losing institutional memory: the inadvertent impact of the information age upon procedural knowledge

8/6/2019 Losing Institutional Memory: The Inadvertent Impact of the Information age Upon Procedural Knowledge

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Losing Institutional Memory:

The Inadvertent Impact of the Information age Upon Procedural Knowledge

David M. Opincarne

Victoria Scrivner

English 113; 2:00

Final

June 9, 2009



Losing Institutional 1

NASA¶s planned route for a manned trip to Mars passes through a cluttered

junkyard in North Hollywood called Norton Sales. NASA intends to use the Ares I

Rocket, based on the proven Saturn V Rocket, to lift its Martian Crew Exploration

Vehicle into Earth¶s orbit. There¶s just one problem; nobody remembers how to make a

key component, the rocket engine¶s valves (Johnsen, 2006, para. 6). NASA engineers are

unable to locate drawings used in the Apollo era technology, and the engineers involved

in the project were encouraged to take early retirement (DeLong, 2004, Chapter1, para.

3). As a result, NASA needs to reverse engineer an existing valve to understand its

design, but the only valves available reside at Norton¶s, a source for surplus space

equipment used as movie props and collected by space enthusiasts. A boon for

moviemakers, but how much has starting over cost NASA? At a time when knowledge is

considered the most valuable capital in an organization¶s possession and a world

economy has developed around its optimization, incalculable costs arise from

inefficiencies resulting from lost capabilities, redundant efforts, and employee turnover.

The advent of digital technology is having an irrefutable impact upon human

history. The rise of the information age is leading to the decentralization and

globalization of business, manufacturing, and scientific endeavor, revolutionizing the

way information is archived and transferred. But all new technology has unintended

consequences and adaptation to this new period requires those consequences be

thoughtfully evaluated and their impact minimized. Since this new age is primarily

concerned with the acquisition and dissemination of information, a useful assessment

might begin with information¶s resistance to codification. As part of this assessment, a




survey of 96 people was conducted in the spring of 2009 asking participants to self assess

the relative value of the methods by which they acquired their skill sets. 81% of survey

participants were between the ages of 35 and 64, and 78% of participants reported

holding a Bachelors or post graduate degree. In addition, 52 % reported they considered

themselves to hold professional or executive positions and 20% reported serving in a

supervisory or proprietary role. Additionally, an interview was conducted with Lindsey

Berdan, an interaction designer for Fluke Corporation and chairperson for the Industrial

Design Society of America¶s Northwest Chapter. This investigation revealed the need to

understand the variety of forms knowledge may take and multiple routes of transference.

Specialized knowledge held within an organization, usually containing strong oral and

experiential components, is commonly referred to as institutional memory. When

discussing institutional memory, the notion of procedural knowledge, the knowledge

incorporated in the completion of a task, is of particular importance. This research paper

will analyze the limitations and impact of the information age upon the retention of

procedural knowledge and examine current and theoretical solutions.

The Nature of Knowledge and Memory

If the digital revolution is the instrument of the information age, then knowledge

serves as its currency. Like currency, knowledge needs to represent a useful or desirable

commodity in order to remain valuable. In order to understand the value of knowledge,

we must understand what it consists of and what it allows us to do. Bellinger (2004)

states that knowledge begins as data; data is the fundamental building block of

understanding and embodies the basic symbols used to encrypt higher ideas. But without




context, ³data is just a meaningless point«without reference to either space or time´

(Bellinger, 2004, para. 4). By perceiving the relationship between separate pieces of data,

data becomes information. Information not only incorporates data, but also gives it

meaning by adding context. Awareness of the relationship between data points does not

provide an understanding of what causes data to change however, so information is

relatively static and context dependent. By perceiving the patterns in data relationships,

information becomes knowledge. As a result, knowledge becomes less context specific

than the information it is drawn from and allows for a more general application of

information. It needs to be emphasized that understanding the patterns in information

does not imply an understanding of the underlying principles that cause such patterns to

form. Discerning the principles that govern information patterns turns knowledge into

wisdom. Wisdom allows for the universal application of the information and knowledge

it embodies and is therefore context independent. Wisdom, as it is applied to

organizational management, can be thought of as the practical application of knowledge

and is the desired outcome of knowledge systems (Bellinger, 2004). The value of

knowledge in the Information Age is derived from its capacity for transference. In order

for knowledge to be useful, it must be reliably stored, transferred, and retrieved1.

