LONG TERM ATHLETEDEVELOPMENT

diving

Compiled by: D. Philippopoulos

diving

Table of Contents Preface

Introduction

1. What is LTAD?

2. Where are we now?

3. Where do we want to be?

4. How are we going to get there?

10 key Factors influencing LTAD

3

4

5

An Overview of the Stages of the Diving LTAD 7

1. Stage 1 – Active Start

2. Stage 2 – Flip ʼn Fun – Sports Entry

3. Stage 3 – Technical Foundations 8

4. Stage 4 – Competitive Foundations

5. Stage 5 – Consolidation 9

6. Stage 6 – Realisation 10

7. Stage 7 – Retirement/Retention Stage

11

A Athletes

B Coaches

C Officials

D Parents

E Facilities

16

A Athletes

B Coaches

C Officials

D Parents

E Facilities

17

1. The Ten Year Rule

2. The FUNdamentals – Developing Physical Literacy

3. Specialization 18

4. Chronological Age vs. Developmental Age 19

5. Trainability 23

6. Physical, Mental-Cognitive and Emotional development

7. Periodization (Annual Training, Competition and Recovery Plan) 24

8. Calendar Planning for Competition

diving

9. System Alignment and Integration

10. Continuous Improvement (Kaizen)

25

Stamina (Endurance)

Strength

Speed

Skill

Suppleness (Flexibility)

Structure – Stature 26

(p)Sychology

Sustenance

Schooling

Socio-cultural 27

Building a Pathway 28

Long Term Athlete Development – Diving Competitive

The LTAD Framework 29

Periodisation 33A IntensityB VolumeC Non Sport StressesD Season Planning 34

Appendix I – Dive Progressions For All Dives 35Appendix II – Suggested Dive Skill Chart for Each Specific LTAD Stage 37Appendix III – Suggested Dryland Skills Chart for Each Specific LTAD Stage 40Appendix IV – Periodisation Chart – Competitive Foundations 42Appendix V – Physical, Mental/Cognitive and Emotional Development for all the Stages 43Appendix VI – Selected Bibliography 50

The 10 S's of Training and Performance

3

diving

Preface

Diving is very much an anaerobic and explosive sport and therefore very unlike swimming. It has very different needs and requirements. While we might share the water, this is about the only common aspect between these two aquatic disciplines. These days even the swimwear is different. The ages for competing are also very much younger for diving, similar to gymnastics, thus requiring a lot of attention to child growth and development. Diving most probably shares more common characteristics with gymnastics than any other aquatic discipline.

The Long Term Athlete Development Programme is not only about producing top athletes but rather is based on the physical, mental, emotional and cognitive development of children and adolescents. The model is based on stages, each of which reflects a different point in the athlete's development. In essence this model provides an understanding and more importantly an implemental pathway for divers to become 'elite' performers, while on the other hand catering for the development of physical literacy and long time involvement in sport. Its aim is to use sport specific technical knowledge to enable divers to achieve their optimum level of performance. This is not to say that all divers will become an Olympic medal winner but by implementing this programme, diving will grow and there will be a greater chance of talented divers reaching their full potential.

However diving is unique in the international arena of the sport there are numerous cases where 'junior' divers have consistently won international medals at Olympic, European and Commonwealth events more so in the platform categories. In the 2003 World Championships the men's platform champion Alexander Despatie from Canada was just 18 years of age with four other men's finalists from four other Countries under the age of 18. This year at the Canadian Grand Prix only .25 of a point separated the winner, Alexandra Despatie, and the 17 year old silver medallist Thomas Fincham from America. Even more recently coming out of Great Britain is the young 15 year old Tomas Daley who won the men's 10 m competition in 2009 at the World Championships held in Rome.

How can South African Diving become competitive in the international arena? And/or more importantly how can we keep our talented divers in this country? I ask this question when currently there are three South African Divers who began their diving careers in South Africa but now dive at an international level for other countries, namely: Tandi Gerrard, Great Britain, member of the Great Britain

c Olympic Team 2004, Women's Synchronised Diving Event, Monique M Carroll, member of the Great Britain Senior Elite Diving Team, thPlatform, Grant Nell, member if the Australian World Junior Team, that participated at the 16 FINA World Junior Diving Championships.

This alone indicates that the diving coaches in South Africa are capable of developing divers to a level where they are capable of being selected as members of National teams in other countries.

It is now up to South Africa to establish a clear pathway for divers from Learn to Dive right through to winning Olympic medals or on to staying with in the sport as adults. Training regimes, dive progression, diver development both physical and cognitive, and how when and where to train will assist divers and coaches to reach each divers individual potential and through this process allow South Africa to achieve their long term goals of producing Olympic Divers.

One of the most important periods of

motor development for children is between

the ages of nine to twelve. During this

time children are developmentally ready to

acquire general overall sports skills that

are the

cornerstones of all athletic

development

4

diving

�

Introduction

Scientific research has concluded that it takes eight-to-twelve years of training for a talented player/athlete to reach elite levels. This is called the ten-year or 10,000 hour rule. For athletes, coaches and parents this translates to slightly more than three hours of practice daily for ten years. Unfortunately, parents and coaches in many sports still approach training with an attitude best characterized as "peaking by Friday," where a short-term approach is taken to training and performance with an over-emphasis on immediate results. A specific well-planned training, competition and recovery regime will ensure optimum development throughout an athlete's career. There is no short cut to success in athlete preparation. Rushing competition always results in shortcomings in physical, technical, tactical and mental abilities.

This idea/concept is supported by 'The Path to Excellence', which provides a comprehensive view of the development of U.S. Olympians who competed between 1984 and 1998. The results reveal that;

�U.S. Olympians begin their sport participation at the average age of 12.0 for males and 11.5 for females.�Most Olympians reported a 12- to 13-year period of talent development from their sport introduction to making an Olympic team.�Olympic medallists were younger — 1.3 to 3.6 years — during the first 5 stages of development than non-medallists,

suggesting that medallists were receiving motor skill development and training at an earlier age. However, caution must be taken not to fall into the trap of early specialization in late specialization sports.

In light of this information, this proposal will firstly consider the concept of long-term athlete development before attempting to outline a Long-term Athlete Development Programme for South African Diving. The Long Term Athlete Development Model has been developed by Dr. Istvan Balyi and internationally recognised coach, and educator and is based upon a consensus of evidence researched on how young people develop sporting ability. This model links the coaching and development of players to their physical and psychological growth. Hence the Long Term Athlete Development model is a generic, conceptual framework for athlete development in sport.

This model is not new, the majority of the research on which it is based is widely accepted, and has been used to underpin physical education teaching for many years. The only difference is that the Long Term Athlete Development Model allows for a better understanding and a mechanism for applying theory to the development of top athletes.

The benefits of adopting the principals of LTAD to diving would be: to provide a means of developing an integrated, systematic approach to diver development that will both ensure that all divers are able to achieve their full potential and help foster long term participation in the sport of diving.

"It takes 10 years of extensive training to excel in

anything"

Herbert Simon - Nobel Laureate

Ericsson, et al., 1993; Ericsson and Charness, 1994, Bloom, 1985; Salmela et al., 1998 Samela 1998 Balyi and Hamilton, 1999

Balyi, I, 1998

1. What is LTAD?

The LTAD model is predicated on the idea that each participant's stage of physiological, mental/cognitive, and emotional development must be identified and taken into account when developing his/her optimal training, competition and recovery program. It is inclusive: the principles which underpin the LTAD are equally applicable to people of all ages and abilities whether they are participating in elite sport or recreational physical activity. The model is unique in structure as it looks closely at the developmental age – that is the maturation level of an individual – rather than chronological age. It is athlete cantered, coach driven, and supported by new innovations in sport science. The idea is that each athlete is unique and that they will each follow their own specific journey through the sport with training programmes and competition programme that consider their biological age and training ages in order to attain their individual potential.

This model represents a paradigm shift, a philosophically different approach to sport and physical activity. The remainder of this section is devoted to explaining the model and its potential for enhancing our enjoyment of sport and physical activity.

Essentially, children's development occurs within windows of optimum trainability. Development occurs outside these windows, but not to the same potential. So just as children who are not stimulated intellectually at the correct time cannot develop their intellectual ability to their full potential, divers who are not physically stimulated at the correct time in their physical development will not achieve the athletic potential.

All children are naturally athletic and given the opportunity they will all achieve “physical literacy”, it is just as well that we cannot tell who will be elite athletes in the early years of childhood, because it is evident that appropriate physical activity must be provided to all children, weather they are destined for podium or to enjoy a healthy life.

One of the goals of the LTAD model is Physical Literacy, as well as full sport system alignment and integration. Physical literacy is defined as the mastery of fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills. A physically literate person moves with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations, is perceptive in reading all aspects of the physical environment. He/ she anticipate the movement needs or possibilities, and responds appropriately with intelligence and imagination." (Whitehead, 2001)

Diving is considered an early specialisation sport and specialists in the field are aware that children are capable of embracing significant physical challenges at an early age. All coaches are aware that young athletes moving into puberty often find it hard to adjust to the changes that take place with respect to their bodies. For young women they are not as strong as they were before as their increased

At the same time young men are increasing in strength and are growing rapidly, often more so than the young girls this results in a changing centre of gravity and limb lengths changing often resulting in uncoordinated movements from once such coordinated athletes.

In diving LTAD recommends an early recruitment into the sport, more advanced skills at an earlier age, and allows divers a chance to

perform even during their rapid growth years.

effects their power to weight ratio significantly.

