Livestock farming systemsProduct quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability

EAAP publication No. 118, 2006

Benevento, Italy

Livestock farming systems

The EAAP series is published under the direction of Dr. P. Rafai

EAAP – European Association for Animal Production

CIHEAM – International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies

FAO – Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

ISZ – Istituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnia

ConSDABI – National Focal Point FAO AnGR

The European Association for Animal Production wishes to express its appreciation to the Ministero per le Politiche Agricole e Forestali and the Associazione Italiana Allevatori for their valuable support of its activities

Livestock farming systems

Product quality based on local resources

leading to improved sustainability

EAAP publication No. 118

Editors:

R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon

Wageningen AcademicWageningen AcademicP u b l i s h e r ssseessbP u b l i s h e r sP u b l i s h e r sP u b l i s h e r s

Subject headings:Product qualityLocal resources

Sustainability

ISBN: 978-90-76998-63-3e-ISBN: 978-90-8686-565-9

DOI: 10.3920/978-90-8686-565-9

ISSN 0071-2477

First published, 2006

© Wageningen Academic Publishers The-Netherlands, 2006

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned. Nothing from this publication may be translated, reproduced, stored in a computerised system or published in any form or in any manner, including electronic, mechanical, reprographic or photographic, without prior written permission from the publisher, Wageningen Academic Publishers, P.O. Box 220, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands, www.WageningenAcademic.com

The individual contributions in this publication and any liabilities arising from them remain the responsibility of the authors.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Association for Animal Production concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The publisher is not responsible for possible damages, which could be a result of content derived from this publication.

Contents

Foreword 1C. Nardone

Introduction 3D. Matassino

Preface 5A. Gibon

Chapter1:Productqualityinlivestockproduction:changeinviewsandvalues

Localresourcesandtypicalanimalproducts 9F. Casabianca & D. Matassino

Foodqualityandhumanhealth:thehumanmedicinepointofview 27N. Caporaso, P. Vitaglione, V. Fogliano, A. Ritieni, S. Stingo, A. Carbone & F. Morisco

Animalfoodqualityandhumanhealth:theanimalsciencepointofview 37C. Kijora, K.J. Peters, A. Nardone & M.G. Keane

Animalgeneticsandfunctionalfood 49F. Pilla, A. Valentini, J.A. Lenstra & P. Martin

Establishingaqualityconvention,certifyingandpromotingthequalityofanimalproducts:thecaseofbeef 61B. Sylvander, G. Belletti, A. Marescotti & E. Thévenod-Mottet

Consumer attitudes towards specific beef and lamb quality products in different Europeanregions 83A. Bernués, A. Olaizola & K. Corcoran

Shortpapers

Assmilk:nutritionalandfunctionalcharacteristics 93E. Salimei, F. Fantuz, P. Polidori, R. Coppola, B. Chiofalo & G. Varisco

Theoriginattributeasaqualityfactorandasanelementconditioningattitudestowardspurchasingbeef 99M.T. Maza, V. Ramírez & E. Manrique

Consumers’evaluationoftraditionalExtremadurancheesesthroughfactoranalysis 103F. Pulido, F.J. Mesías, A. Rodríguez & M. Escribano

Marketingofagriculturalproducts:strengtheningofregionalandsocio-culturalvaluesintheNetherlandsandofbulkproductionvaluesinGreece 109S.J. Oosting, A.J. Sol & N. Kalogeras

Chapter 2: Specificity and technology of elaboration of traditional dairy and meat products

TraditionalsheepandgoatmilkprocessingtechnologiesintheMediterraneanBasin:thecaseoftheJordansheepcooperatives 119P. Couenberg

PastureandcheesediversityinFrenchNorthernAlps 125S. Buchin, B. Martin, & A. Hauwuy

EffectofproductionsystemsonthesensorycharacteristicsofCantalcheeses:aplant-scalestudy 131C. Agabriel, B. Martin, C. Sibra & J.-C. Bonnefoy

Preparationandripeningofatraditionaldry-sausagefromneroSicilianopig 137C. Diaferia, A. D’Amico, G. Madonia, E. Manganelli, S. Margiotta, V. Pruiti, I. Valenti & M. Villardita

