As an internationally recognised certificate and agreement for the sustainable production of biofuels including balancing GHGs from all possible options, is still lacking, Greece is aiming at achieving its climate change mitigation commitments by giving primarily emphasis on the further promotion of Renewable Energy Sources (RES). Moreover, some of the concerns with both local and global extend Greece is addressing and counterbalancing at the moment include: the increasing competition over farmland and water, the increased global demand for foodstuff, the displacement of food production and the increase in food prices, the displacement of smallholders that might weaken local social cohesion etc. Thus, the tendency currently in Greece, apart from the promotion of RES, also focus towards prioritising research on second generation biofuels and exploitation of biomass from agricultural by-products and waste. More specifically, Greece explores, through applied research programmes, methods to process olive oil industry by-products, which are difficult to manage in an environmentally sound manner, for the production of biofuels, thus also benefiting the environment. Moreover, forest biomass is also intended to be used further in Greece, in a sustainable manner, as a second generation biofuel (National Reporting to the Seventeenth Session of the COMMISSION for SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT of the UNITED NATIONS (UNCSD 17) - Country profile: Greece - YPEKA, 2008).

ItalyIn Italy, support schemes for RES-E are managed by Gestore dei Servizi Energetici (GSE – Manager of Electricity Services). Electricity from renewable sources is mostly promoted through a combination of premium tariffs, feed-in tariffs and tender schemes. Tax regulation mechanisms are in place for investment in RES-E plants. Furthermore, Gestore dei Servizi Energetici (GSE – Manager of Electricity Services) shall manage the sale of renewable energy on request, and interested parties can make use of net-metering. 

Wind in ItalyItaly is the world’s sixth largest producer of wind power, with an installed nameplate capacity of 5814 MW in 2010. The energy from the 487 active plants accounts for 19 % of the renewable energy produced in Italy in 2010. The total energy produced in 2010 was 8787 GWh, which was represented an increase of 29 % from the previous year. The Italian government targeted 12000 GWh by 2020, which seems to be reachable by 2015. Italy introduced a renewable quota system in 2002 and uses green certificates to ensure that power producers and importers produce a specified percentage of electricity from renewables.

Italy has seen some opposition to the development of wind-powered energy. Citizen’s groups work against what they call the uncontrolled implementation of wind and solar energy. They intend to defend the historical and natural landscape, the quality of the environment and to maintain fertile land for agriculture. It is however deemed favorable to develop renewable and efficient energies if they are characterized by limited environmental and esthetic impact.

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Solar in ItalyItaly is ranked among the world’s largest producers of electricity from solar power with an installed PV nameplate capacity of 12773 MW and 330196 plants in operation at the end of 2011. The total energy produced by solar power in 2011 was 10730 GWh, about 3.2 % of the total energy demand. PV plants qualify for incentives through the Energy Incentive scheme (Conto Energia) from 2005. In a Eurobaromter survey from 2006 73 % of the questioned said they were favorable to solar power, while 17 % have a balanced view of it.

Citizen’s groups work against what they call the uncontrolled implementation of wind and solar energy. A particular committee (National Committee Against Photovoltaic and Wind Powered Energy”) intends to defend the historical and natural landscape, the quality of the environment and to maintain fertile land for agriculture. It is however favorable to developing renewable and efficient energies if they are characterized by limited environmental and esthetic impact. The committee encourages the use of photovoltaic and thermal panels on the roofs of buildings, on industrial warehouses, in parking lots and on highways because they are areas “biologically dead, not being used and extensive”.

Smart grids in ItalyCreation of smart grids to integrate renewable energy sources and electric vehicles are being supported in Italy. Italy is at the forefront both from the regulatory point of view and from a normative one, but there is still much work to be done for a complete smart grid application on a national scale. It requires rethinking of protection methods, management and control of distribution networks, which must move from passive to active. An important cooperation between industry and utilities is at work, with a broad program of applied research on smart grids, in order to direct the process of realization in an appropriate economy of scale and standardization coordinated at a national, European and international level.