5

diving

‘Enjoy the journey, enjoy every moment, and quit worrying about winning and losing’

Matt Biondi, Olympic swimming champion

Based on the Canadian Model by Istav Balyi

6

diving

There are a number of key ways in which a diver may improve performance; some of the more important ones to Long-Term Athlete Development are listed below:

Optimal Training (including recovery training at all stages) Environment – both the training and out of training environment Support services at all levels Proper system integration and alignment Long Term Athlete Development Policy System of Competition System of Coach Education Club and Government Structures Implementation Procedure

Diving as with gymnastics is a unique sport because apart from the physical developmental characteristics, a diver has a greater hurdle to overcome, 'FEAR' The LTAD plan for diving takes into account the unique differences between disciplines within the sport; springboard and platform diving as well as maturation differences between males and females. LTAD is about achieving optimal training, competition and recovery throughout the diver's career, particularly in relation to the more important growth and development years of young athletes.

The LTAD programme provides guidelines to clubs, coaches, divers, parents and administrators for training, preparation and competition. The programme gives guidance in terms of 'what', and 'who' as well as 'how'.Briefly there are thirteen reasons for the implementation of the Long Term Athlete Development Programme:

To establish a clear philosophy and a realistic pathway for the development of the diver and champions for life;

Way et al 2005 cited in Long-Term Athlete Development Resource Paper V2 pp 16 modified for South Africa

To identify gaps in the current diver development pathway; Create sustainable, high quality programmes that respect and address the windows of trainability; To achieve the goals and targets of the individual divers; To guide optimal performance; To provide planning for optimal performance; To provide a planning tool, based on scientific research for coaches and administrators; To increase the quality and quantity of coaches, officials, and administrators through improved education,

commitment to innovation, and provision of support and resources; To increase participation levels and the talent pool Create a formal transparent talent identification system; Improve the sports profile with in Swimming South Africa; Achieve and sustain international success; To establish diving as an athlete-centred, coach-driven and administration-and sport science-supported organisation.

It is hoped that the diving community will pull together and give all the participants in the programme a chance to understand and achieve their full potential while building the sport and ensuring that athletes are staying in our discipline for life.

Age: 0 – 4 for both boys and girlsObjective: Basic movement orientation

Physical activity is essential for healthy child development and should be fun and make up between 30 to 60 minutes of the child's organised day. Physical activity has the following benefits:

Enhances development of brain function, coordination, social skills, gross motor skills, emotions, leadership, and imagination.

Helps children to build confidence and a positive self esteem Helps to build strong bones and muscles, improves flexibility, develops good posture and balance, improves fitness,

reduces stress, and improves sleep. Promotes healthy weight Helps children to move skilfully and enjoy being active.

Age: Males 5 – 7 / Females 5 - 6Objective: Basic diving movement orientation in a socialised sporting environment

The FUNdamental stage is well structured and fun! The emphasis is on the overall development of the athlete's physical capacities, and fundamental movement skills, and the ABC's of athleticism - Agility, Balance, Coordination and Speed. Participation in as many sports as possible is encouraged. Speed, power and endurance are developed using FUN games. Correct running, jumping and throwing techniques are taught, using the ABC's of athletics. Strength training during this stage should include exercises using the athletes own body weight, medicine ball and Swiss ball exercises. Athletes should be introduced to the simple rules and ethics of sports.

An Overview of the stages of the Diving LTAD

1. Stage 1 – Active Start

2. Stage 2 – Flip ʼn Fun – Sports Entry

7

diving

8

diving

No periodisation takes place, but all programs are structured and monitored. Activities revolve around the school year, and during summer and winter holiday's multi-sport camps are recommended. If athletes and parents have a preferred sport, participation once or twice per week is recommended, but participation in other sports three or four times per week is essential for future excellence. If the athletes later decide to leave the competitive stream, the skills they have acquired during the Fundamental stage will still benefit them when they engage recreational activities, which will enhance their quality of life and health.

Consequently the emphasis should be on developing basic movement skills in a fun way – the FUNdamentals: ABCs Agility, Balance, Co-ordination, Speed RJT Running, Jumping, Throwing KGBs Kinaesthetic, Gliding, Buoyancy CPKs Catching, Passing, Kicking, Striking

Age: Males 7 – 10 / Females 6 – 9 yearsObjective: Learn all the basic skill sets for diving

Specialized movement skills are developed from age six to age nine, and are specialized sports skills. By passing the fundamental and specialized skill development phase is likely to be detrimental to the child's future engagement in physical activity and sport. Early specialization in late specialization sports can also be detrimental to the proceeding stages of skill development.

One of the most important periods of motor development for children is between the ages of six to ten. During this time children are developmentally ready to acquire general overall sports skills that are the cornerstones of all athletic development. This is the 'window of accelerated adaptation to motor coordination'. All fundamental movement skills should be further developed and general overall sports skills should be learned during this phase.

If fundamental motor skill training is not developed between the ages of eight to 11 and nine to 12 respectively for females and males, a significant window of opportunity has been lost, compromising the ability of the young player/athlete to reach his/her full potential. Strength should be developed by medicine ball, Swiss ball and own body-weight exercises as well as hopping-bounding exercises (or routines). Endurance should be developed further by games and relays. Basic flexibility exercises should be introduced during this phase, while speed can be developed further with specific activities during the warm-up, such as agility, quickness and change of direction. Competition should be well structured. The most suitable framework is single periodisation for this phase, however for a few sports, sport-specific needs will warrant double periodisation (e.g. swimming, tennis). A 70:30 training/practice to competition-ratio is recommended.

Age: Males 9 - 13 / Females 8 - 12 yearsObjectives: Applying basic skill sets for dives performed in competition. Expanding skills set and assembling competitive dive list.

During the “Competitive Foundations” stage young athletes consolidate basic sport-specific skills and competition experience. This phase is a 'window of accelerated adaptation to aerobic and strength training.' Optimal aerobic trainability begins with the onset of Peak Height Velocity

3. Stage 3 – Technical Foundations

4. Stage 4 – Competitive Foundations

It must be noted that the ages described above are general guidelines. The individual tempo of development /maturation will influence how athletes will reach the various stages of long-term development. However, they all will go through the same stages. Some early maturing athletes may have as much as a four-year physiological advantage over their late maturing peers. Ross et al. 1977

(PHV) or the major growth spurt during maturation. Aerobic training should be prioritized after the onset of PHV, while skill, speed and strength should be maintained or developed further. Special emphasis is also required for flexibility training due to the sudden growth of bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles.

There are two windows of accelerated adaptation to strength training for females. Window one is immediately after PHV and window two begins with the onset of menarche (the first menstrual period). This window for males begins 12 - 18 months after PHV. (refer to later discussion on PHV)

It should be noted that both aerobic and strength trainability is dependent on maturation levels, thus early, average or late matures need different timing of the training emphasis. At present most of these decisions are made on chronological age (age groups) and not on individual, maturation level needs.

Single, double and occasionally (depending on sport-specific demands) triple periodisation is the optimal framework of preparation during this phase. During competitions athletes dive to win and to do their best, but the major focus of training is on learning the basics as opposed to competing. Training and competition ratios are optimized because too many competitions waste valuable training time and conversely, not enough competition inhibits the practice of technical/tactical skills and learning how to cope with the physical and mental challenges presented during competition. A ratio of 60 percent training to 40 percent competition is recommended by experts during the “Competitive Foundations” phase and the 40 percent competition ratio includes competition and competition-specific training. However, these percentages vary

according to sport and individual specific needs. Athletes undertaking this type of preparation will be better prepared for competition in both the short and long-term, than those who focus solely on winning. During this phase, athletes train in competitive situations daily, in the form of practice matches or competitive games and drills.

The “Competitive Foundations” phase addresses two of the critical or sensitive periods of physical development. Athletes who miss this phase of training will not reach their full potential, as these critical periods have been missed. The reason why so many athletes plateau during the later stage of their careers is primarily because of an over emphasis on competition instead of on training during this important period in their athletic development. The “Learn to Train” and “Training to Train” stages are the most important phases of athletic preparation. During these stages 'we make or break an athlete!'

LTAD requires the identification of early, average, and late maturers in order to help to design appropriate training and competition programs in relation to optimal trainability and readiness. The beginning of the growth spurt and the peak of the growth spurt are very significant in LTAD applications to training and competition design.

Age: Males 13 - 16 / Females 12 - 15 yearsObjectives: Consolidation of all experiences and skills for competition purposes

This phase of development is introduced after the goals and objectives of the “Competitive Foundations” stage have been achieved. The training to competition and competition-specific training ratio now changes to 50:50. Fifty percent of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills and fitness improvements, and fifty percent is devoted to competition and competition-specific training.

5. Stage 5 - Consolidation

9

diving

10

diving

During the “Competitive Foundations” phase, high intensity individual event and position-specific training is provided to athletes year-round. Athletes, who are now proficient at performing both basic and sport specific skills, learn to perform these skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training. Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modelling training and competition. Fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and technical development are now individually tailored to a greater degree. This emphasis on individual preparation addresses each athlete's individual strengths and weaknesses. Double and multiple periodisations is the optimal framework of preparation.