Shortpapers

Influence of altitude, forage quality and grazing-related effects on milk yield and milk qualityofcowskeptintheeasternSwissAlps 145F. Leiber, R.H. Razminowicz, S.J. Duleba, M. Kreuzer & H.-R. Wettstein

MilkcompositionandcheesemakingpropertiesofthemilkobtainedfromsomeItalianbovinegenetictypes 149D. Matassino, C.M.A. Barone, P. Colatruglio, D. Fornataro, M. Occidente & A. Zullo

Colourcharacteristicsof‘Caciocavallo’cheeseobtainedfromsomeItalianbovinegenetictypes 153P. Colatruglio, C.M.A. Barone, V. Carfagna, G. Gigante, M. Occidente, A. Zullo & D. Matassino

Rheologicalcharacteristicsof‘Caciocavallo’cheeseobtainedfromsomeItalianbovinebreedsandgenetictypes 157A. Zullo, C.M.A. Barone, P. Colatruglio, M. Occidente, G. Potena, C.E. Rossetti & D. Matassino

Colourofdrycuredhamsobtainedfromautochthonousgenetictypesofpig 161D. Matassino, C.M.A. Barone, P. Colatruglio, M. Occidente & A. Zullo

Preliminary results on some “typified traditional” products obtained from Casertana, a pigautochthonousgenetictype 165C.M.A. Barone, N. Castellano, P. Colatruglio, M. Occidente, A. Zullo & D. Matassino

SensorypropertiesofItalianIstrianmilklambmeat 169R. Valusso, L.A. Volpell, M. Morgante & E. Piasentier

Chapter 3: Local breeds, traditional livestock farming systems and niche-based development strategies

Smallisbeautiful…buthowtoremainsmall?Acase-studyabouttheBasqueswinesystemanditsrelatedmarketchain 177J. Arrayet, B. Montel & J. Lossouarn

TraditionaluseofgoatandgoatproductsintheGuadeloupeansociety 183G. Alexandre, S. Asselin de Beauville, E. Shitalou & M.-F. Zebus

Certified beef production from local breeds in Chalkidiki, Greece 189Ch. Ligda, A. Georgoudis, A. Floros, E. Xenoudakis & J. Boyazoglu

Production of PDO beef: the example of “Fin Gras du Mézenc” in France 193S. Ingrand, B. Dedieu & M.-O. Nozières

LivestockfarmingsystemsandmilkproductioncharacteristicsinsomemountainareasofNorth-WestItaly 199L.M. Battaglini, A. Ighina, C. Lussiana, A. Mimosi & M. Bianchi

Shortpapers

How the development of typical products affects breeding stock qualification for endangeredbreeds:thecaseoftheGasconpig 205A. Audiot, B. Roche & M. Onco-Barella

NoteonsomecharacteristicsofthelocalKarakachansheep,theoldestbreedontheBalkans 211D. Nedelchev, E. Raicheva & D. Kuzmanova

Chapter 4: Accounting for multifunctionality in local development of livestock farming

Localanimalresourcesandproductsinsustainabledevelopment:roleandpotentialofequids 217N. Miraglia, D. Burger, M. Kapron, J. Flanagan, B. Langlois & W. Martin-Rosset

Naturalproductsforupgradingsustainabilityoflandresourcesandlandscapes:thecaseoftheArganforest 235A. El Aich, A. Bourbouze, P. Bas & P. Morand-Fehr

TheoldItalianMerino-derivedbreedsandtheirroleinlandscapeconservationintypicalproductionandinthemaintenanceoftraditionalculture 247F. Panella, F.M. Sarti, E. Lasagna, C. Renieri & M. Antonini

Assessmentoflandusepracticesinmountainlivestockfarms:thecaseoffarmsproducingmilkforBeaufortcheese(NorthernAlps) 253A. Havet, L. Dobremez, Y. Pauthenet & A. Gaillot

ThePDOPélardon,thefederatorofnewindividualandcollectivedynamics 259M. Napoléone & J.-P. Boutonnet

Shortpapers

The contribution of grazing management to the conservation of bird habitats 267E. Kernéïs, M. Tichit & F. Léger

Multicriteriaenvironmentalassessmentofcontrastingpigfarmingsystems 271C. Basset-Mens & H.M.G. van der Werf

EconomicindicatorsinextensivesheepfarmsinthedehesasysteminSpain 279M. Escribano, A. Rodríguez de Ledesma, F. Mesías & F. Pulido