Inaccuracy during any of these steps can adversely affect the usefulness of the

information in question. As knowledge is encoded, it must be reduced to its base unit:

data. The ability of knowledge to be accurately placed into memory and transferred is

1Because knowledge entails higher levels of cognition, knowledge must be reduced to

information before being transferred or stored. Memory is how information is stored and

can be organic, as in human memory, or synthetic, such as books, databases, or computer files.




dependent upon its ability to be encrypted into a suitable memory system. While insight

into the hierarchy and composition of knowledge provides an understanding of its utility,

it does not describe the forms that knowledge may take.

Explicit, implicit, and tacit are terms frequently encountered in the study of

knowledge management. While this might imply that distinct forms of knowledge exist, a

careful examination of current theory reveals these knowledge types sit on a continuum.

At one pole resides convention dependent knowledge and at the other context dependent

knowledge. The convention dependent pole is generally accepted as being knowledge

free of context and ³ . . . is easily codified and can be shared independent of its human

source, or it can be embedded in processes or systems.´ (DeLong, 2004, p. 83).

Convention dependent knowledge is representative of ideas that are highly orthodox and

absolute and which retain precise meaning. Occupying the opposite end of the continuum

is context dependent knowledge, which incorporates external cues into its makeup and

consequentially, is impossible to comprehend outside of the experiences that formed it.

Knowledge of this type can be thought of as know-how or skill and has a large intuitive

component. Where knowledge resides on the continuum determines how it is transferred.

Explicit Knowledge

Explicit knowledge refers to ideas that are represented by immutable encryptions

and thus allow them to transcend time and place while retain their original intent.

Knowledge of this type is referred to as rules based and may be thought of as instructions

or procedures. For humans, this may be the ability to read or to understand the meaning

and use of symbolic notations such as those found in blueprints or sheet music; for




computer systems, this might include the ability to recognize a file format or retrieve data

from a database. The major part of information held in knowledge repositories and

presented during formal education is composed of explicit knowledge. Despite the high

value placed on explicit knowledge, exceptions to the rules it describes occur regularly.

Results from the 2009 survey illustrate this point:

70% of the respondents rated formal education as moderately to very significant in the

acquisition of their skill set. Additionally, 80% of the respondents reported written

material played a moderate to very significant role in self-education. Despite this, 69% of

those surveyed also reported encountering exceptions to explicit rules on a regular basis.

Since explicit knowledge deals with concepts that tend to be absolute, it does not readily

incorporate exceptions to the conventions it describes. Explicit knowledge not only

describes rules, it also adheres to them. Because it is convention dependent, explicit

knowledge is easily captured, stored, and shared in synthetic memory systems by any

entity capable of understanding the conventions that governed the original encryption.

Once encoded into memory, explicit knowledge remains viable as long as the integrity of

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the memory system containing it remains intact and the ability to retrieve the encrypted

data and restore it to its original meaning remains available. Because it is convention

dependent and may include large amounts of data that must be maintained accurately,

encoding and retrieval of explicit knowledge is more suited to synthetic memory than

human memory.