Age: Males 16 years and older / Females 15 years and olderObjectives: Maximize fitness preparation and sport, individual and position specific skills as well as performance (maximize “engine”, skills and performance)/Realisation of sports career potential

This is the final phase of athletic preparation. The entire athlete's physical, technical, tactical, mental, and personal and lifestyle capacities are now fully established and the focus of training has shifted to the maximization of performance. Athletes are trained to peak for major competitions. Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume. Frequent “prophylactic” (preventative) breaks help to prevent physical and mental burnouts. Training to competition ratio in this phase is 25:75, with the competition percentage including competition-specific training activities.

Age: Male 18+ / Female 17+Objectives: Retain athletes for coaching, administration, officials, etc. This phase refers to the activities performed after an athlete has retired from competition permanently. During this final phase, some ex-athletes move into sport-related careers that may include coaching, officiating, sport administration, small business enterprises, master's competition, media, etc.

Dr Istvan Balyi - Consultant and specialist in Growth, Development and Athlete Preparation and Planning.

6. Stage 6 - Realisation

7. Stage 7 - The Retirement / Retention Stage

Acknowledgements

It must be noted that the ages described above are general guidelines. The individual tempo of development /maturation will influence how athletes will reach the various stages of long-term development. However, they all will go through the same stages. Some early maturing athletes may have as much as a four-year physiological advantage over their late maturing peers. Ross et al. 1977

“Success is a journey not a destination.

The doing is often more important than the outcome’

Arthur Ashe, Tennis Champion

2. Where Are We Now?

Five PillarsA Athletes

South Africa, diving population is very small however numbers tend to indicate that it is neither growing nor decreasing in size. The table below represents the participants at senior nationals 2009 and 2010.

Table 1: No of participants at Senior and Junior Nationals in 2009 and 2010

An even more concerning issue is that of these 32 divers that participate in 2010, most originated from the Gauteng Region, these figures are reflected below again for both 2009 and 2010.

Table 2: No of Divers per Province at Senior and Junior Nationals 2009 and 2010

11

diving

12

diving

B Coaches

While there are a few retired coaches, and a few young ex divers coaching at a school level, this number is way too low.

Again the spatial distribution of these coaches is of concern, as with the diver numbers the coaches basically originate from the Gauteng region. Looking at active coaches and no of divers we look at a ration of 1:2

There exists no form of coaching qualification with in the South African Diving structure

C Officials

While we have been in the process of training judges, and ensuring that coaches do not judge at major or minor competitions there is still some concern that both the practical training and the written test are is not standardised,

This is an even more disturbing reality for diving in South Africa. There are currently 12 active coaches in the country.

Region Coach Active Club/School

Central Gauteng Imraan Mess Coaching Cursaders/St. Stithians

Lina Woodward Coaching Jesters/St. Mary’s

Gail Pawley Inactive Kingfisher

Loredana Raccanello Coaching Kingfisher/Roedean

Moira Cullen Coaching Roedean

Fiorella Barberini Coaching Kingfisher/Roedean

Dominique Philippopoulos Coaching Rippers/Kingsmead

Nicholas Pawley Coaching Kingsmead

Felicity Hudson Coaching Kingsmead

Jenny Van Zyl Coaching Pretoria Girls

Gareth Kemp Coaching St. Andrew’s/Moving back to CT

Vic Mijon Inactive

Arnry Mijon Inactive

Sarah Lafleur Judge/Coach Linked to Jesters?

Northern Gauteng Marco Van Der Sluys Coaching Northern Tigers

Rhett Gardner ? Northern Tigers

Margie Buchan Not Active

KZN Rosie Quenet

Trevor Kezwa Coaching

Cape Town Magan Farrow Coaching Canadian

East London Nona Keets Coaching

Port Elizabeth Adrienne Wilson Coaching

Table 3 : No of Coaches per Province 2010

thereby creating different levels of qualification so better or worse prepared judges, which is ultimately unfair on the divers and will in the long run impact negatively on their diving careers.

We have a core of technical officials, however they are parents who are often at competitions to support their children, while willing to work we have at numerous competitions both local and national, used divers a table officials. This is not acceptable especially if they are competitors at the competition. We need to continue to train and build up this base.

D. Parents

Parents need to be educated about the unique aspects of the sport and the stages of development that their children will be passing through. They also need to fully understand the concept of physical/biological maturity versus chronological age as we need them to buy into the programme

13

diving

“People who enjoy what they are doing invariably do it well’

Joe Gibbs, US football coach

Province Name Public/Private Dry Land 0.5m 1m 3m 5m 7.5m 10m

Gauteng De Jong Public 1 4 2 1 1 1

L.C. De Villiers Public 1 1 Sydnham Public 2 1 0 0 0

Sasolburg Public 1 1 1 0 1 Vanderbijl Park Public 1 1 1 1 1

Kingsmead Private 1 1 1 0 0 0

Parktown Girls Private 1 1 0 0 0 Roedean Private 1 1 1 0 0 0

ST. Andrew’s** Private 1 1 1 0 0 0 St. Dominic’s *** Private

St. Mary’s Private 1 1 2 2 1 0 0

St. Stithians Private 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 Port El izabeth St. Georges Public 1 2 1 1 1 1

Newton Park * Public 1 0 0 0 0

East London Joan Harrison Public 1 2 1 0 0 0 Western Cape Sea Point Public 2 1 1 0 0

Newlands Public 1 2 2 0 0 0 Worchester Public

Free State Bleomfontein Public 1 1 0 0 0

Polekwane Nelspruit Public 1 Pietersburg 1 1 1 1 1

North West Kimberly? Public

Klerksdorp Public 1 1? KZN Kings Park Public 1 2 2 1 1 1

Chatsworth Public 1 1 0 0 0

Girls High Private 1 1 0 0 0

14

diving

E Facilities

* Covered and heated ** Being revamped or built currently so information is not available

Table : Diving Facilities in South Africa

15

diving

Strengths Weaknesses

· Enthusiasm of coaches and athletes

· Willingness to learn

· Support from SSA

· Fun sport that allows fitness and health for

everyone

· Visually glamorous sport

· Lack of paid employees

· Lack of funding

· Loss of coaches and judges

· Limited number of facilities and unevenly

spread facilities

· Low number of registered divers and officials

· No formal teacher coach educational system

· No standardised judge education system

· No athlete pathway

· Lack of dryland facilities

· Pool time

Opportunities Threats

· Develop a better relationship with SSA and sponsors

· Utilise all facilities by developing coaches

· Build relationships with alternative sports –

gymnastics, trampoline, dance

· Greater opportunities to compete on the international

arena at a club, provincial and national level

· Build closer links with the schools in certain provinces

· Closure of facilities

· Lack of dryland facilities

· Pool time

· Dominance of a particular province

· Fighting for pool space in shared facilities

· Loss of divers to international programmes

· Cost of international tours

‘Perhaps the single most important element in mastering

The techniques and tactics of racing is experience.

But once you have the fundamentals,

Acquiring the experience is a matter of time’

Greg LeMond, cycling champion

Figure : SWOT Analysis of Diving in South Africa in 2010

16

diving

3. Where Do We Want To Be

Five PillarsA Athletes

We need to build our base of divers in the country and to maintain or keep those divers within the sport. Currently we have one actual senior diver all the rest qualify as junior, this has to be addressed. We have to develop

a programme that will keep senior divers involved in the sport. We need to improve the number of athletes that stay in the sport both as athletes and as future administrators,

coaches and or judges We need to develop an national squad programme for promising athletes We need to inform the divers of what is required of them so that they can develop worthwhile and achievable goals

with the motivation of knowing that there is a positive reward for the hard work.B Coaches

Coaches need to become qualified, and increase the base of existing coaches and the spatial inequalities must be addressed.

A programme of qualification must be introduced and coaches must legally be qualified to be allowed to coach.C Officials

As with coaches, we need to standardise the requirements and qualification process for officials as per swimming to ensure that we increase the involvement of ex-divers and parents into our sport, this in turn will grow the clubs and increase their potential to achieve.

D Parents

Continue to build our parent involvement and further their knowledge on the LTAD Plan so as to ensure that they support their coaches' decisions with respect to their children's training and competing programmes.

Reduce the competitiveness and pushing of divers by their parents as they become familiar with the biological and mental aspects of the sport along with the actual diving specific knowledge

E Facilities

Increase the number of platforms that area available for training in the future Increase the number of facilities that have warm water Develop facilities as athlete development areas where financial and technical support is provided Provide coaches with the correct qualification to coach at facilities with limited equipment.

It is recognised that currently there may only be a few clubs that can deliver all the LTAD principles, but like the LTAD Programme itself, this is a long term approach that should assist clubs and training squads to work towards developing the right training environment for all participants in the sport, hence enabling them all to reach their own personal potential.

“When you stop having fun, you don’t win”

Billie Jean King, tennis champion

4. How to Get There?

The ten key factors influencing LTAD

The philosophy behind Long Term Athlete Development is that it takes 8-12 years of training and practice for a player to reach elite levels (Bloom , 1985;Ericsson et al., 1993; Ericsson and Charness 1994), and that success comes from training, practicing and competing well over the long term rather than focusing on winning in the short term. There is no short cut to success in player preparation! More importantly children who are not exposed to the basic level of physical literacy will not have the same comfort with physical activity and are less likely to enjoy and pursue lifelong healthy physical activity, or for that matter remain involved in their sport of choice. It is just as well that we are unable to determine at an early age who will become elite athletes, because it is vital that appropriate physical activity is provided to all children, weather they are destined for the podium or to enjoy a health life.