SheepandgoatfarmingpracticesinahillyandmountainousareaofSouthGreece(Messinia) 287G. Zervas & M. Samouchos

Chapter 5: The search for local avenues for sustainable development of livestock farming systems: trails and trials

DiversityofdairysystemsandproductsinFranceandinEurope:theassetsoflessfavouredareas 293A. Pflimlin, C. Perrot & P. Parguel

TheimpactofCAPchangesonEUfarmingwithspecialreferencetocattlefarmingandIreland 309W. Dunne & J.J. O’Connell

PartnerFarms:experienceswithlivestockfarmingsystemresearchtosupportintersectoralcooperationintheNetherlands 317J. de Wit, U. Prins & T. Baars

CattlefarmingsystemsinthePenedamountain:atentativeassessmentofsustainability 323J. Côrte-Real Santos

ReferencesforimplementationofanoutdoorpigproductionsystemintheBasqueCountry(Spain) 329R. Ruiz, A. Domingo & L.M. Oregui

Developmentofamethodologyforassessingsustainabledevelopmentineggproduction 335H. Mollenhorst & I.J.M. de Boer

Shortpapers

DiversityandsustainabilityinthepigindustryinGuadeloupe 341M.-F. Zebus, G. Alexandre, N. Dauphin & J.-L. Diman

AnimalproductionsystemsdistributioninMexicoCity 347J. Vieyra, H. Losada, A. Castillo, J. Cortes, R. Soriano & G. Alonso

A study of the animal production in the municipality of Nezahualcoyotl City, State of Mexico 351J. Vieyra, H. Losada, A. Castillo, J. Cortes, R. Soriano & G. Alonso

ThediversityofruminantrearingsystemsinGuadeloupe:positionswithintheindustryanditssanitaryregulations 355J.-L. Diman, M. Naves, G. Alexandre & M.-F. Zébus

Organization of a local integrated chain for the production of natural goat products 361D. Dinev & N. Todorov

HerddynamicsofmediumscaledairyfarmsunderamixedfarmingsystemintheNiledeltaregion 367M.A. El-Wardani, T.H. Shalaby & F.E. El-Keraby

The concept of flexibility and the analysis of livestock farming systems: illustration usingextensivebeefcattlesystemsinArgentina 373E. Chia, B. Dedieu & R. Perez

The “production workshop” to model herd management decisions: examples in sheep andbeefcattledynamicherdmodels 379B. Dedieu, S. Cournut, S. Ingrand, L. Perochon & J. Agabriel

Comparison of grazing management systems for calf and yearling steers 385M. G. Keane

Effectoffeedblocksupplyoninvitrofermentationandgrowthkidsrearedonwoodyvegetation 389A. Gasmi-Boubaker & C. Kayouli