One of the well-established and grassroots CSOs in Italy is Greenpeace. Greenpeace Italy has proposed more intelligent use of energy as well as the development of smart cities.

CCS in ItalyItalian government policy with respect to CCS is in line with EU roadmap. Italy has transposed the European Directive 2009/03/CE concerning CO2 storage, predicts construction and /or conversion of several plants. This suggests that CCS will have a place in the decarbonisation strategy particularly in the 2050 scenario.

Biomass in ItalyTo access the incentives, the prerequisite is that the plant receives the IAFR qualification which certifies that the plant is powered by renewable sources. The Energy Administrator (GSE) gives the IAFR qualification, when the plants fulfil a number of requirements, as described by several laws, including Article 2 of the European Regulation 2009/28 on the promotion of renewable energy sources. Energies considered for the IAFR qualification are: energies derived from renewable and non fossil sources : wind, solar, aero-thermal, geothermal,

hydrothermal and ocean-based, biomass, landfill gasses, residual gases from purification processes and biogas:o “aero-thermal energy”: energy that is accumulated in the air in the form of heato “geo-thermal energy”: energy which is stored as heat under the crustal plateo “hydro-thermal energy”: energy which is stored on water’s surface in the form of heato “biomass”: the biodegradable fraction of products, waste and residue of organic origin that are

generated by agriculture (that include vegetable and animal matter), from forestry and related industries, including fishing and aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable part of industrial and urban waste.

The tariffs that are currently in effect are of 34 eurocents/kWh for technologies that produce energy that is generated by wave-motion or tidal motion, 30 eurocents/kWh for wind powered plants, 28 eurocents/kWh for bio-gases and biomasses (including pure vegetable oils that can be traced across an integrated management and control system defined in the EC regulations #73/2009 January 19th Council), and excludes bio-combustible liquids), 20 eurocents/kWh for geothermal plants, 18 eurocents/kWh for landfill gases, residual gases from purification processes and bio combustible liquids (excluding pure vegetable oils that are traceable through the integrated management and control system defined in the EC regulations #73/2009 January 19th Council).

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The NetherlandsIn the Netherlands the main support instrument for renewable energy is the SDE+ premium feed-in scheme. The SDE scheme has been in operation since 2008 and recently has undergone major changes. Currently, many RES-E as well as RES-H options are eligible for SDE+ support. It encompasses a system of phased admission with escalating base tariffs, which favours the low cost RES options.

Wind in the NetherlandsThe Netherlands had 1,975 operational wind turbines in 2009, with an aggregate capacity of 2221 MW. The Dutch are trying to meet the EU-set target of producing 9 % of total electricity from renewable sources by 2010. It is publicly argued that wind energy has the biggest potential of the renewable sources available and discussions to build both onshore and offshore wind farms have been intensified.

Over the years, the Netherlands has seen quite some resistance towards windmills. Environmental conditions, mainly for birds, are used as an argument against wind parks, even as noise pollution. The protests against wind energy focus mainly on the output and profit side of wind energy, which has an output of 4 % power demand in 2010. Wind energy is a subsidized industry. Allocation problems, together with finances are the main reasons for the protests. One of the key issues in the discussions concerning wind energy is the dependence on wind and the insecurity of supply.

With less resistance and more output, offshore wind energy is one of the options the national government discusses. This has led to an output of offshore wind at 2134 MW in 2010, which is 1.4% of all offshore wind worldwide. The Government’s goal is to have an energy output of offshore wind of 6000 MW by 2020.

Solar in the NetherlandsThe Netherlands is not an optimal country to implement solar power technologies and it has installed over 130 MW of PVs as of the end of 2011. Solar thermal power is mostly imported due to lack of sunlight. Solar power in The Netherlands has not been very attractive in the last years as it has been far too expensive for consumers. The German model with a feed-in tariff is suggested as a good model to implement, but has not yet been realized. The problem with policy concerning solar power is that it has changed multiple times over the years. The feed-in tariff could be a manner to provide decentralized initiatives with an incentive to implement.