In diving the experience of top level coaches and the parents of elite divers have seen the opportunity of earlier development, young divers have illustrated the potential to embrace specific physical challenges at an earlier age than one would expect from an athlete of that age. Additional experience has illustrated that rapid growth during puberty can be a very difficult time, as it disrupts coordination. Girls are not as strong for their weight as they were before their growth spurt, while boys are getting stronger. At the same time centre of gravity and relative limb lengths are changing rapidly.

This model for diving suggest an early recruitment to diving, recommends more advanced skills and challenges at an early age., and offers permission to plateau during the challenges of rapid growth.

The LTAD Model not only provides the rational justification for enhancing our current system but also provides some of the solutions as to the way forward in starting to tackle some of the weaknesses identified. Development of talent must look beyond the short-term and plan for the future. These are great challenges for our sport. It is hoped that the model will assist all partners in diving: parents will know what physical challenges are safe and encourage accomplishment; coaches will have the endorsement to teach what they know from experience and progressions to do so safely; clubs and schools will be guided to what facilities and coaching is required; and provincial diving organisations will have a guide for the development of the sport.

To better understand the LTAD model, and its role in helping participants to achieve these goals, we have identified ten key factors which influence the model and set it apart from other long-term development models. These factors are outlined in the following section.

Implement new communication pathway plan Improve current structure Goals stated in SMART format

o S Specifico M Measurableo A Attainableo R Realistico T Timely

Scientific research in sport has concluded that a minimum of ten years, or 10,000 hours of deliberate training is needed for a talented participant to reach elite levels. This translates into an average of more than three hours of training daily for 10 years. There are no shortcuts; participant development is a long-term process. Short-term performance goals must never be allowed to undermine long-term participant development.

1. The ten year rule

17

diving

Gibbons, 2002 Viru, 1995

18

diving

2. The fundamentals - developing physical literacy

3. Specialisation

Fundamental movement skills (running, throwing, catching, hopping, bounding, etc.) and fundamental sport skills equals Physical Literacy. The literature on growth and development indicates that children should master the fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills before learning more complicated sport-specific skills and strategies. These fundamental skills should be acquired prior to the onset of the growth spurt which occurs in adolescence.

The physical and movement qualities which are developed as physical literacy are essential for participation and enjoyment of sports. Athletics, gymnastics and swimming are three sports which are particularly useful for developing fundamental movement skills and sport skills.

Athletics: Develops many of the fundamental movement skills which are components of all other sports, including running, jumping, throwing and for wheelchair participants, wheeling.

Gymnastics: Encourages the development of the ABC's of athleticism agility, balance, coordination, and speed, along with the fundamental movement patterns of landing, statics, locomotion, rotation, swings, springs and object manipulation.

Swimming: is the foundation for all water sports. It is also important for water safety reasons, and teaches balance in a buoyant environment as well as coordination.

Without the basic movement skills, a child will have difficulty participating in any sport, no matter what age they enter that sport. It is also critical that children with disabilities have the opportunity to develop their fundamental movement and sport skills. These skills will aid the child throughout life and ensure that if at all possible they live an active independent life.

Many of the world's most successful athletes participated as children in a wide variety of sports and physical activities. The movement and sport skills they developed as a result have helped them to attain a high level of athletic achievement.

There is much to be gained from a child's early participation in a variety of sports. Early exposure to a wide variety of sport and physical activities will develop some of the physical and movement attributes that are crucial to later success in participation including: agility, balance, conditioning, speed, core body strength, stamina, suppleness, and eye-hand-foot coordination.Early specialization in a late specialization sport can contribute to: Overemphasis on sport specific preparation/ one-sided preparation Lack of development of basic movement and sport skills Overuse injuries Early burnout Premature retirement from training and competition.

Disability sports are late specialisation sports and it is vital that these children are exposed to the full range of fundamentals before allowing them to specialise in any specific sporting activity. However this does not mean a late start to the attaining of the fundamentals – just a longer period of time spent attaining these skills.

4. Chronological age vs developmental age

A second factor influencing the LTAD has been touched upon earlier. It is the recognition that chronological age differs from developmental age. Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Developmental age refers to the child's relative position on a continuum that begins at birth and culminates in full physical maturity. Growth refers to the observable step-by-step changes in the in quantity and measurable changes in body size such as height, weight and fat percentage. Maturation refers to the qualitative system changes, both structural and functional, in the body's progress towards maturity such as the changes in cartilage and bone in the skeleton.

Development refers to “the interrelationships between growth and maturation in relation to the passage of time. The concept of development also includes the social, emotional, intellectual and motor realms of the child.”

A participant's developmental age determines when various aspects of sport and physical activity should be introduced or emphasized. The LTAD model uses the categories "early", "average", or "late" matures to identify an athlete's developmental age. These designations help coaches and instructors to design instructional, training and competition programs that are appropriate for the participant's level of development. Identifying an athlete's stage of maturation is not difficult. For specific information on "how to", go to www.ltad.ca.

As individuals mature, there are several time sensitive periods when there is accelerated adaptation to training. The model identifies these periods and makes maximum use of them to introduce skill and fitness development.

19

diving

Cited in Long –Term Athlete Development Resource Paper V2 pp 23

“Luck! Sure. But only after long practice and only with the ability to think under pressure”

Babe Didrikson Zaharias, outstanding American multi-sport athlete of her generation

20

diving

Figure 3 : Maturation in Girls and Boy

Figure : Maturity Events in Girl

Adapted from “Growing Up” by J. M. Tanner Scientific America 1973 citied in Istvan Balyi and Richard Way “The Role of Monitoring Growth in Long-Term Athlete Development”, pp 6. Modified after Ross et al, 1977 citied inLong-Term Athlete Development, Resource Paper V2,pp24.

Figure : Maturity Events in Boys

It is therefore clear that athletes of the same chronological ages between 10 and 16 can be 4 – 5 years apart developmentally. Thus it is important for the coach to realise that each athlete will require their own individualised path to success. While for a period of time late matures may feel that they are behind in the training programme, after all athletes have gone through their growth spurt, it is often the later maturers who have greater potential to become top athletes provided they experience quality coaching throughout that period.

5. TrainabilityThe trainability of the 5 S's is well documented in the literature.Biological markers, such as the on-set of PHV (adolescent growth spurt), and the on-set of menarche can identify the “sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training” for Stamina, Strength and Skills. The trainability of Speed and Suppleness is based on chronological age. Thus, the biological markers will identify the “windows of optimal trainability for accelerated `adaptation to training. (See further details on trainability in the 10S's of training and performance section).

Stamina (Endurance): The window of optimal stamina training occurs at the onset of PHV. Aerobic capacity training is recommended before athletes reach PHV. Aerobic power should be introduced progressively after growth rate decelerates.

Strength: The window for optimal strength training for girls is immediately after PHV or at the onset of Menarche, while for boys it is 12 to 18 months after PHV

Speed: The two windows for optimal speed training for boys, occurs between the ages of 7 and 9 years and the second window occurs between 13 and 16. For girls, the windows for optimal speed training occur between the ages of 6 and 8 years and the second window occurs between the ages of 11 and 13.

Skill: The window of optimal skills training for boys takes place between the ages of 9 and 12 and for girls between the ages of 8 and 11

Suppleness (Flexibility): The window of optimal flexibility training for both boys and girls occurs between the ages of 6 and 10. Special attention should be paid to flexibility during PHV.

21

diving

Modified after Ross et al, 1977 citied inLong-Term Athlete Development, Resource Paper V2,pp24. Brohms, 1985; Viru et al, 1998 and 1999; Rushall, 2000 Balyi, 2002

‘Tactics, fitness, stroke ability, adaptability, experience, and

sportsmanship are all necessary for winning’

Fred Perry, tennis champion

22

diving

Figure 6 : Optimal Windows of Trainability

Balyi and Way, 2005

6. Mental, cognitive and emotional development

7. Periodisation (annual training, competition and recovery plan)

Instructors and coaches should recognize that individuals mature at different rates and that the timetable for physical, mental, motor and emotional development varies from athlete to athlete. Instructors and coaches are encouraged to take a holistic approach to teaching and training athletes. This means taking into account a wide variety of psycho-social and emotional factors that influence the athlete day-to-day.

Cognitive, mental and emotional (affective) elements have a significant effect on participants' performance, and must be prioritized in long-term participant development. Beyond these elements, instructors and coaches should also consider equipment and environmental factors that impact participation, performance and safety. Ethics, including fair play, respect of self and others, and perseverance should be developed within all stages of long term participant development (see appendix V for further details on mental, cognitive and emotional development).

Periodisation provides the framework for organizing training, competition and recovery into a logical and scientifically based schedule to achieve optimum performance at the required time. A periodised annual plan that takes into account growth, maturation and trainability principles should be developed for all stages of LTAD.

Simply put, designing a periodised yearly plan is time management. This involves planning the right activities with the correct level of difficulty, in the correct sequence to reach the desired training and competition objectives.

The plan can be broken down into workable units. The proper sequencing of these units is critical for success. To reach optimum performance in a competitive environment, the training units should be sequenced in the following manner:

Develop the performance capacity of the participant including physical literacy and sport specific skills, tactics/strategies, physical components, mental skills;

Integrate the performance factors in a complex and harmonious blend; Prepare the participant to perform at needs to know competitions.

In order to design an annual plan, the coach needs to know: How the sport specific athletic form is developed; The requirements (demands) of the sport during competition; The demands of the sport during the preparation phase; The competition calendar and the relative importance or purpose of each competition; The actual training state of the athlete at the start of the yearly plan; The contextual reality that the coach and athlete have to cope with; The principles of long term athlete development.