Conclusion 395A. Gibon

Foreword

As the President of the Provincia di Benevento, that supported the 6th International Livestock Farming System Symposium, I would like to express my gratitude to the members of the Scientific Committee of the Symposium who chose Benevento as the venue for the meeting. The potentiality of quality products based on local resources for a sustainable livestock farming development, which is the general theme of the symposium, comes indeed into the general reflection that underpins the development priorities of the Province. Over the last years there has been spectacular worldwide changes in rural environment, agricultural and feeding systems. The rural populations should receive strong encouragement and support for the development of activities aimed at the preservation of sustainable environment, taking part in the maintenance of biodiversity, in the diversity of the landscape with productive options to avoid desertification, and the enhancement of regional wealth and land development. This symposium will provide new horizons in knowledge and motivation for future research and reflection about sustainable agricultural development. All the research should be carried out with a view to promote agricultural production technologies, which can preserve the environment and sustain adequate production orientations for the benefit of available and renewable local resources, respecting at the same time the production cycle. Food represents a necessity for all the people. It means that it represents for a large part an inelastic demand that does not change with food price. The true challenge of the third millennium is food security. Nowadays there are 23 countries with more than 35% of their population underfed. These countries have been included in the “5th Category”, that includes countries which exceeded this quota by far. In South-African countries, the percentage of undernourished population is high: 75% in Somalia, 66% in Burundi, 64% in Congo, 57% in Eritrea, between 35 and 57% in Malaysia, Zambezi, Rwanda, Madagascar, Niger, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Centre-African Republic, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique. In Asia, three countries are included in the list of countries with severe underfeeding: North Korea (40%), Mongolia (42%) and Afghanistan (58%). In Latin America, where only Haiti is included in the list (56%), there are nevertheless a lot of countries included in the 4th Category, with a 20 to 35 percentage of the population underfed. These few data stress the considerable relevance of the problem. This situation is worst if we consider the prevision that FAO made in 996, in which a reduction of the underfed population was expected in the following 10 years: however, in 2002, the proportion of underfed people increased. On the other side, in western countries of rich and overfed population, the past agricultural development orientations was justified by the following theory: a higher production results in higher food availability and therefore lower prices and/or higher income and increased purchasing power, that in turn creates a higher demand. However, the theory was not confirmed by the reality, which demonstrated its groundlessness. The only effective action to follow appears to be the implementation of short, medium and long term initiatives. It is necessary to move from the theory presented above and to use as a starting point not production, but poverty and the recognition that the question originates from limits in the capacity to access the production. The direction for change is suggested by the theory proposed by Gorgoni: a reduction of poverty results into a higher purchasing power that results in turn into a higher demand, which calls for a higher production. The applicability of this theory is supported by the current carrying capacity, i.e. the ratio at a given geographical area between energy available and the relative protein requirement, when referring to agricultural production world-wide. The current estimate of the planet carrying capacity is around 8 billions, thus much higher than the present 6 billions population. In this context, an important role can be played by scientists and research institutions at local, national and international level in order to

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develop a new agricultural scenario, accounting for the rural and landscape development requirements. It appears fundamental to develop rural landscape management systems and that can help the local institutions to meet the world-wide challenge of sustainable rural development at the local scale, within a globalisation context. That calls for the development of new technologies and knowledge, whose use is to be handled by managers and experienced decision-makers. These are the reasons for which the Provincia di Benevento was involved, with a convicted support, in this important Symposium. I wish to express a warm thank to the President of the EAAP Dr Aimé Aumaitre, to the Board of EAAP, to Prof. Donato Matassino, President of ConSDABI, Dr Annick Gibon, President of the Livestock Farming Systems Commission of the EAAP, and Dr William Martin-Rosset, President of the Horse Commission of the EAAP, for their efforts in the organisation of the symposium. I like to express also my gratitude to Prof. Alessandro Nardone and to Prof. Jean Boyazoglu, for their relevant scientific support. I acknowledge the support from the additional national and international institutions in its scientific and practical organisation: the Universities of Molise and Sannio, the Experimental Animal Production Research Institute (ISZ), the CIHEAM and the FAO.

Carmine NardonePresident of the Province of Benevento

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Introduction

The globalization process must be reconciled with social requirements, the latter differing greatly among different parts of the globe, in order to safeguard the specific characteristics of diverse civilizations according to their history and traditions; these last factors are fundamental to sustainable development, which consists also in social and economic development. The consideration of social and cultural differences should constitute a strength, not a weakness. Society must be considered as a biological system, with its internal differences being the “conditio sine qua non” that enable its dynamic adaptability to the variations of external and internal conditions. Undoubtedly, external factors influence agricultural and animal production systems far more than other productive fields. The management of animal production must consider perspectives on a long term basis. The considerable differences between Developed Countries and Least Developed Countries must lead to the planning of market strategies that foresee the “waves of change” due to which, in a given market, after the phase of product uniformity, the interest shifts towards a segmentation and individualization of the product. Production must be able to identify all those strategies able to harmonize maximum production with individualization of consumption. It would be opportune to characterize a series of productive models in relation to the social and cultural conditions of the geographical area of reference. Local civilizations, rather than experience the globalization process passively, must participate actively in it by proposing new, alternative productive models based on the valorisation of the “traditional-typical” products in a environmental context that needs to be defended. The possibility of arranging a great number of Autochthonous Genetic Types (AGTs), each adapted to the micro environment and able to reach optimal levels of performances will support the enormous variability of the livestock environment, of the culture, of the tradition, of the social organisation, of the economic and professional level of the Earth’s population. From this point of view, the genetic resource, identified with biodiversity, is assuming an ever more important role in a problem solving approach with the aim of creating a social and economic system ensuring the highest quality of life possible, both for “breeders” and “non-breeders”. Through the optimization of autochthonous resources, it is possible to find appropriate models of sustainable development based on the following elements: integral recycling of by-products; integration of production activities with protection measures; typifying animal and vegetable products in relation to geographical areas (traditional products); total quality for food. In the new millennium, agro-food research must be engaged in a strategy based on the protection of autochthonous genetic resources. The word “resource” is derived from the French word “ressource” which is derived from the Latin “resurgere” (= to revive). “Resource” can be defined as “any means that serve to supply help, aid, support, especially when necessary”. The concept that biological diversity is a resource, implies its productive use; a resource must generate employment, improve human welfare and make an important contribution to society. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature has defined the conservation of biodiversity as “the management of the human interactions with variety of life and ecosystems shapes to maximize the benefits for the next generations”. In particular, autochthonous genetic resources represent a conditio sine qua non for the realization of a new concept of “food production” based not only on quantity, but mainly on the nutritional and extra-nutritional food quality. The aim is to optimize the relationship “nutrition-welfare-human health”.