Explicit knowledge¶s first point of failure occurs when knowledge escapes

encoding for one of two reasons: the value of the knowledge is not recognized or the

knowledge holder becomes isolated. The responsibility for improved recognition lies

with the owner of the capture process. Those responsible for management policy

frequently fail to recognize the value of knowledge held outside their own sphere of

influence due to entrenchment within organizational dogma, cultural myopia, or overly

attributing the value of knowledge they themselves hold. Livingstone & Sawchuk

attribute this phenomenon to ³ . . . a form of exaggerated individualism obscuring the

actual processes that are ongoing.´ (Livingstone & Sawchuk, 2005, An educational

approach for working people section, para. 5). This quality is not limited to commercial

organizations, but extends to academia, fields of scientific enquiry, or anywhere the

perception of wisdom determines social stature. Marginalized communities, indigenous

cultures, and the laity hold large blocks of undocumented knowledge. Changing

entrenched views and recognizing the value of knowledge held outside the organizational

culture may identify new sources of knowledge. Once identified, knowledge must be

available for encryption. Isolation may occur due to employee turnover or relocation, by

segregation brought about by de-centralization, or by lack of involvement on the part of




the knowledge holder. While the knowledge holder may readily volunteer knowledge,

they may often be reluctant to do so for fear of losing their value or individuality,

antagonistic feelings towards the organization, or a belief that the knowledge they hold

will not be utilized. Once knowledge holders are identified, managerial or

anthropological tools may be brought to bear in order to elicit usable knowledge.

Assuming convention dependent knowledge has been successfully encoded, the

memory it is stored in must remain safe. Memory failure may occur through degradation

or loss. Degradation can be thought of as loss of data or spontaneous damage of the

storage medium; examples of which might include fading of written material, the

decomposition of film stock, or generational infidelity when data is reproduced. Viability

issues can be addressed through proper preservation measures or transfer of data into a

more stable form. Preservation consists of the proper application of archival principles

and techniques. Transfer to a stable form must take into account generational infidelity.

Programs such as Project Gutenberg and Google Books suggest the digital revolution

offers many potential solutions such as new scanning technology, optical character

recognition and data storage for the transfer of analog media to digital storage with a high

degree of fidelity. The value of analog media already subject to a low signal to noise ratio

may be increased by the inclusion of supplemental documentation. Loss occurs when

memory is physically unavailable due to poor archival procedure or liquidation. With the

continued use of venerable technology such as the Air Force¶s B-52 and NASA¶s Ares-

Saturn Rocket, the need to show restraint in the purging of information perceived to be

obsolete is particularly important and the use of digital media allows for virtually infinite




storage capacity. If codified knowledge is properly backed up and archived and if those

archives are subject to well-established preservation techniques, it should remain

available indefinitely.

Even if knowledge is properly encoded and stored, it may remain unavailable if

no method exists to return the encoded data back into usable information. One possible

reason is knowledge cannot be decrypted due to a failure or inaccessibility of the

conventions applied to the original encryption. This may be as fundamental as a dead

language or as sophisticated as the lack of a suitable playback system for specialized

recording media. In order for information held in synthetic memory to once again become

knowledge, it must remain accessible. This requires the identification of systems and

formats used to encode and decode information held within memory. Proper hardware or

software needs to be maintained or conversion algorithms put in place at the incept of

new technology in order to preserve access to encoded information. Once retrieved, it

must be understood that despite explicit knowledge¶s adherence to convention,

conventions themselves are not universal and consideration of the cultural norms and

precepts of the culture from which the knowledge is derived must be taken into account.

Tacit Knowledge

The concept of tacit knowledge2

is derived from the works of Michael Polanyi,

who is frequently referenced in the literature of knowledge management. Polanyi¶s work

was partially based upon his understanding of the Gestalt theory of perception as a global

process. The result being that Gestalt constructs are incorporated into contemporary

2³Tacit knowledge is often described as what we know but cannot articulate, . . .´

(DeLong, 2004, p. 83).




understandings of tacit knowledge. The gestalt theory of perception maintains the human

mind will fill in patterns missing in the information provided by external cues in order to

construct the simplest and most reasonable explanation of the stimuli presented to it. As a

result, what is perceived is informationally richer than the stimuli that produced the

perception. In this regard, the mind becomes an active participant in the construction of

context dependent knowledge. Conversely, the information produced by this process

cannot be successfully reconstructed into knowledge outside of the context in which it

was formed. Methods of transferring tacit knowledge have a large experiential

component and successful reconstruction or learning must occur in situ. The current

knowledge holder cannot directly transfer knowledge to the learner but must act as a

facilitator between the learner and the environment. The importance of a facilitator in

acquiring tacit knowledge is evident in the 2009 survey:

Respondents were asked to evaluate the rate at which proficiency with a new technique

was achieved under two scenarios. The first considered the technique being demonstrated

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first by a facilitator, the second considered when the technique was learned indirectly

through explicit means. Under both scenarios more than 50% of the respondents stated ³It

takes a few tries´. What is significant is the overall shift in responses towards a slower

acquisition rate, as demonstrated by the graph (Survey, 2009). The physical presence of

the facilitator within the environment directly impacts the rate and ease of knowledge

transference.

One view of the success of the information age might state it has removed barriers

of time and place, allowing for the decentralization of the workforce. Additionally, many

procedures have become automated and are completed with exponentially increased

speed and precision. It would be difficult to argue these outcomes are not beneficial but

they are also highly biased towards convention dependent knowledge. As Schultze

explains, ³ . . . science has taught us to value the objective over the subjective: therefore

the gathering of subjective knowledge is in direct contradiction to scientific value.´ (as

cited in Gonzalez-Reinhart, 2005, p. 3). The very aspects that make the information age a

boon for explicit knowledge become obstacles for tacit knowledge. In order for context

dependent knowledge to be successfully retained, subjective knowledge must be placed

on par with objective knowledge. Through decentralization, knowledge holders become

isolated and automation causes skills held in human trust to become devalued. When

evaluating procedural knowledge, the value of human interaction is supported by the

results of the 2009 survey. 86% of respondents agreed with the following statement, ³I

have acquired skills that significantly affect my ability to participate in my vocation

through personal interaction and I could not have readily acquired them through other




means.´ with 49% saying they ³Strongly agreed´ (Survey, 2009). Because tacit

knowledge transfer requires the knowledge holder to act as a facilitator between the

learner and the context ingrained within the knowledge, decentralization negatively

impacts the ability of the knowledge holder to assist the dynamic between the learner and

the environment. Tacit learning has traditionally taken the form of cognitive

apprenticeships, which immerse the learner in the environment that produced the

knowledge and foster acquisition through interaction. Modern medical training is one

example of social learning still in use and cognitive apprenticeships in particular. If tacit

knowledge is to be successfully retained in the Information Age, it will be through

accommodation rather than conversion.

When direct interaction between the learner and environment are not possible,

alternative methods of encoding information need to be found. Alternative solutions may

be thought of as either changing the nature of the knowledge in question or changing the

way it is transferred. Recent advances in Virtual Reality suggest that haptics3

and motion

capture may allow for the encoding of tacit knowledge in non-traditional means. The

greatest advances have occurred in the training of minimally invasive surgical techniques.

Since the student cannot directly observe this procedure, other means must be found to

understand the context of the surgeon¶s actions. Surgical trainers are computer simulators

that allow students to receive immediate feedback through the use of haptic surgical

instruments and 3D computer modeling. The use of simulators allows the student to train

in a virtual environment, apart from the instructor and operating room. Along with

3Haptic controls function as computer input devices but provide tactile feedback through

a variety of technology. Force-feedback controllers are a type of haptic device.




recording the movements of the haptics, the addition of motion capture devices allows for

the evaluation of the students actions.4

In evaluating the usefulness of surgical simulators

Halvorsen, Elle, & Fosse (2005, p. 221) state, ³ . . . virtual reality trainers not only train

psychomotoric skills, but also give the possibility to train decision making.´ Another

alternative method of encryption puts forth a compensation mechanism in the form of

intuitive design. Intuitive design incorporates what a user already knows about his

environment into the interface of new technology. When asked how this might be

accomplished, Berdan (2009) explains, ³We will often use parallels or reference other