Creating a blueprint for success involves accurate and effective planning of training, competition and recovery. Below is an example for a single and double periodisation.

23

diving

24

diving

8. Calendar planning for competition

9. System alignment and integration

10. Continuous improvement (KAIZEN)

The domestic competitive and event calendar must support and be aligned with LTAD. Different stages of development and different levels of participation have different requirements for the type, frequency and level of competition. At some stages of development, training and development take precedence over competitions and short-term success. During the later stages participants need to experience a variety of competitive situations and perform well at international and other high level events.

National and international competition and event calendars must be coordinated, and competitions selected according to the priorities of the specific stage of development of the participants.

LTAD recognizes that physical education, school sports, recreational activities and competitive sport are interdependent. Enjoying a lifetime of physical activity and achieving athletic excellence are both built on a foundation of physical literacy and fitness.

Stakeholders in LTAD include participants, instructors, coaches, parents, administrators, spectators, sponsors and supporting national and multi-sport organizations. With so many partners included, system integration and alignment is a major challenge.

It is important that all components of the diving community – divers, judges, coaches, parents, administrators, spectators, sponsors, and supporting national, provincial, territorial and multi sport organizations work together to implement the right programs and establish a system that produces optimal condition for training and competition. All parts of the sport community must be integrated and aligned. With so many partners across so vast a country and with different demographic compositions, system integration and alignment are major challenges. Each element in the system plays a crucial role in a divers' development. The system must be clear, seamless, and based upon a consistent set of principles.

LTAD is a dynamic framework that utilizes continuous adjustments based on key principles. Continuous improvement ensures that: LTAD responds and reacts to new scientific and sport-specific innovations and observations and is subject to continuous research

in all its aspects. LTAD, as a continuously evolving vehicle for change, reflects all emerging facets of physical education, sport and recreation to

ensure systematic and logical delivery of programs to all ages LTAD promotes ongoing education and sensitization of all partners about the interlocking relationship between physical

education, school sport, community recreation, life-long physical activity and high performance sport. LTAD promotes integration between sport, physical education, recreation, health and education.

Table : Phases of an Annual Plan for Single and Double Periodisation

THE 10 S'S OF TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE

The original 5 Basic S's of training and performance was introduced in the Canadian Sport for Life: Long-term Athlete Development

document. Building on the physical development, an additional Five S's create a complete, holistic, training, competition and recovery

program and a proper lifestyle.

Thus, there are Ten S's of training which need to be integrated when developing annual training, competition and recovery plans. Each of

these capacities is trainable throughout a player's lifetime, but there are clearly critical periods (or sensitive periods) in the development

of each capacity during which training produces the greatest benefit to each athlete/player's improvements.

In all former LTAD documents the windows of trainability have been referred to as the “critical periods” of accelerated training; however,

scientist now believes that critical periods should be referred to as sensitive periods. (1). Thus, windows of trainability refer to periods of

accelerated adaptation to training during the sensitive periods of pre-puberty, puberty and early post-puberty. The windows are fully

open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods.

These sensitive periods vary between individuals as each athlete/player is unique in their genetic makeup. While the sensitive periods

follow general stages of human growth and maturation, scientific evidence shows that humans vary considerably in the magnitude and

rate of their response to different training stimuli at all stages. Some players may show potential for excellence by age 11, whereas

others may not indicate their promise until age 15 or 16. Consequently, a long-term approach to athlete/player development is needed

to ensure that players who respond slowly to training stimuli are not “short-changed” in their development.

Stamina (Endurance:) The sensitive period for training stamina occurs at the onset of the growth spurt or Peak Height Velocity (PHV), commonly known as the adolescent growth spurt. Athletes/players need increased focus on aerobic capacity training (continuous or aerobic interval workloads) as they enter PHV, and they should be progressively introduced to aerobic power training (anaerobic interval workloads)

as their growth rate decelerates. However, sport-specific needs will determine “how much endurance is enough” in a particular sport, thus minor or major emphasis of training the aerobic system will be defined by sport-specific and individual specific needs.

A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside

of the sensitive periods.

25

diving

“The sensitive periods in trainability are

referred to the windows of accelerated

adaptation to training.”

26

diving

Strength There are two critical windows of trainability for strength in girls: immediately after PHV and after the onset of menarche. Boys have one strength window, and it begins 12 to 18 months after PHV. Again, sport-specific needs will determine “how much strength is enough” in a particular sport, thus minor or major emphasis of training strength will be defined by sport-specific and individual specific needs. A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods.

Speed: There are two critical windows of trainability for speed. For girls, the first speed window occurs between the ages of six and eight years, and the second window occurs between 11 and 13 years. For boys, the first speed window occurs between the ages of seven and nine years, and the second window occurs between 13 and 16 years. During the first speed window, training should focus on developing agility and quickness (duration of the intervals is less than five seconds); during the second speed window, training should focus on developing the anaerobic alactic power energy system (duration of the intervals is 10-15 seconds).

It is highly recommended that speed should be trained on a regular and frequent basis, for example, at every training session as part of the warm up. Towards the end of the warm up or immediately after the warm there is no Central Nervous System or metabolic fatigue present in the organism, and so this is an optimal time to train speed. The volume of training should be low and allow full recovery between exercises and sets. Short acceleration with proper posture and elbow and knee drive, take-off speed and segmental speed should be trained regularly outside of the window of optimal trainability for speed. In addition, proper blocks of training should be allocated to speed training during the periodised annual training, competition and recovery program according to seasonal and the sport-specific requirements.

A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods.

Skill: Girls and boys both have one window for optimal skill training. For girls, the window is between the ages of eight and 11 years, while in boys it is between nine and 12 years. During this window, young athletes should be developing physical literacy. Physical literacy is the development of fundamental movement skills and fundamental sports skills that permit a child to move confidently and with control, in a wide range of physical activity and sport situation. It also includes the ability to “read” what is going on around them in an activity setting and react appropriately to those events. Physical literacy is the foundation of life-long involvement in physical activity and also for high performance participation.

A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods.

Suppleness: The critical window of trainability for suppleness occurs between the ages of six and 10 years in both girls and boys. However, because of the rapid growth special attention should also be paid to flexibility during the growth spurt.

A reminder: The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods.

Structure / Stature: This component addresses the six stages of growth (Phase 1: very rapid growth and very rapid deceleration; Phase 2: steady growth; Phase 3: rapid growth; Phase 4: rapid deceleration; Phase 5: slow deceleration; Phase 6: cessation of growth) in the human body linking them to the windows of optimal trainability. It recognizes stature (the height of a human) before during and after maturationguiding a coach or parent to the measurements needed to track growth. The tracking of stature as a guide to developmental age allows planning to address the sensitive periods of physical (endurance, strength, speed and flexibility) and skill development. Diagnostics to identify individually relevant sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to training is essential to design and implement optimal training, competition and recovery programs.

(p)Sychology: Sport is a physical and mental challenge. The ability to maintain high levels of concentration, remain relaxed with the confidence to succeed are skills that transcend sport to everyday life. To develop the mental toughness for success at high levels requires training programs which are designed specific to the gender and LTAD stage of the athlete. The training programs should include key mental components identified by sport psychologists; concentration, confidence, motivation and handling pressure. As an athlete progresses through LTAD stages the mental training aspect will evolve from: having fun and respecting opponents; to visualization and self-awareness; to goal setting, relaxation and positive self-talk. To master the mental challenge of sport those basic skills are then tested in increasingly difficult competitive environments. Ultimately the planning, implementing and refining of mental strategies for high level competition will determine podium performances. The mental training program is critical at any LTAD stage as dealing with success and failure will determine continuation in sport and physical activity, therefore dramatically affecting an individual lifestyle.

Sustenance Sustenance recognizes a broad range of components with the central theme of replenishing the body. This is to prepare the athlete for the volume and intensity required to optimize training or living life to the fullest. Areas addressed are: nutrition, hydration, rest, sleep and regeneration, all of which need to be applied different to training (life) plans depending on the stage within the LTAD. Underlining sustenance is the need for optimal recovery management moving the athlete to the 24/7 model which places a high degree of importance on the individual's activities away from the field of play. For proper sustenance and recovery management there is a need to monitor recovery by the coach or parent through the identification of fatigue. Fatigue can come in many forms including: metabolic; neurological; psychological; environmental and travel. While overtraining or over-competition can lead to burn-out, improperly addressing sustenance can lead to the same result.

Schooling In training program design the demands of school must be considered. This is only limited to the demands placed by school sports or physical education classes. This includes integrating school academic loads, duties, school related stresses, and timing of exams. When possible, training camps and competition tours should compliment, not conflict, with the timing of major schools academic events.Overstress should be monitored carefully. Overstress refers to the everyday stresses of life, like schooling, exams, peer groups, family, boyfriend or girlfriend relationships as well as increased training volume and intensities.

Interference from other school sports should be minimized, communication between coaches who are responsible to deliver the training and competition programs are essential. A good balance should be established between all factors and the coach and the parents should be working on this together.

Socio-Cultural: The socio-cultural aspects of sport are significant and must be managed through proper planning. Socialization via sport will ensure that general societal values and norms will be internalized via sport participation. This occurs at the community level and as an athlete progresses through the LTAD stages can lead to International exposure. This socialization can be broadening of perspective including; ethnicity awareness, national diversity. Within the travel schedule recovery can include education of competition location including; history, geography, architecture, cuisine, literature, music and visual arts. Proper annual planning can allow sport to offer much more than simply commuting between hotel room and field of play.