The market for solar power is small in The Netherlands. There are few manufacturers of solar panels. Several research and development and environmental and protest organizations have discussed the government’s solar power policies over the years and been quite outspoken about it. The policy is regarded as insecure, fluctuating and either market or subsidy dependent.

People are in favor of LCTs, as long as they do not have to pay more for their energy bills and as long as they do not have to do a lot of effort in order to get low-carbon generated energy. The NIMBY or BANANA attitude is most certainly applicable to describe the situation in The Netherlands.

Smart grids in the NetherlandsSmart grids is one of the focus points of the Dutch Top Sector Energy, which focusses on the improvement of the energy sector. Grid issues in the Netherlands are seen as limiting the potential of LCTs as wind, solar and tidal power.

CCS in the NetherlandsDutch government recognises CCS as an option for decarbonisation. Within the Netherlands in particular the city of Rotterdam has made CCS a priority within its efforts to reduce CO2 emissions (The Rotterdam Climate initiative). Rotterdam aims to become a hub for CO2 storage where CO2 from all over Europe is landed so that it can be transported to storage sites off shore. The government support for CCS has materialised in several ways: A research programme (CATO) Financial support for ROAD, large scale demonstration project Dutch government was also prepared to sponsor the Green Hydrogen CCS demonstration project, however this project was not able to obtain funding from NERR300.

Biomass in the NetherlandsDutch government has the ambition to reach the European objectives of 2020. There are policy initiatives to increase the implementation of LCTs, chapter 4.1 explains this further. Dutch government

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mostly aims at wind, biomass and solar power. In 2011, the Dutch government decided to spend yearly € 1,4 billion from 2015 onwards and set rules support the implementation of renewable energy sources and reduce CO² emissions. Their aim is to increase amount of renewable energy, energy saving measures, nuclear energy and CO² capture and storage in the energy mix.

According to European directives, in 2020 14% of the energy mix should come from renewable energy sources (RES). When looking at percentages of the total energy consumption renewable energy sources are in 2011 at a consumption level of 4%.

Solutions commonly proposed for decarbonisation of sectors (habitat, industry, transports and agriculture.

In transport, e.g. ‘Green’ gas: Biogas, gas produced out of waste from fruits, vegetables and wood, mud with the same qualities of gas that can be applied in the same manner as gas.

In Agriculture Biogas: gas produced out of waste from fruits, vegetables and wood, mud and biomass to power - Biomass can be used as power for electricity and heating.

NorwayNorway promotes renewable energy through a quota system including a certificate trading scheme. Grid operators are obliged to connect renewable energy plants to their grids without discriminating against certain (groups of) plant operators. This obligation also applies if the realisation of the new connection requires the development of the grid. 22

Scince the issue of climate change has become more pressing, hydropower as one of the major renewable energy sources in Norway has gained increased interests and also acceptance among various stakeholders. Norway has a history of more than 100 years of hydropower development.

Wind in Norway Norway is perhaps the European country with the best conditions for producing wind power due to its excellent wind conditions and long coastline. Low level of support and reluctance in coastal communities has led to a modest development. In 2009, Norway produced a total of 980 GWh of electricity from an installed capacity of 431 MW. Wind power plants had an average life of 2292 hours, which is lower than the expected service life of 2912 hours.

Norway had a national target to produce 3 TWh by 2010. The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) has put a stop to several large wind power projects due to other environmental concerns. There is also reported resistance from large local populations and nature preservation organizations who believe that wind power farms have large negative effects on the environment. Criticism applies primarily to landscape degradation, problems related to noise, pulsating shadow casting and negative effects on the local bird life. People can however be said to have a general positive notion of wind power as long as it is not in their backyard.

Solar in NorwayNorway has limited resources when it comes to solar energy. Approximately 0.4 % of the country’s electric grip is powered by solar cells. Today, modern solar cell technology can reach an annual capacity of 120 TWh throughout the country. Norway has been shamed for being among the world’s worst countries when it comes to political and financial investments in solar power.