[devices] like a cell phone¶s four-way navigation button . . . . we leverage those existing

conventions to help people get into our product´. Classic examples of this technique can

be found in most modern computer systems. The icons used to control computer

commands are symbolic of real world items whose functions are already familiar. These

same principles can be incorporated into emerging technology, lessening the users

dependence on convention based documentation which ³ . . . general only describes a

series of actions leading to a desired result´ (Merkel & Nishida, 2009, p. 1). In order to

make the devices she designs more accessible to novice users, Berdan (2009)

incorporates the general conventions and functions already familiar within the electronics

industry into the product¶s commands and then elevates those functions to the top level of

the instrument¶s interface. Intuitive design provides the user cues to possible actions and

feedback to actions already undertaken. To illustrate this concept Berdan (2009) uses her

companies practice of incorporating a double beep as a convention to inform users of a

4³[A simulator] can assess the students based on specific metrics and compare the

performance to preformed proficiency criteria levels.´ (Halvorsen et al, 2005, p. 218)




bad button press. Alternative methods of encoding need not be high tech; Barrett¶s

(2007) research indicates knowledge considered difficult to codify through conventional

means may be transmitted through aesthetic means. Aesthetic disciplines have developed

their own syntax for communicating ideas that cannot otherwise be easily verbalized.

Boast, Bravo, & Srinivasan cite the example of an Inuit artisan carving a kayak. When

compared to an actual kayak, the carving is observed to be disproportionate. But to

someone familiar with the kayaks use, these deviations are immediately recognized as ³ .

. .[emphasizing] the important details in its function.´ (2007, p. 396). Aesthetic syntax is

rich in context and allows understanding of tacit ideas apart from the environment that

formed them.

Implicit knowledge

Convention dependent and context dependent knowledge occupy opposite ends of

the spectrum but they are not mutually exclusive qualities. Knowledge may contain

varying degrees of both elements. This middle ground is termed implicit knowledge and

is thought of as knowledge that is capable of being codified but usually isn¶t. Like

explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge is capable of documentation, but like tacit

knowledge, it tends to be context specific. Transference of implicit knowledge blends

methods suitable to each element. Implicit knowledge may be capable of being

verbalized or otherwise encoded, but its contextual component limits its ability to be

understood on a universal basis. Implicit knowledge can be recorded, but the knowledge

holder must be presented with appropriate prompts in order to elicit usable information.

Transference of this type must retain a human element in order to understand its full




meaning. Factors governing convention dependence allow implicit knowledge to be

transferred by synthetic means5, but in order to retain context, the information being

conveyed must retain personal meaning. This takes the form of socialized learning.

Transfer occurs when internal knowledge is socialized by the knowledge holder and then

internalized by the recipient to form their own knowledge (Gonzalez-Reinhart, 2005,

Knowledge management section. para. 6). What is termed oral tradition consists of

contextual knowledge and is transferred through social learning. Environment plays a key

role in social learning. The significance of social learning is born out in the results of the

2009 survey:

Of those respondents who underwent formal training, a median time of 2-3 years was

required before respondents considered themselves proficient in their vocation. Of the

modes of training respondents were asked to evaluate, on-the-job training was rated

highest with 70% of respondents reporting it played a ³Very significant´ role in the

5If these associative meanings are compromised due to errors similar to those in explicit

encryption or if the implied meaning is lost due to cultural changes, implicit knowledgemay be lost.

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development their skill set and 17% reporting it was ³Moderately significant´. In

comparison, the highest rated form of explicit learning, self-education using written

material, was rated ³Very significant´ by 41% of participants rating it and ³Moderately

significant´ by 39% (Survey, 2009). As one can see, social learning and context play

significant roles in developing the ability to apply prior training. Boast et al underscore

the importance of context when they point out, ³ . . . oral tradition is strongest in the

places where it is set . . . ´ (2007, p. 396). Not only is location important, but the tone

and pace of the exchange is also a critical factor in social learning. Informal settings

allow organizational members to exchange ideas and narratives more readily (Desouza,

2003, para. 4). Learning of this type may include storytelling, workshops and seminars.