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Consumer behaviour is not static, but varies in time and space; this dynamic nature must lead to a more thorough knowledge of productive systems. The dynamics of qualitative change have to be linked to the continuous discovery of the characteristics connected to human welfare depending on bio-molecules with nutritional and extra-nutritional value. In this context, “traditional-typical” products play a fundamental role for health and sanitary sustainability both for mankind and territory, with positive effects on economic sustainability. Through proteomics it is possible to identify and characterize specific molecular markers that can be used as parameters to identify quality, wholesomeness, typicality, and traceability of food. Moreover, functional genomics are a necessary instrument for the characterization of biodiversity as a nutritional and extra-nutritional diversification source of food, as well as the individualization of molecular bases of different solutions concerning feeding planning and at single nutrients (nutri-genomics). The genetic patrimony of “ancient autochthonous biodiversity” can be defined as a vital asset, namely an asset which is necessary or suitable for satisfying important needs of the society, needs that are expressed by a certain social context, in a specific historical period. The intensification of animal AGTs would contribute significantly to reduce the shortage of production of animal proteins, with particular reference to Developing Countries (DC). In order to improve society on Earth, it is necessary to identify innovative strategies for the management of production systems, with particular reference to animal production. Such strategies should be achieved through a deep, global revision of cultivation plans towards increased food production destined for livestock feeding in animal production; livestock which are necessary for re-balancing the availability of proteins in food for human consumption. In conclusion, an integrated approach to animal production systems, based on the rules of systemic formulation, must represent the most important strategy for pursuing rural development, based on rules of “multifunctional rural sustainability”, above all stimulating a bottom up and not a top down methodology. The aim is to safeguard and enhance the autochthonous animal genetic patrimony.

Donato MatassinoSannio University, Benevento

President of the Scientific Committeeof the 6th International LFS Symposium

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Preface

This book was carefully prepared as a series of peer reviewed papers from the material presented during the 6th International Livestock Farming Systems (LFS) Symposium in Benevento (August 2003), as were the previous books prepared under the auspices of the LFS Working Group.

In my capacity as president of the LFS Commission of the EAAP, I would like to express my warmest thanks to Dr Roberto Rubino, who coordinated the scientific edition of the book and to the more than 60 referees who took part into the anonymous peer reviewing of the papers. I acknowledge warmly the financial support INRA provided to help the final stage of the preparation of the book, and the important contribution that Dr Odile Roussot and Gérard Istier (Lasersprint, Toulouse) made in the finalisation of the ready-to-print manuscript.

I would like also to express special thanks to the following people and groups that gave the Symposium and the current book a special interest:• the local scientific organisers of the Symposium, from Consdabi and ISZ, who proposed the holding

of one of the sessions as a joint session with a Human Medicine Symposium, enlarging the array of disciplines considered;

• FAO-AGAP and CIHEAM, which contributed financially and scientifically to make this European symposium more aware of and open to situations in other parts of the World;

• the Horse Commission of the EAAP. Its active cooperation contributes to enlarge the array of species and livestock farming functions considered in LFS research;

• the Region of Benevento and its President Carmine Nardone, for the intellectual and financial support they invested in the symposium and the publication of this book.

Cooperation between policy decision makers and scientists is an important matter in the search for sustainable development.