Sport socialization also must address sport sub-culture. As well, coaches and parents must guard against group dynamics which create a culture of abuse or bullying. Ethics training should be integrated into training and competition plans at all stages of LTAD. Overall socio-cultural activity is not negative distraction or interference with training and competition activities. It is a positive contribution to the development of the person and the athlete.

Children often choose to play a sport after the windows optimal of trainability for speed, skill, and suppleness have past. These children are therefore dependent on schools, recreation programs, and other sports to provide timely training in these capacities. LTAD advocates that sports build relationships with these organizations to promote and support appropriate training. If athletes miss these training periods entirely, coaches will need to design individualized programs to remedy any shortcomings.

27

diving

28

diving

Building a Pathway

Long Term Athlete Development – Diving Competitive

Long term Athlete Development serves as a generic developmental framework. It is not “the bible” and should not be treated as such. The “art” of coaching is the coaches' ability to manipulate and make the structure pliable for each unique individual as they pass through the various life stages of the model. It is reasonable to realise that “precious” talent will move through the stages at a faster rate, even in the advent of maturation and its effects on performance capabilities. It is also important to realise that divers may enter the sport at different ages and not necessarily as youngster and that they may move form a similar to totally unrelated sporting activity or not sporting activity at all. Hence it is obvious that flexibility in these various levels is also needed in order to adapt to the changing trends that characterise high performance sport.

Figure : Sport Specific Stages of Development and Windows of Trainability

Young divers are physically developing from early childhood through to late adolescence, and through this journey they will have different performing capabilities and adaptations to training and competition. It is this exact reason that each diver should have a unique journey through the sport and that programmes should not just be scaled down or different for males and females. Scientific literature typically categorises these stages into three Key phases, being: Late Childhood Adolescence; Early puberty Late puberty Early Adulthood

Appendix IV is a summary table that outlines physical, mental and cognitive characteristics observed at each stage, the general consequence on performance and the implications to training regimes the coach needs to consider.

Taken from Diving Canada Long-Term Athlete Development Model Adapted from Long-Term Athlete Development Resource paper V2 pp 54 - 61

The LTAD Framework

The diving LTAD model has adopted the seven stages suggested by Istvan Balyi that are closely related to the sensitive periods of trainability. These stages of the LTAD are specifically related to an early specialisation sport and Diving distinguishes seven stages of athlete development. These stages have been renamed to become more sport specific, and age ranges modified to accommodate the fact that diving is an early specialisation sport.

Table : The Specific Stage of the Diving LTAD

Sports Entry: The most important goals are those that ensure the kids like diving, stay in diving and learn the basics.Technical Foundation: Learn all the basic skills sets for diving. This is a very important stage for future development and is a big

step from Stage 1Competitive Foundations: Apply the basic skill sets to the dives performed in competitions, to expand the skills sets, and to assemble their competitive dive lists.Consolidation: To consolidate all of the acquired skills for competition and to reach diving potential.Realisation: As above to all of the acquired skills for competition and to reach diving potential.

29

diving

Stage New Name Females Age Males Age Old Name

1 Active Start 0 – 4 0 – 4 Active Start

2 Flip ?Fun 5 – 6 5 – 7 FUNdamentals

3 Technical Foundations 6 – 9 7 – 10 Learn to Train

4 Competitive Foundations 8 – 12 9 – 13 Training to Train

5 Consolidation 12 – 15 13 – 16 Train to Compete

6 Realisation 15+ 16+ Train to Win

7 Active for Life Any age Any Age Active for Life

30

diving

Table 7: Suggested Training Objectives for the Specific Stages of Diving LTAD

31

diving

Table 8: Suggested Skills for the Specific Stages of the Diving LTAD

diving

Table 9: Suggested Training Objectives for the Specific Stages of Diving LTAD

32

Periodisation

Periodisation is the plan for peaking for competitions, with increasing and decreasing cycles of training load. Early stages of athlete's development have no significant changes in the cycle of training loads, but later this becomes important to build up the full competitive list, while allowing enough rest to perform well.

Stage 1: No periodisationStage 2: No periodisationStage 3: SingleStage 4/5 Single or double

Training load is measured by two key measures intensity and volume. In diving it is often harder to measure these to measures than in sports such as athletics and swimming where speed, heart rate and distance may be measured and varied.

A Intensity

Intensity in diving is perhaps only measurable by assessing the difficulty and effort required of a diver to complete a dive. Any dive must always be completed with a high level of precision to avoid injury, and therefore places consistently high demands on the diver. However a simple dive for an accomplished diver is relatively low intensity. This is especially true at lower heights – 1m and 3m. For divers just learning the intensity is always high.

In other training, intensities can be lower. Some lead-ups (progressions for more difficult dives) have a low precision requirement; it is safe for a diver to be relatively relaxed and enter the water other than in a vertical position. Similarly 1m drills are less intense and offer less consequences. There are more consequences in 3m and especially 7m and 1m tower.

Therefore the following definition for intensity in the sport of diving is offered:Intensity = an individualised subjective measure of the effort, difficulty or precision of movements for any given dive or group of dives.

33

diving

Table 10: Periodisation and Intensity for Specific Stages of the Diving LTAD

34

diving

Examples of medium and high intensity practices lowest: jumps, entry drills, simple dives medium: lead-ups (not requiring peak strength), compulsories on 10m high: competition environment, new dives, 10 m optional(s), dives requiring peak strength and precision.

Essentially the coach need a sliding scale and must make a judgement call for each diver.

Considerations 10 m is higher than 1m or side of pool High DD is higher intensity than lower DD (though not in all cases) New dives are higher intensity Diving tower is easier for some younger divers than 3m springboard (coach needs to know athlete)

B Volume

For most divers, the number of divers is a reasonable indicator of volume. Height and difficulty of the dive add to the volume of the work completed.

Considerations More dives is more volume Total number of movements (not just dives) must be considered Density -= exercise and recuperation within time frame. Consider rest as well as total intensity and volume.

The following estimate of a multiplier effect on volume from diving from higher heights is suggested: 1 x 10m dive = 1.25 x 7mt; 11.75 x 5mt. 2.5 x 3mt, 2 x 3ms/b, 3 x 1m, 5 x 1mt, 6 x side of pool.

C Non Sport Stresses

Periodisation must consider accumulated stress from factors outside the sport: Volume Life stresses (scheduled stresses such as exams, menstruation) Unscheduled (emotional crises, illness, injury) Cumulative stresses.

APPENDIX I – DIVE PROGRESSIONS FOR ALL DIVES – taken from British Diving

35

diving

Table 11: Forward Skills Chain 100 – 109 c (3m s/b)

36

diving

Table 12: Backward Skill Chain 200 – 207 C (3 m s/b)

37

diving

Table 13: Reverse Skill Chain 300 - 307C (3m s/b)Table 14 : Inward Skill Chain 400 – 407c (3m s/b)

Table 15 : Forward Twist Skill Chain – Basic Drills to 5154b (3ms/b)

38

diving

Table 16 : Reverse twist Skill Chain – Basic Drills to 5353b (3m s/b)

39

diving

40

diving

APPENDIX II – suggested dive skills chart for each specific LTAD stage

BOARD/LEVEL Dives in italics are advanced or optional skills

Deck tower/side of pool

1 m tower

1 m s/b 3 m s/b 3 m tower

5 m tower

7,5 m tower

10 m tower

Sports Entry 100 A,C, B 200 010 020 101 C 102 C

(Armswing 100 A,C, B) (Hurdle 100, A,C,B) 010 020 101C, B 201 102

010 020 100, A,C,B Hurdle Back swing 200

Jump Forward Entry

Jump Forward Entry

Technical Foundations *with approach

100 A,C,B 200 A,C,B 101 C 102 C 201 C-drop 401C, B 202 C 302 C 402 C

100 A* 101 C* 102 C, B* 201 A

101 C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B.A 401 C,B 103 C,B 403 C,B 203 C,B 303 C 105 C

101 C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B.A 401 C,B 103 C,B 403 C,B 203 C, B 303 C 105 C

001 A,B,C 002 A,B,C 101 C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B 401 C, B 103 B 403 C 203 C

001 A,B,C 002 A,B,C 101 C,B 201 C,B 301 C,B 401 C, B 103 B 403 C 203 C

010 Any 100

Competitive Foundations

102B 202 B 302 B 301 C 201 C

103 C,B 302 B 621 C,B

104 C,B 105 C 203 C,B 204 C 303 C,B 304 C 401 A 403 C,B 404 C 5122 D 2132 D 5221 D 5231 D 5223 D 5225 302 A

105 C,B 203 C,B 205 C 303 C,B 305 C 303 C,B 405 C 5132 D 5231 D 5233 D 5235 D

103 C,B 105 C 203 C,B 204 C 303 C 304 C 403 C,B 404 C 5122 B 202 A 5221 D 5223 D 612 C,B 623 C

105 C,B 203 C,B 303 C 403 C.B 205 C 405 C 204 B 304 C 5231 D 5233 D 612 B

101 C,B 103 C,B 201 C,B 301 C.B 401 C,B 403 B 105 B 405 C 5132 D 5231 D 5233 D 5235 D 205 C,B 305 C 612 B

103 B 403 B 101 B 401 B 201 B 301 B 5231 D 5132 D 612 C,B

Consolidation 105B 5233 D 5331 D 5333 D 5325 D 5142 B 5134 B 405C

107 C 205 B 305 B 405 B 5235 D 5335 D 5152 B

105 B 205 C 303 B 405 C 5233 D 623 C 624 C

623 A 6231C 6533 C

107 C,B 205 B 207 C 305 C,B 405 B 407 C 5233 D 5235 D 614 C. B 624 C,B 656 C.B 6243 B

Realisation Maximize dive list for points and keep building dd to score.