If implicit knowledge is to be retained, all of the qualities that compose it must be taken

into account.

Implicit knowledge can remain un-documented for two reasons. The first

possibility is it is rules-based knowledge that is known by the individual but has escaped

documentation. DeLong offers the example of a technician knowing when the explicit

knowledge governing the production of a radar component are in error and should be

ignored (2004, p. 84). If this knowledge became encoded, it would become explicit. The

second possibility is it is knowledge that is codifiable but is so highly contextual it cannot

be applied to general rules and conventions (DeLong, 2004). When verbalized, implied

meanings contained within the convention dependent component can convey the context

dependent qualities of implicit knowledge. Context is conveyed not in the literal meaning

of language, but by its associative meanings. In either case, the contextual component of




this type of knowledge can be elicited through properly applied interviewing techniques.

Efficient interview techniques utilize the knowledge holder's own expertise to disclose

critical knowledge. Eucker underscores the relevance of expertise when he states, ³If we

fail to recognize the contributions of experience and context we will treat all knowledge

the way that we treat information . . . ´ (2007, p. 12). Hylko (2005, para. 9) lays out a

multi-step process for interviewing implicit knowledge holders. Preparation begins with

determining the scope of the interview and identifying background information. The

interviewer begins by probing the knowledge holder for specific occasions where the

knowledge holder made decisions or interacted in a way that shaped the final outcome of

events. The interviewer then takes the knowledge holder back and forth over the events.

At first this is done passively, with the interviewer verifying his understanding of the

story and allowing the knowledge holder to volunteer supporting information. During

later retellings, the interviewer actively probes for additional information, first for key

times and events, then for factors that shaped decisions and changed outcomes. The

interview concludes with the interviewer interjecting hypothetical situations into the

scenario for the knowledge holder and recording their theoretical response. The interview

process may illuminate underlying knowledge by highlighting the choices available and

options a knowledge holder accepted and rejected. If allowances are made for the

contextual aspect of implicit knowledge in the Information Age, then it may be

successfully encoded into the digital infrastructure.

Once encoded, access to implicit knowledge remains impaired by its contextual

aspect. In order for information to be accessed, it must be recalled from memory through




a search. Successful results are achieved when the search is able to match the query to

keywords associated with the encoded information. In the case of explicit knowledge, this

is a fairly straightforward process. But due to the contextual nature of implicit

knowledge, ambiguity arises. Dillon uses this fact to support his contention that the

quality of knowledge held within library systems is superior to Google search results

since ³Google returns truth and falsehoods in the same result set, and presents them all

without context´ (2007, p. 31). While certainly a valid warning regarding the veracity of

online information as opposed to vetted sources, Dillon fails to take into account the

point made by Boast et al when they state, ³ . . . indexes and catalogues are management

tools, not access tools.´ (2007, p. 396). Memory systems are designed for data

interoperability and not necessarily historical and cultural context (Boast et al, 2007,

Standardizing and meta-ontologies section, para. 6). To counteract this, multiple

ontologies and user driven taxonomies, termed folksonomies6, have been developed. By

incorporating multiple ontologies into data base organization, multiple associations are

made that support the data managers need for interoperability but also support the need of

the knowledge users by maintaining the contextual relationship needed to reconstruct the

encoded information back into usable knowledge. Folksonomies allow the person

accessing information to add keywords with contextual meaning to the data record.