Annick GibonPresident of the LFS Commission of the EAAP

INRA Toulouse

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Chapter 1: Product quality in livestock production: change in views and

values

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9

Local resources and typical animal products

F. Casabianca1 & D. Matassino2,3

1INRA, Science for Action and Sustainable Development Department (SAD), Research Laboratory for Animal Husbandry Development (LRDE), Corte (France) 2Università degli Studi del Sannio, Biological and Environmental Department, Via Port’Arsa 11, 82100 Benevento, Italy 3Consorzio per la Sperimentazione, Divulgazione e Applicazione di Biotecniche Innovative (ConSDABI), National Focal Point Italiano della FAO (NFP.I - FAO) per la tutela del germoplasma animale in via di estinzione, Località Piano Cappelle, 82100 Benevento, Italy

Summary

The globalisation process should take into account the increasingly diversified social requirements worldwide, which tend to safeguard the specific features of different communities and cultures linked to diverse traditions and history; these specificities have proved to be determining factors of sustainable development, going beyond environment-related and socio-economic aspects. Local biological resources will constitute an element of increasing importance, especially as regards the necessity to restore the widest range of genetic differentiation of livestock species in order to put into practice future strategies linked to the achievement of dynamic goals, in agreement with sustainable production systems. The optimisation of autochthonous resources utilisation must lead to the individuation of models of sustainable agriculture. In this way it is possible to give a new impetus to local economy and sustainable development, consistent with an optimal use of autochthonous resources. An efficient promotion of autochthonous genetic types (AGTs) must include initiatives able to consider ‘quality’ and ‘specificity’ as strategic elements of market differentiation. Biodiversity is a conditio sine qua non for producing food with specific nutritional and extranutritional properties. The primary objective of biodiversity protection must be to provide diversified sources of ‘bioactive’ molecules able to satisfy the changing nutritional and extranutritional consumer needs in order to achieve a homeostatic level identifiable with human welfare and well-being. Promoting autochthonous genetic resources through typified traditional products requires a systemic approach, due to the complexity of interactions among factors influencing the product itself, where the epigenetics component plays an important role. Indeed, “traditional product” does not have a static meaning but a dynamic one, in the sense of a continuous innovation of the production process in order to improve total quality. Innovative biotechniques should not be used ‘to produce tipicity’, but to single out the potential of raw matter to be transformed into traditional and specific products. In conclusion, some main stakes of knowledge production are underlined, and a recommendation is made to renew relationships between scientists and non-research actors by paying more attention to social and technical structures.

Keywords: autochthonous genetic types, typified traditional products, sustainable multifunctional rurality, management of complexity.

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Introduction

The future socio-economic development of planet Earth must aim at reconciling the needs of an increasingly multiethnic, multiethic and multicultural society with the ongoing globalisation process; obviously, this process is proceeding more cautiously in comparison to its initial phase (Nardone & Matassino, 1989; Matassino et al., 1991; Nardone & Gibon, 2000). Keeping to the unique choice approach (i.e. obstructing globalisation is neither a rational nor a civic behaviour) by complying with the “one size fits all” standards would mean denying the equal dignity of cultures, customs, lifestyles and craft industry. The historical memory of such specific features gives each human community the opportunity to harmoniously participate in the enrichment of mankind and the promotion of global development with a human dimension. Globalisation therefore challenges the various social systems to interact in order to avoid irreversible damages to the socio-economic bases of the diverse human populations of the world (Matassino, 2002). Our vocabulary itself should go through a cultural revolution by reversing the well-known “think global, act local” principle into “think local, act global”. Applying this rule means that the more strictly economic logics are freely expressed, the more the trend towards complying with the “one size fits all” standards will prove efficient. Socio-economic bases cannot derive only from unbridled capitalism, that is, competition and profit.