There has however been extensive research on PV technologies over the last few years and RD&D on this field receives more support than any other renewable technology (1990-2010).

In general, Norwegian attitudes towards solar power are quite positive, but this technology is not very visible in the public debate.

Smart grids in NorwayFlexible energy systems and smart grids is one of the six focus areas of the Norway national energy R&D strategy. Lack of grid capacity is in parts of Norway stopping new renewables power production, both wind and hydro. For example, the northernmost country of Norway, Finnmark, has more than half of the estimated theoretical potential for onshore wind power generation, but lack grid capacity.Several public consultation processes related to electric grids are currently ongoing. 22 Source: http://www.res-legal.eu/search-by-country/norway/

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The ongoing SusGrid project (Sustainable Grid Development project23) studies grid issues and processes related to transmission lines. The aim it to contribute to the development of legitimate and predictable licensing process related to grid development projects.

Norway is looking at scenarios to more closely connect their power grid to Sweden. Several smart cities initiatives are underway in Norway: Oslo Smart City, Bergen Smart City, Trondheim Smart City.Some public opposition is related to high voltage power lines in Norway.

CCS in NorwayNorway is one of the front runners in Europe and globally in the field of CCS. It has two operational CCS projects: Sleipner West and Snohvit. These projects are related to

Norwegian gas production: the natural gas that is produced contains too much CO2, consequently the CO2 is removed and stored under ground.

It has the intention to apply CCS to the Mongstad refinery. At the moment CCS at this refinery is still in an R&D phase. Beyond Mongstad there are no plans to introduce CCS in industrial production processes.

Norway has a strong R&D effort with respect to CCS. CCS is one of 6 focus areas in the national R&D strategy for the Norwegian energy sector. Funding for RD&D over the national budget has increased over the last couple of years. Norway’s CLIMIT Programme is researching and developing CCS technologies that can be applied to power generation.

PortugalIn Portugal, electricity from renewable sources is mainly promoted through a feed-in tariff (FiT). 

Wind in Portugal Portugal’s development plan for the wind sector was previously mainly driven by the European Directive on Renewable Energy Sources (EC/77/2001) and the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Under a recent National Action Plan for Renewable Energies – PNAER, which is prepared under the auspices of the European Directive EC/28/2009, the new goal for wind capacity for 2020 was set at 6875 MW, 75 MW of which is to be developed offshore.

These official initiatives has wide political support and were anchored on an active private wind sector that showed a mean wind capacity growth of circa 50 % between 2001 and 2010, thus enabling the Portuguese power system to reach 18 % annual wind energy penetration in 2011 and an installed wind capacity of 4300 MW by the of that year.

There is a high level of public perception about wind power, accompanied by a high acceptance by the public, especially in the interior of the country.

Solar in PortugalPortugal has focused quite heavily on solar energy over the last decade, but additional growth is challenged following the downturn in the economic situation after 2010. Various support schemes for solar thermal systems have been launched between 2001 and 2013. The area of solar thermal collectors has grown from roughly 16000 m2 in 2001 to 800.000 m2 today.

The Portuguese seem to adhere to the concept of solar power on buildings, be it thermal or PV systems. PV power plants have not received any relevant public opposition.

Smart grids in PortugalPortugal holds several research institutes researching smart grids (INESC-Porto, UTL/IST) and investing and funding bodies (REN S.A., EDP Energias de Portugal S.A., FP7 projects and private investors). A pilot project at the city of Évora is envisaged as a starting experience for deployment of smart grid approaches.

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CCS in PortugalThe Initial Inventory of Portugal does not mention CCS. Portugal has not officially included CCS in its decarbonisation strategy. However the research community is aware and has been working on the issue; and the biggest Portuguese utility, EDP, considers this option in its energy scenarios.