APPENDIX III – Suggested dryland skills chart for each specific LTAD stage

41

diving

Level Trampoline Dryland Ground Sport Entry Jumps

Hurdles Armswings Seat Drop Kill Bounce Back Drop 102 to seat 201 C,B (Backdrop)

Hurdle 101 A, C, B 200 A, C, B 201 C (backdrop)

Front rolls 102 assisted 002 Back rolls Jumps Rolls Bounds Cartwheels Etc.

Technical Foundations 201 C* 301 C* 302 C,B 203 B* 303 C,B* 102 C,B 402 C,B * = Backdrop

100 (with armswimg or hurdle) 200 102 C,B 202 C,B 302 C (with hurdle or armswing) 201 B* 301 C,B* 402 C * = Backdrop

102 C,B Standing, Hopping, front approach 202 C (assisted or unassisted) 402 C (assisted or unassisted) 5211 A Takeoff dri ll 103 takeoff drill (3/4 to shoulders)

Competitive Foundations

Add 202 A 5221 D to seat and stand 5122 D 5224 D 104 C, B

Add 202 A 5221 D 5122 D 5223 D 402 B 104 C,B 302 C,B with or without hand spot

Add 202 C unspotted 202 B with or without hand spot 302 C 611 – for 612 10m 611 – with kip 621

Consolidation 204 C,B 304 C,B 404 C,B

204 C,B 304 C,B

Add 302 B hand spot 202 B, no spot 302 C no spot

Realisation Maintain and improve all ski lls learned in previous stages

42

diving

APPENDIX IV – Periodisation chart – competitive foundations

APPENDIX V – Physical, mental / cognitive and emotional developemnt for all the stages

Late Childhood - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications

43

diving

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabilities

Implications for Coaching

Late

Child

hood

Flip

nFu

n/FU

Nda

men

tals

(Spo

rtEn

try

thro

ugh

the

Mul

tilat

eral

Div

eSk

ills

Dev

elop

men

t)

Larger primary muscle

groups are more developed

than the smaller secondary

ones

The diver is more skilled in gross motor

movements involving larger muscle

groups. More precise, highly skill based,

fine motor control movements are less

easy to acquire at this phase

Coach should focus in refining genera basic

skills during this phase. Related multilateral

foundations such as dance, gymnastic;

trampoline, and floor work and dive skills

should be encouraged. FUN must be

emphasised with the activities being a general

extension of structured play.

Tendons and ligaments

become stronger but the

ends of the bones where

growth plates are located

are still cartilaginous.

General recovery abilities in

both aerobic and anaerobic

systems, is relatively slow.

Avoid excessive stress or high loads on

susceptible joints for growth plate injuries

i.e. wrists and knees. Insufficient recovery

time between activities results in

technique breakdown. Rule of thumb –

“if they cant hold the technique . . .

don’t mould the technique”

All movements should focus on body control.

Exercises should be using own body weight and

involve good technique. Avoid high loads but

encourage maximum speed mechanics (i.e. low

repetitions but at speed that mimic dive skill

activities). This aids correct neuromuscular

learning. Ensure sufficient recovery and

restoration between activities.

Basic motor patterns such as

agility, balance,

coordination, and speed still

require refinement.

Limited ability in fine motor control

activities. Speed, power, flexibility and

coordination greatly improve towards the

end of this phase

Coordination activities that focus on developing

kinaesthetic awareness should be encouraged

such as dance, gymnastics, fun, and low

intensity athletic circuits. This lays down a solid

multilateral base preparing for specialisation in

the future

Girls develop coordination

skills more rapidly than boys

at this phase. Although boys

have superior hand-eye and

eye-foot coordination.

General body control of both

genders is unrefined.

There are no significant gender difference

in performance capabilities in this phase

Both genders should be encouraged to play and

train together at this phase. Both genders

should be exposed to a variety of exercises from

both diving and other related sports. Coaches

should introduce drills that develop attention

control. This will assist them in preparing them

for the greater demands of training and

competing in the next phase.

44

diving

Late Childhood – Mental, Cognitive and Emotional Developmental Characteristics and their Implications

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabil ities

Implications for Coaching

Late

Chi

ldho

od

Flip

nFu

n/FU

Nda

men

tals

(Spo

rtEn

try

thro

ugh

the

Mul

tilat

eral

Div

eSk

ills

Dev

elop

men

t)

They have established

preferred ways of learning

They may be visual, auditory or

kinaesthetic learners

Find out how they learn best, and incorporate

this style into your coaching of the diver. In the

warm up, ensure that there are diving like

activities, quick training pace. In training set

challenges and competitions for those who

enjoy it as well as keeping your technical focus.

They are enthusiastic and

often impatient

They may want to get on and ‘do it’ and

may get frustrated when prevented from

doing so. You have a chance to build on

this enthusiasm and develop their

motivation.

In your comments, talk about the dive rather

than the diver, e.g. “that dive was . . .” rather

than “you did . . .”.

They tend to evaluate their

performance as a whole, and

this is how they feel about

themselves as a person

They may say “I’m useless” or “that dive

was rubbish”. We need to start building

the ability to think rationally under

pressure.

Get them to break the dive down into P.T.F.E 1phases and be able to identify how they

performed in each phase. They will start to be

able to see specifically where errors occurred.

When they perform well, get them to feel it

again on the poolside – ‘tag’ this feeling for

them by doing this along with lots of positive

reinforcement and praise.

They understand in language

of feeling rather than verbal

information

They need to build into memory what a

good dive ‘felt’ like in order to be able to

recreate it

Review the structure of your sessions, and look

to make any changes where you feel further

structure is needed. Leave personal issues at

home and try to present a consistent personality

– don’t make them have to guess what mood

you are going to be in!

They feel secure when there

is a routine and pattern in

what is happening in

training and how you

behave.

Introduce changes sensitively, and at a

pace they can cope with. They like to

receive information in different ways, and

will only cope with small chunks of

information in one go.

Present information via verbal, physical

demonstrations, tasks, videos, and by getting

them ‘doing’ as much as possible

When you need to talk keep your key points to

two

Some will enjoy the risk and fear of diving

in manageable doses, others will find this

threatening.

Tune into why they are diving, and what they

enjoy – try to tailor some of the individual tasks

so that they motivate each diver as fully as

possible.

Adolescence Early Puberty - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications

45

diving

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabil ities

Implications for Coaching

Ado

lesc

ence

-Ea

rlyPu

bert

y

Tech

nica

lFou

ndat

ions

and

Com

petit

ive

Foun

datio

ns

Significant changes occur in

body composition such as

fat, muscle and bone

Growth spurts can often influence the

athlete’s ability to adapt and make

technical changes rapidly. Progress can

temporarily stagnate.

Adapt and individualise the training drills/skills

to ensure they are “growth friendly”. Training is

focussed around the body adapting to specific

training load increments to prepare for

competitions. Record changes in height, sitting

height, arm-span and weight on a monthly

basis. Consider altering training if performance

is affected during rapid growth times.

Girls begin their growth

spurt (rapid gain of weight

and height) between 10 –

14 years while boys between

12 – 15 years. Girls, on

average attain their

maximum rate of growth a t

age 11(10 – 13.5 range)

with peak average stature

reached at 13. Boy’s

maximum rate of growth is

at 14 years (12.5 to 15.5

range)with full statue

reached at 15.5

Variances in performance are often the

result of growth rates. Rapid growth

spurts (PHV) can often explain lack of

coordination and motor abilities along

with loss of dives that could be previously

executed.

Coaches are encouraged to emphasise good

techniques and constantly re-visit basics during

this phase. Focus should not be on medal

winning performances – de-emphasise

winning! Modification to dive lists may be

required during this phase.

Primary and secondary

sexual characteristics appear

during this phase. With the

normal onset of menarche

for girls is 10 – 15 years,

intensive training in younger

years can alter this.

Changes in body composition such as fat

mass, fat free mass and muscle mass

occur during this phase. For girls involved

in rigorous training (> 10 hours per

week), regular checks on iron status

should be monitored at the onset of

menarche.

Change in physique cam lead to individuals

feeling self-conscious, awkward and

embarrassed. Situations and/or comments

about their sexual development can cause fear

and /or anxiety and should be avoided.

46

diving

Adolescence Early Puberty - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications - Continued

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabil ities

Implications for Coaching

Ado

lesc

ence

-Ear

lyPu

bert

y

Tech

nica

lFou

ndat

ions

and

Com

petit

ive

Foun

datio

ns

Smaller connecting muscle

groups such as stabilisers

become more developed

Speed, agility and neuromuscular

coordination improve rapidly during this

phase.

Volume and intensity of training can be

gradually increased during this time- but are

dependant on growth spurts once again.

Training designed should reinforce best practice

skill development and technique. Strength

exercises should focus on core sections of the

body, in particular hips, lower back, and

abdomen. Most exercises should involve body

weight and light equipment. Injury preventative

exercises targeting shoulders and wrist regions

should be incorporated into general dry-land

training.

Proportionality of the body

changes – various

proportions of the body

commence growing at

various rates. For example,

limbs such as legs and arms

will reach peak velocity

before the trunk.

Centre of gravity alters and consequently

skills may require re-learning/rebuilding.