Biological resources and sustainable development

Consequently, while the notion of ‘mutual development’, linked with anthropogenic cultural diversity, lies at the very heart of interactivity, homogeneity paves the way for an ‘additive’ scope and may induce a hazardous levelling of human mentalities. The existing diversity should allow to strengthen biological plurality. This polymorphism, which is inherent to mankind, should support the search for sustainable adaptability, including a wide range of social and political systems reflecting the human biological polymorphism. The wide opening of countries to international markets requires domestic policies which strongly support justice, fight against corruption, cultural development of human resources, pluralism of information, identification and use of endogenous resources, and development infrastructures. In short, opening countries to international markets depends on strong public intervention and ‘serious’ management of an actual ‘social capital’, which involves a set of standards and relationships allowing convergent influence towards mutual trust, with the aim of efficiently serving the collective interest (Nardone, 1997; Matassino, 2002). Given their non-substitutable character, biological resources play an ever more significant role in solving numerous problems facing mankind, in order to achieve a socio-economic system aimed at achieving sustainable development. In 1987, G.H. Bruntland suggested a definition of sustainable development, now widely accepted : “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This generic definition is completed by two key notions:• the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority

should be given; and• the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the

environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. Our choices and projects thus meet moral and political needs as far as their intentional and ecological, technical, economic and social aspects are concerned. Their emergence should be facilitated through collective action and courses should be backed in spite of their inherent hesitations. The idea

of a universal self-determinism that would deprive people of any sense of responsibility should thus be rejected. Public research can help meet this new requirement by going beyond descriptive or analytical categories (Gibon et al., 1999). While sustainable development relies on the key idea of integration, mankind is threatened by divisions, oppositions and separations. The most specific local issues should be successfully linked with the global ones and the ordinary actions’ short time with the long, inter-generational time. Social equity concerns should be given absolute priority as the latter has partly changed due to the emergence of environmental issues and the new values expressed or required by such issues. It is now becoming even clearer that the sustainability of any socio-economic process depends on the management of the resources mobilized by this process (i.e. identification, knowledge, conservation and promotion). In contrast to the globalisation of consumption and the use of innovative biotechnologies for producing new food types, in the developed countries there is a sharp increase in the emergence of culinary traditions linked to the territorial identities. Both phenomena seem to be straightly connected: the more globalisation becomes obvious, the more territories become a space for public policies which meet the requirements of contemporary societies. Concerning global territory analysis, management challenges make it possible to identify farming patterns compatible with sustainable development through the optimisation of the use of local resources (Casabianca & Vallerand, 1994). Moreover, there is a strong environmental integration in agricultural farming systems, such as comprehensive by-product recycling, linking production activities with environmental protection, etc. Among these ‘preconditions’ for sustainable farming, total product quality and territorial typicity constitute one of the main options for regional decision-makers. New impetus can now be given to local economy and sustainable development by mobilizing local resources (Matassino & Cappuccio, 1998). This report therefore draws on a global reflection guided by the notion of “sustainable development”, while linking resources with products at local level. We will first study what we, specialists of livestock farming systems, can draw from this notion. We will then analyse scientific experience which links animal biodiversity with quality and typicity of animal products. A third part will be dedicated to the benefits and limits of typified traditional products in conserving, managing and promoting local animal genetic resources. We will finally open up perspectives for future research.

Animal biodiversity and traditional products

Biodiversity as a genetic resource

The conceptual overlapping between ‘genetic resources’ and ‘biodiversity’ is a relatively recent one, referring to variability measured among and between species in terms of variations among genes, DNA sequences or amino acids. In theory, the introduction of the notion of ‘genetic diversity’ forms part of the ‘triple biological diversity’, which includes ‘taxonomic diversity’, i.e. the number of species present in a given habitat; ‘ecological diversity’, considered not only from the aspect of the number of existing species, but also by including mutual interactions between organisms and with the environment; and ‘genetic diversity’. The notion of ‘biodiversity’ (i.e. the abbreviated form of ‘biological diversity’) was coined by Walter G. Rosen at the National Forum on Biodiversity, Washington, 1986. It became well-known thanks to ‘Biodiversity’, a book written by Wilson and Peter, published in 1988. ‘Biodiversity’ is defined by the European Commission’s Agriculture Directorate-General (1999) as “…the variability of life and of its processes including any form of life, from the mere cells to the most complex organisms, courses and cycles specific to such living organisms, and to people, ecosystems and landscapes”. This definition gives biodiversity its full-scale value. It is actually the primary tool that