Biomass in PortugalSurveys also indicate that biomass for domestic space heating is widely used, but it is not clear if there has been an increase or a decrease in the global use of this LC energy source.The year of 2011 was a relatively dry year, atypical for renewable electricity production and far below what Portugal can produce. Renewable energy sources accounted for 45.3% of the gross electric demand which was a severe cut on the pace established by the 51.6% of 2010. The largest share of renewable production came from hydro power plants which accounted for 49.1%, a figure 8% below the obtained in 2010. With the reduction of the largest player, the remaining sources were able to augment their relative contribution, wind energy yielded 37% of production, the biomass sector represented 12.4% and PV grew from 0.8 to 1.1%. Preliminary statistics for the recent wet period (winter 2012-2013) have shown a record 70% production from RES.

SpainIn Spain, the main support scheme (the “Régimen Especial”) operated until the end of 2011 and was suspended at the beginning of 2012. As of now, no other support schemes for RES-E are in place. A tax regulation system for investments related to RES-E plants is in place.24

Wind in SpainSpain is the world’s fourth biggest producer of wind power, with a year-end installed capacity of 21.6 GW and a share of total electricity consumption of 15.9 % in 2011. The wind sector is predicted to stay stable and reach approximately the same point in 2020 as it does today. The Spanish wind energy sector recorded its lowest annual growth in 2011 and it has poor growth prospects in the short to medium term.

With some exceptions, there has been little opposition to the installation of inland wind parks. However, the projects to build offshore parks have been more controversial. For example, the proposal of building the biggest offshore wind power facility in the world in southwestern Spain has met strong opposition from the coastal areas adjacent to the project site, who fear for tourism and fisheries in the area.

Solar in SpainSpain is an advanced country in the field of solar energy and one of the European countries with the most hours of sunshine. In 2008, the Spanish government committed to achieving a target of 12 % primary energy from renewable energy by 2010, and by 2020 expects the installed solar generating capacity of 10000 MW.

Spain has spearheaded the European development of solar thermal power plants. Europe’s first commercial concentrating solar power tower plant was opened in Seville in 2007 and several other projects have followed since.

In addition, a number of PV power plants have been built in Spain, some of the largest being Olmedilla (60 MW), Puertollano (47.6 MW) and Arnedo (34 MW).

According to Spanish surveys on the issue, solar and wind are mostly considered as renewable sources and nearly a third of the consulted said to have high knowledge of this type of energy. The implementation of LCT is often up for public debate. Some of the topics of discord are the influence on the development of some areas or the debate between those who think that the LCTs are a new kind of economic help for the poor municipalities and those for whom it represents an environmental fear. The photovoltaic energy sector requires considerable reductions of the cost of the photovoltaic installations to produce competitive energy. This fact is very important from the point of view of the demand, and the objective of this sector. One of the main points is the reductions in the price of the raw material.

The position of the solar thermal energy is varied. In the medium and low temperature sector there is a strong competition with other countries, and the national position is not strong enough to control the situation in a free trade. There is a need for innovation to produce more efficient products or systems to

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reduce the manufacturers’ costs to compete with quality and price. In the case of high temperature, the position is different and the important thing is to reinforce solar plants and it would be of value to create a high level plan which would give an impulse to the subsectors.

Smart grids in SpainIndustrial initiatives with high impact on society, such as high voltage power lines, are usually decided upon on the level of regional governments. The Spanish regional governments have become competent in this respect.

CCS in SpainCCS technology is included in all the Spanish road maps and is seen as a key technology for decarbonisation. It is an important technology for protecting the use of domestic coal in power plants. This is recognized by Spanish legislators: Spain was the first country to transpose the European Directive, resulting in Law 40/2010, Geological Storage of CO2 . Spain is working on a CCS demonstration project in Compostilla. The FEED studies are completed and were financed by EEPR, for the demonstration phase no funding has yet been obtained.

Biomass in SpainWith respect to the biomass its weaker point is its excessive dispersion, with small size companies, with a high level of geographic dispersion and excessively related to the precise initiatives that are arising. On the contrary, the main strength of this subsector is the high potential of growth. Like in the photovoltaic sector, an important contribution of the investigation is required on many important differentiated groups, but at the same time the establishment of lines that allow to coordinate the efforts of the groups of investigation with the pioneering companies in the different sectors. The greater strength of this sector is the land existence available for new power cultivations, at the time that detects a minimum presence of power promotional companies.

