LOGOSETHOS

PATHOS

Aristotle’s Proofs

Logos

Arguments rooted in logic and/or reasoning

Uses evidence to support positionsWays to use Logos

InductiveDeductiveCausalAnalogical

Inductive

Reasoning that goes from particular to general

Example: Jane is in great shape, and she jogs.

(Observation) Bill looks terrific, and he jogs. (Observation) Kim’s great muscle definition is from

jogging. (Observation, Inference) Therefore, people who jog look good.

(Generalization)

Evaluating Inductive Arguments

Are the observations accurate?Are there enough observations to

justify the generalization?Don’t Rush to Conclusions!

Evaluation Examples

Example 1Jimmy plagiarized his Com 299 final

paper.All Com 299 students plagiarize.

Example 2My cat is gray.My sister’s cat is gray.The cat at the pet store is gray.All cats are gray.

Deductive Arguments

Reasoning that goes from general to specific.

Example:If you jog, you will look like you’re in

shape. (Major Premise)Jane jogs. (Minor Premise)Therefore, Jane looks like she’s in good

shape. (Conclusion)

More Deductive Examples

Example 1, from MLK, Jr “I Have a Dream”All people are created equal.I am a person.Therefore, I am equal to other people.

Example 2God will reward non-violenceWe are pursuing our dreams non-violentlyGod will grant us our dreams

Evaluating Deductive Arguments

Analyze the accuracy and validity Are the premises true?Can the conclusion be logically derived

from the premises?

Evaluating Deductive Arguments Continued

Compare the following deductive arguments Example 1

People who text and drive are more likely to have accidents than are those who do not.

Jack regularly texts while he drives. Therefore, Jack is more likely to have an accident

than those who do not text and drive. Example 2

People who do not text and drive are more likely to have accidents than are those who do.

Jill never texts and drives. Therefore, Jill is more likely to have an accident

than those who do text and drive

Causal

One condition brings about another

Avoid False Cause FallaciesEnsure that A causes B!

Analogical

Compares something unfamiliar to the audience to something that is/could be familiar

Avoid an invalid analogies

Ethos

Is derived from the speaker or the source of the information

Is composed of competence, character, knowledge, etc of the speaker/source

Pathos

Appeals to audience’s emotionsThe emotions can range from glee to fear

The speaker/writer should always consider the ethics of the communication

FACTVALUEPOLICY

Types of Claims

Claims of FactWhat IS or IS NOT true

Past, present, projectionSomething that can be researched and

proven through researchBurden of Proof

Must define terms, what do your statistics mean?

How does your evidence “prove” something

Claims of ValueWhat is right/wrong, moral/immoral,

good/bad, just/unjustAlways involves quality judgments

Burden of ProofDefine terms…what does it mean to you

to be moral/immoralIdentify the criteria or standard by

which to evaluate the claim of value

Claims of PolicyWhat should be done

Will always involve an agent of actionBurden of proof

Problem existsAn inherent barrier to solving the

problemAn action statement to attempt to

correct the problem

Americans overvalue athletic competition.

VALUE

The United States prison system should increase programs to rehabilitate inmates.

POLICY

Fastening seatbelts saves lives.

FACT

The United States federal government should substantially increase the number of and/or substantially expand beneficiary eligibility for its visas for one or more of the following: employment-based immigrant visas, nonimmigrant temporary worker visas, family-based visas, human trafficking-based visas.

POLICY

Computer technology will change American education.

FACT

Political parties are bad for effective government in the United States.

VALUE

HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN ARGUMENT IN ANY SPEECH OR DISCUSSION

Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation

CLAIM

EVIDENCE

EVIDENCECREDIBILITY

WARRANT

QUALIFIER

REBUTTAL

Claim

An assertion regarding a stance on a topic or

idea

It is an assertion of fact, value, or policy

Posting private information on social networking sites like Facebook poses significant security risks.

Evidence CredibilityThe qualifications of the author of the quoted

workIn debate the evidence credibility is not fully

stated in a debate round, but is typed and available for examination by opponents In a debate round ONLY the LAST NAME and

YEAR of the article/source is read aloudRegular Speech Example: According to the Computer Crime and Intellectual

Property web site developed by the Cyberstalking Division of the U.S. Department of Justice and accessed on September 6, 2008

Debate Example U.S. Department of Justice, Accessed 2008

EvidenceThe quoted words used in debate to support

the claim originally madeIs created by reading only important

underlined material from an article. When making evidence for debate all words

in a paragraph or between paragraphs of quoted material must be present (though not read aloud) to ensure that nothing is taken out of context

Warrant

THE MOST IMPORTANT PART OF TOULMIN’S MODEL!

Connects the Evidence to the claimExplains WHY the evidence matters and how

you are interpreting/applying the evidence to your position/claim

Qualifier

The exceptions to the rule This is where one admits that sometimes a claim is

not true in all instances

Cats are the Best Pet Smith, 2013 “Cats are very loving creatures”

Claim EV Cred EV

Possible Qualifiers?

RebuttalThese are any counter-arguments or

oppositions to a stated claimAs a debater you should research BOTH sides

of the topic so as to anticipate what your opponent(s) may say in opposition to you.

Possible rebuttal to “Cats are the Best pets.”?

Argument Fallacies

BandwagonSlippery SlopeFalse AnalogyRed HerringFalse CauseOthers?