With changes in proportions of the body, dive

lists may be needed adjustment, along with

board preferences. The coach may need to

explore the varied technique with the diver, to

find a new style that accommodates their

changes in body proportions. Skills may require

rebuilding. Competition objectives should focus

on attainment of correct technique under

pressure versus wining.

Whilst the aerobic system

significantly increases at this

phase (especially in boys due

to a surge of the male

hormone testosterone), the

anaerobic systems are still

less refined.

Boys recover faster from harder and

longer training sessions than girls during

this phase.

High intensity dry land exercises should be short

in duration (no more than 20 seconds in

length), and should encourage sound

technique. Sufficient recovery time should be

planned into weekly training schedules.

The central nervous systems

are almost fully developed by

this phase.

Agility, coordination and neuromuscular

abilities are fully trainable during this

phase

All activities should focus on body control and

correct mechanics. Encourage multiple chain

exercises using varying muscle groups. More

complex skills can be trained, but constant

refining of basics is essential.

Adolescence Early Puberty – Mental Cognitive and Emotional Developmental Characteristics and their Implications

47

diving

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabil ities

Implications for Coaching

Ado

lesc

ence

-Ea

rlyPu

bert

y

Tech

nica

lFou

ndat

ions

and

Com

petit

ive

Foun

datio

ns

Thinking abilities develop

and become more mature.

They can begin to understand the

mechanical concepts of their sport

Don’t be afraid to provide them with the ‘why’

they a re going to do particular things within a

movement e.g. understanding the importance

of speed in rotation. Develop a culture in which

making mistakes is valued – it is a necessary

part of learning, and try to use humour to

lighten difficult moments. The peer group in

training should be used to support rather than

pressure the individual.

Self esteem is fragile The diver may feel unhappy about

performing in front of others if they are

learning a dive, or lack confidence

Provide feedback that refers to the dive rather

than the person. Be aware of the sensitive

nature of this subject.

Quality of performance can

reflect how the divers feel

about themselves as a

person

A poor performance means the diver feels

bad about himself or herself as a person.

Ensure good nutritional support/education so

that good practice is achieved and maintained.

Awareness of body image is

well established

Body image may be a sensitive issue, and

if self confidence is low, the diver may

feel vulnerable.

Humour can be useful. But it can be hurtful.

There will possibly be

tensions between the diver

and certain adults in their

lives (e.g. parents/teachers)

Relationships may pass through difficult

times, and the coach may become an

“ally” in the eyes of the diver.

Try to organise opportunities that are social as

well as the diving time, ensuring a professional

approach throughout. Recognise the power you

have,

Social interaction and the

development of friendships

between ales and females is

important

The diver will enjoy social activities that

allow them to develop the ability to form

positive relationships

Communicate effectively with both divers and

parent(s).

They may start to feel that

repeated practice will

enhances the quality of the

dive.

They may want to continue training,

when you feel they have done enough.

Explain the practice doesn’t necessarily make

perfect idea, and that quality training is

essential rather than quantity

48

diving

Adolescence Late Puberty - Physical Developmental Characteristics and their Implications

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabil ities

Implications for Coaching

Ado

lesc

ence

Late

Pube

rty/

Early

Adu

lthoo

d

Cons

olid

atio

n

All physiological systems

reach maturity during this

phase.

Physiological systems are capable of

giving maximum output. Progressive

improvements in dominant motor abilities

such as power, anaerobic capacity,

specific coordination and dynamic

flexibility become apparent.

Base strength/endurance and power can be

“sharpened” for maximum performance gains. Firstly,

increase volumes for specific exercises and drills.

Then, steadily increase training intensity more rapidly

than volume over a gradual period of time. Training

should stimulate the actions that take place during

competitions. Physical training should be closely

monitored by use of sports science to ensure

maximum adaption and minimum injury. Ensure

yearly musculoskeletal screenings to see all muscle

groups and body alignment are well balanced.

Encourage athletes to maintain training diaries

commenting on key markers of overtraining on a

weekly basis. Increase the number of competitions

progressively, so that by the end of this phase the

diver is competing as frequently as senior-level

competitors.

Increase in height and

weight begin to stabilise.

Interconnecting tissue,

tendons and muscles

become significantly stronger

and more stable.

Divers who have been in well-rounded

programme emphasising multilateral

development will now start performing

skills specifically aimed at high-

performance delivery.

Coach must monitor volume and intensity of training

to ensure the diver improves at a steady pace with

little risk or injury or over-training syndrome. At this

phase, the diver should have no major technical

difficulties, thus the coach can move from a

“teaching’ role to a more ‘coaching’ (training) role.

Competition objectives should focus on attainment of

technique perfection under pressure.

Skeletal maturation

continues to develop

reaching a peak in females

at age 19 – 20 years and

males approximately 3 years

later.

As height stabilises, more complex skills

should be re-introduced. While muscles

have grown to full size, their function and

general power output will continue to

increase till late twenties. Full training

loads can be applied.

Sports specific strength training should be maximised

during this phase to improve overall strength /power

development. Body weight exercises combined with

free weights (supervised and technique based only)

are recommended. In the later part of this phase,

maximum strength gains, divers can commence

weight training with low repetitions but with a

slightly heavier weight. Sports specific neuromuscular

training should also continue in this phase such as

somersaults, rig and trampoline work. Skills and drills

should be characterised as repeatable, consistent and

of the highest technical quality, and should be

performed under pressure.

Adolescence Late Puberty – Mental Cognitive and Emotional Developmental Characteristics and their Implications

49

diving

Life

Phase

Basic Characteristics General Consequences on

Performance Capabil ities

Implications for Coaching

Ado

lesc

ence

Late

Pube

rty/

Early

Adu

lthoo

d

Cons

olid

atio

n

Thinking abilities develop

and become more mature.

They can begin to understand the

mechanical concepts of their sport.

Don’t be afraid to provide them with the “why”

they are doing particular things within a

movement e.g. understanding the importance

of speed in rotation.

Critical thinking is becoming

more established.

The diver is capable of taking more

responsibility for decision making and

governing their own organisation.

You can only expect a diver to become

independent if you have gradually given them

opportunities in which to learn the skill. Ensure

that you have built on from asking their input to

handing over some responsibility (gradually) so

that they can develop.

The Peer Group is still

influential and important.

A group setting should be seen as

supportive rather than threatening.

Use older/younger pairings for role model

benefits and increased ability to coach anad

understand diving. There is of course the need

to compete against each other. However, within

this context, aim to develop a ‘team’ mentality

via team-work exercises , games and

experiences

Other issues will be

important – e.g. managing

studying for exams alongside

training.

They need to know that you are

interested in their life outside of diving.

Try to develop an educational programme that

supports their journey through diving –

wherever that may be leading.

The ability to be

independent has been

developed.

They can take responsibility for their

diving and their lives with guidance from

others.

Reflect on where you are both at, and when the

diver needs to make changes, try guide them to

finding their own answers, give your expertise

when it is needed, and let them enjoy the

confidence that feeling competent brings.

They expect to work within

the boundaries and in a

culture of high expectation.

You can use the need and expectation of

structure to promote high standards

within diving.

Have a diver representative be part of the team

that puts together your code of conduct. Where

appropriate, this should mirror what is expected

of them at international status.

Life affecting decisions are

made at this stage in terms

of training, study, career,

and relationships.

It can be a confusing time, and the

perception may be that a diver has to try

and ‘juggle’ everything alone.

Offer guidance and support, using professional

agencies where you need to. You can offer an

experienced and informed point of view, and it

will be important to consider other opinions

also.

50

diving

APPENDIX VI - Selected bibliography

Balyi, I. Sport system building and long-term athlete development in Canada. The situation and solutions, in Coaches Report. The Official

Publication of the Canadian Professional Coaches Association. Summer 2001. Vol.8, No.1, pp.25-28.

Balyi, I., Cardinal, C., Higgs, C., Norris, S., and Way, R.: Long-Term Athlete Development: Canadian Sport for Life. Canadian Sport Centres, 2005.

Broms

Higgs, C., Balyi, I., Bluechard, M., Cardinal, C., Norris, S., and Way, R.: Long-Term Athlete Development: No Accidental Champions.

Athletes with a Disability, Canadian Sport Centres, 2006.

Higgs, C., Balyi, I., Bluechard, M., Cardinal, C., Norris, S., and Way, R.: Developing Physical Literacy. Canadian Sport Centres, 2007.

Malina, R.M. and Bouchard, C. Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics, 1991.

Rushall, B. The Growth of Physical Characteristics in Male and Female Children. In Sports Coach, Vol. 20, Summer 1998. pp. 25 – 27.

Taylor, B. Long-term Athlete Development Plan for Rowing. An overview. Rowing Canada, Victoria, BC, Canada, 2005.

Viru, A. (1995) Adaptation in Sports Training. CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Viru, A, Loko, J., Volver, A., Laaneots, L., Karlesom, K and Viru, M. Age periods of accelerated improvements of muscle strength, power,

speed and endurance in age interval 6-18 years. In "Biology of Sport" , Warsaw, V., 15 (4) 1998, 211-227 pp.

Viru, A., Loko, J., Harro, M., Volver, A., Laaneots, L., Viru, M. (1999). Critical periods in the development of performance capacity during

childhood and adolescence. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 4:1, pp75-119.

Whitehead, M (2001) The concept of physical literacy. European Journal of Physical Education (6), pp 12-138.

www.ltad.ca

www.canadiansportforlife.ca