Domestic biomass heating is one of the most common LCTs used at domestic and commercial level. The implementation of this technology has been developed with the aid of national and local incentives. The use in public buildings (schools, hospitals, etc.) is nowadays very common.

The UKIn the United Kingdom RES-E are supported through a feed-in tariff, a quota system and a tax regulation mechanism. 

Wind the UKThe UK had an installed capacity of wind power of 8445 MW, with 362 operational wind farms and 4158 wind turbines throughout the country in 2013. The UK is ranked as the world’s eighth largest producer of wind power. The industry is predicted to continue growing for the foreseeable future – RenewableUK estimated in 2010 that more than 2000 MW of capacity would be deployed per year for the next five years. By 2020, the UK is expected to have more than 28000 MW of wind capacity.

UK attitudes towards wind energy have been consistently positive over the last decade. Resistance to wind energy developments appears to be primarily driven by negative perceptions of their visual impacts, with a considerable minority finding them unsightly and noisy.

As deployment of onshore wind has gathered pace, so the number of suitable locations on land for wind turbines has begun to become scarce. This has resulted in a move towards the installation of offshore wind turbines instead. However, offshore turbines are much more expensive than onshore raising new controversies about their affordability. One of the main arguments that the anti-wind farm lobby has mobilized is that of the intermittency of wind energy – pointing out that back-up fossil fuel power plants are required because of this. The cost of this adds to the overall cost of wind energy.

Solar in the UKThe UK had 230 000 solar power projects by the end of 2011, with a total installed capacity of 750 MW. By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000 MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of PV panels, and a Feed in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4 million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000 MW of installed solar power capacity of 2020.

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Smart grids in the UKThe UK has a Feed In Tariff, which means if you generate electricity that you don’t use yourself, you can export it to the grid. You will be paid for exporting electricity as an additional payment (on top of the generation tariff).

The UK is planning a electricity market reform: “With a quarter of the UK’s generating capacity shutting down over the next ten years as old coal and nuclear power stations close, more than £110bn in investment is needed to build the equivalent of 20 large power stations and upgrade the grid. In the longer term, by 2050, electricity demand is set to double, as we shift more transport and heating onto the electricity grid. Business as usual is therefore not an option.”

Issues such as the need to modify the electricity grid in order to allow a great deal more distributed electricity generation to feed-in have been known by engineers for a long time, but only really ‘hit’ the consciousness of policy makers as renewable capacity has grown. There are limited resources (capital, skilled workers, etc.) to enable a distributed grid to develop in the timescale needed to support large-scale roll-out of renewables. This also includes the need for major new inter-connectors between Scotland and England, to enable renewable power to be moved southwards.

CCS in the UKIn general the UK government policies are in favor of CCS. UK sees it as a business opportunity. Initially the UK government launched a call for demonstration projects which led to the selection of the Longannet. This project failed because of funding issues after which the UK government relaunched its competition for CCS projects. The government’s response has been to launch a new competition. In late October 2012, the UK government announced that four projects had been included in the short-list for the new £1 billion competition. Two of the projects are in Scotland (Grangemouth, IGCC) and Peterhead (post-combustion CCGT), one in Yorkshire (oxyfuel at Drax) and one in the North East (Teeside). The intention is that all four projects will go forward to FEED studies which will form the basis for ‘intensive negotiations’ with the UK government. Only one project will be ultimately selected. This new competition has already led to some controversy, however, because one of the leading bids in the UK has not been selected – the 2CO project which links an IGCC project to enhanced oil recovery in the North Sea.