Through continued use, associative meanings are developed that were not incorporated

into the governing ontology. The use of Folksonomies, also referred to as tags, have led

to pivot browsing, a form of electronic searching that uses Folksonomies to find relevant

6Folksonomy refers to classification key words supplied by the end user of information

as opposed to those supplied in formal taxonomies.




information not directly associated with the data record. Associative tags need not be

provided only by the end user of information searches. Sophisticated data mining

programs are capable of making connections in electronic communications. Applications

for this technology range from Avantis Pharmaceutical¶s Tacit K-Mail, which forms a

searchable database from its scientist¶s e-mail, to the NSA¶s Echelon system that

monitors worldwide communication (Dillon, 2007, Avantis and NSA sections). Though

the veracity of information held in any knowledge repository is always suspect, the

utilization of these new tools allows for additional vetting and understanding by retaining

contextual meanings. One key obstacle to these associative tools is responsibility for

implementation still resides with the knowledge manager rather than the knowledge

holder.

The success of open source software such as Lynux and Mozilla has encouraged

the adaptation of open source knowledge management tools, commonly referred to as

wikis. Wikis consist of user editable records that contain hyperlinks to other records. In

addition to the record, edit history and user discussion pages are attached to the main

entry. Because wikis are open to any user with editing privileges and not a vetted few,

wikis are frequently subject to criticism based on their veracity. While inaccuracy and

outright vandalism do occur, the accuracy of information contained in wikis has proven

surprisingly robust due the innate properties of open source architecture and principles

that govern wiki communities. Most wikis operate on the open principle, which allows all

users to edit entries. The attached discussion page provides users with the open

socialization required to elicit implicit knowledge. As mentioned, vandalism and errors




do occur, but has not proven problematic due to the ability to roll back to prior versions

through the history page and the guardianship of legitimate user-editors. Functioning in

much the same way as peer review, the open principle also means multiple editors are

available to spot erroneous information. Gonzalez-Reinhart underscores the importance

of this point by observing, ³Persistent knowledge in a wiki page is considered objective

since it endured the open principle¶s deletion capability available to any potential critic.´

(2005, p. 7). Multiple editors and the use of hyperlinks also serve to consolidate

knowledge and remove redundancy and the inclusion of open hyperlinks encourages new

entries. The use of wikis is not limited to general information sites. When used in

conjunction with explicit procedural databases, wikis have proven useful as a way for

employees to record and share implicit procedural knowledge that has not been

considered by novice employees. (Fitch, 2007, Possible uses section, para. 1). As a

result, employees¶ implicit knowledge improves the operability of the organization¶s

convention based explicit knowledge.

Temporal Realization of Porcine Primary Flight Characteristics

While understanding the fundamental qualities of knowledge and the ways in

which learning occurs may serve as a beginning in stemming the tide of knowledge loss,

the architecture of current technology is still primarily convention dependent. And while

compensatory mechanisms have been adopted, the full integration of contextual

understanding into the infrastructure of the Information Age has yet to be realized. If this

is to occur, a new understanding of knowledge itself must become the subject of future

investigations. The topic of emergence, the development of ordered, complex constructs




and systems from more chaotic ones, holds particular promise in understanding the

development of knowledge, but has yet to be adequately explored in the literature of

knowledge management. Along with a new understanding of knowledge, an emerging

understanding of knowledge systems in the form of contextual computing holds the

promise of building an awareness of the user¶s environment into the infrastructure of the

Information Age.

The history of human progress has, for the most part, been judged by the rate at

which emerging technology is assimilated. But in considering the effects of the

Information Age upon procedural knowledge, it is evident that greater value must be

placed upon context dependent knowledge if the sum total of human understanding is to

increase and not merely change, leaving behind the wisdom of those marginalized by the

Information Age as it moves forward to incorporate emerging technology. To date,

knowledge management has held two primary concerns: the development of new systems

and transferring ownership of procedural knowledge from individual knowledge holders

to organizational stewardship. A larger concern, and one that seems yet to be adequately

considered, is the knowledge currently at risk of being lost. Environmental, cultural, and

socio-economic pressures are causing fringe populations to change or disappear faster

than the wisdom they contain can be preserved. Without greater awareness of the value

this wisdom holds and the incorporation of new techniques in gathering it, this wisdom

may yet be lost before the Information Age learns how to preserve it.




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