Biomass in the UKThe RO is the main support mechanism for renewable electricity projects in the UK. Smaller scale generation is mainly supported through the Feed-In Tariff scheme (FITs) (see 1.1.3.). The RO came into effect in 2002 in England, Wales and in Scotland and in 2005 in Northern Ireland. It places an obligation on UK electricity suppliers to source an increasing proportion of electricity they supply to customers from renewable sources. Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROCs) are green certificates issued by the regulator (Ofgem) to operators of accredited renewable generating stations for the eligible renewable electricity they generate. Operators can then trade the ROCs with other parties, with the ROCs ultimately being used by suppliers to demonstrate that they have met their obligation. A banding scheme has been used to provide greater support to newly emerging renewable energy technologies and less to mature technologies. In 2010, for example, a company received 0.25 ROC/MWh electricity generated from landfill gas, 0.5 ROC/MWh from sewage gas or co-firing with(non-energy crop) biomass, 1 ROC/MWh for onshore wind, hydro-electric, co-firing with energy crops, co-firing using biomass or energy from waste where Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is used; 1.5 ROCs/MWh for off-shore wind, co-firing of energy crops with CHP or electricity from dedicated biomass power plants; and 2 ROCs/MWh for wave power, tidal stream, AD gas, advanced gasification and pyrolysis, dedicated biomass plants using energy crops, geothermal and microgeneration (Ofgem, 2010).

The Renewable Heat Incentive (the RHI) is a payment system for the generation of heat from renewable energy sources introduced in the United Kingdom on 28 November 2011. The RHI replaces the Low Carbon Building Programme, which closed in 2010. The RHI operates in a similar manner to the Feed-in Tariff system, and was introduced through the same legislation - the Energy Act 2008. In the first phase of the RHI cash payments are paid to owners who install renewable heat generation equipment in non-domestic buildings. The RHI went live on 28 November 2011 for non domestic buildings. The Coalition Government confirmed its support for the RHI in the October 2010 Spending Review and published details on 10 March 2011. The RHI is due to be extended to domestic buildings in October 2012.

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Through the RHI, generators of renewable heat can be paid up to 8.9p/kWhr for hot water and heat which they generate and use themselves. The RHI tariff depends on which renewable heat systems are used and the scale of generation. The annual subsidy will last for 20 years. As such, users may earn enough money from the tariffs to pay off their installation costs in five to ten years. According to the Government, which has set the tariff levels, users will earn a return of 12% per annum. This will be tax free for individuals. The equivalent for Feed-In Tariffs is 5%-8%. The RHI provides support for community and district heating schemes where a single renewable heat system provides heat or hot water to more than one property. The renewable heat technologies which are eligible under the first phase of the RHI are solar thermal (hot water) panels, ground source heat pumps, water-source heat pumps, biomass boilers, and biomethane.

Bioenergy and biofuels: Bioenergy remains one of the least familiar renewable energy technologies to the public, despite

biomass combustion being an ancient technology, but awareness is increasing. About half of the UK population have positive views of bioenergy; but support for biomass in the UK

is among the lowest in Europe. Burning waste for energy is perceived more negatively than use of biomass. There is very little publicly available literature on UK attitudes to biofuels.That major fuel suppliers generally avoid drawing attention to the biofuel content of retail fuel suggests that public views may be mixed or negative

Energy from waste: Public concern about incineration, energy from waste and energy from biomass residues evident in

several EU countries; common concerns include: Atmospheric emissions: dioxins, acid gases, heavy metals Disposal of fly ash from incineration or residues from energy from biomass residue plant Noise, odour, traffic movements Lack of flexibility of contracts for municipal solid waste and their impact on new reduction or

recycling initiatives and importation of waste from outside the region Insufficient justification of the plant (the principle, size or scale) Costs and security of finance The visual impact of the scheme on the locality The impact of the scheme on the character of an area The impact of the scheme on local house prices

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Annex IV GlossaryIndirect Land Use Change (ILUC) It has been suggested that growing energy crops on agricultural land may displace existing agricultural production, causing land use change in another location. This Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC) might occur in a neighbouring area or even in another country hundreds of miles away, where an area of high biodiversity (and high levels of "stored carbon") might be cleared to make more land available for growing food crops.

It has been suggested that increased use of rape seed oil for biodiesel production in Europe could reduce the amount available for the food industry, leading in turn to increased demands for imports of palm oil (potentially increasing deforestation in producer countries).

Since 2008, there has been much debate about the assumptions made and methods used to establish the impact of Indirect Land Use Change. However, there is a consensus that land use change is very complex and affected by a wide range of factors, not only biofuels.

There has been a lot of discussion going on between different stakeholders in the EU on the issue of ILUC. Different studies were conducted with as many different results. The result was the proposal by the EC in October 2012 to minimise the climate impact of biofuels. The proposal suggested the inclusion of indirect land use change (ILUC) factors in reporting by fuel suppliers and Member States of greenhouse gas savings of biofuels and bioliquids. The proposal allows for ILUC factors to be added.Stakeholders who are organised and represented in the TP biofuels, see the current development as a compromise within the European Commission as a reaction to the raised issues on ILUC. The stakeholders see the shift to more attention to more advanced biofuels as a positive development. Though, as a prerequisite to any biofuels policy, a strategy and long term vision for biofuels must be set up with a vision for the contribution of biofuels to energy security, innovation and employment for 2020 and beyond. The strategy must take into account the availability of biomass, maturity and potential of technology and compatibility with European energy pattern. The existing bioenergy industry shall be preserved from adverse policy shifts. The significant adjustments to the proposal are required to deliver the expected industrialization of advanced biofuels path ways.

Land availability The amount of biomass required to replace a significant proportion of the fossil fuel used in transport runs into millions of tonnes. Hence, a crucial question is that of biomass yield. Higher yields obviously enable a similar amount of biofuel to be replaced using less land. However, land use efficiency may also be improved by selecting an overall production chain that can use a high yielding biomass crop. Greater utilisation of such materials depends on the development of second generation biofuels. Even if these higher yielding methods come to market, land availability still sets limits to what may be produced. Suggestions have been made for the movement of biomass or biomass derived fuels from the more productive regions to the more industrialised countries.

Food versus fuel The global population continues to grow, in places at an alarming rate, and will need to be fed and will expect to live an improved life style, consuming more energy. This raises questions of ‘Food versus Fuel'; how much land and other resources are available, how should they be used and what are the priorities?

The debate on Food versus Fuel has had a major impact on biofuels policy and gained renewed media coverage. Competing land uses: There are controversial debates concerning the use of biomass grown for food, feed, material use or energy. There is an on-going discussion about the influence of biomass production on the food security in Europe and in other parts of the world, which has led to other controversial subjects, i.e. ILUC

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ANNEX V References AEBIOM 2012: AEBIOM statement on biomass and climate benefits (Available online under

http://www.aebiom.org/wp-content/uploads/file/Position%20Papers/AEBIOM_Statement_biomass%20and%20climate%20benefits%20bc.pdf)

European Biofuels Technology Platform: www.biofuelstp.eu European Commission: EU energy in figures, Statistical Pocketbook 2012 (Available online under

http://ec.europa.eu/energy/publications/doc/2012_energy_figures.pdf) European Commission: Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050

(Available online under http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm ) European Commission: Energy Roadmap 2050 (Available online under

http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy2020/roadmap/index_en.htm ) European Commission: White Paper on transport (Available online

underhttp://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/strategies/2011_white_paper_en.htm Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe (FNR): Bioenergy in Germany: Facts and Figures January

2012 (Available online under http://mediathek.fnr.de/media/downloadable/files/samples/b/a/basisdaten_engl_web_neu.pdf)

Eurobserver, Biofuels Barometer, Juli 2012 (Available online under http://www.eurobserv-er.org/) International Energy Agency (IEA), Technology Roadmap, Biofuels for Transport, 2011 (Available

online under http://www.iea.org/) Roadmap for moving to a low carbon economy in 2050 (Available online under

http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm Fachausschuss “Nachhaltiges Energiesystem 2050” des ForschungsVerbunds Erneuerbare

Energien: Energiekonzept 2050 – Transformation des heutigen Energiesystems zum nachhaltigen Energiesystem 2050 (Available online under http://www.fvee.de/fileadmin/politik/10.06.vision_fuer_nachhaltiges_energiekonzept.pdf)

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