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enables nature to synchronise with environmental changes and should be considered as a crossing point between the biological past and future. While ‘convergent’ biological processes (i.e. differentiation and embryonic development) make it possible to carry out projects related to current information (which is therefore difficult to modulate), innovations are brought about by the differences inherent in genetic information. As a result, biodiversity is not only the total number of species living on Earth, but also an indication of ‘co-variation’, where all the species of a given ecosystem – which remains dynamic in time – mutually influence one another, depend on abiotic factors and represent the result of natural gene transfers submitted to a long-lasting ‘combination control’. Assuming that mankind has a responsible behaviour, biodiversity can be seen as a real ‘cultural good’, i.e. a heritage embedded in the widespread anthropogenic impact, affecting every ecological niche. Any germplasm presents traces of ancient civilizations and biological balances which may still have a role to play. Based on in-depth knowledge of the amazing biological mechanisms operating in nature, and in particular of an ancient and autochthonous germplasm, we are convinced that we can contribute to providing future generations with everlasting examples of lives based on relationships and solidarity, i.e. social lives. In short, an irreplaceable link can be established between management (recovery, conservation and promotion) of ancient germplasms and cultural changes in people (Audiot, 1995). In the future, only biological diversity will provide genes able to promote the flexibility of living organisms faced with changes in both environmental conditions and food requirements of mankind. Consequently, any lack or reduction of genetic variability would induce a reduction (or even an extinction) in the homeostatic i.e. self-management capacity of biological systems, in addition to the risk of losing irretrievable information. Moreover, biological diversity should be considered with a view to producing ‘tangible goods and services’ (e.g. for authorities in charge of the environmental management of geographic open spaces, which would otherwise have to be abandoned), still with all the impacts that can be feared. As part of their daily inventiveness, farmers would then not only play their role and adapt innovations developed outside their field of activity but, like any other living beings, could also stress their extreme flexibility. Genetic resources would thus contribute to the non-trade, ‘green service’ sector. The need to cope with genetic erosion is now widely acknowledged and the management of biological resources should be identified as an ethical necessity, as it is both a good to be protected and handed on to future generations to improve the quality of life and a good to exist in its own right (Mazziotta & Gennaro, 2002). The respect of biodiversity mainly applies to species as a whole, notwithstanding interventions on individuals (intraspecific diversity). While species can be seen as an abstraction because they do not suffer, individuals do suffer and their death causes both species and their genetic diversity to disappear. Individuals have fundamentally powerful rights which include not only the right to life, but also the right to keep their genetic integrity, since any reduction in genetic variability proves to be a hazardous loss for mankind. When taking biodiversity management particularly into account, the gene pool of ancient and autochthonous biodiversity can be considered as a new legal issue since there is relevant evidence of its existence and characteristics.

Autochthonous genetic resources and their promotion

Considering biological diversity as a resource implies using it productively. Consequently, biological diversity should provide work, improve human health and contribute further to the development of society. IUCN – The World Conservation Union defined the conservation of biodiversity as the “proper human administration of various forms of life and ecosystems for maximum benefits and preservation that will satisfy and benefit future generations”. This definition fits harmoniously the

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notion of ‘sustainable development’, with three basic requirements:• physical sustainability, i.e. keeping the specific features of comparability and integrity of resources

unchanged for the future;• bio-physical sustainability, i.e. the transition from individual resources to those of an ecosystem

or an agroecosystem;• bio-physical and social sustainability.Two key principles can be distinguished in the last requirement, i.e.:• intra-generational equity;• inter-generational equity. Yet, the conservation of autochthonous germplasms should not and cannot be an end in itself, but rather a prerequisite for using conserved heritage in animal production science. Consequently, the efficiency in using genetic resources as a production factor will be an ever more important, if not decisive, variable for competition or economic integration between territorial production systems in achieving a socio-economic system meeting the standards of sustainable development. The promotion of the intrinsic potential of autochthonous germplasms by including production, environmental and ethical ends may be fully included in the emerging notion of ‘sustainable multifunctional rurality’. Now, at least in developed countries, farming is not only seen as an ‘art and practice’ of cultivating lands to generate food products but growing concern is laid on its multifunctional aspect (Depauw, 2001). At the UN Conference held in 2000 in New York, the Commission on Sustainable Development stated that “agriculture has a particular and important role in supplying food and fibre (among others). It is essential for food security, social and economic development, labour, landscape maintenance, territory and natural resource protection, and to strengthen rural life and land”. In this context, genetic resources play an essential role, especially concerning the quality features of food products of animal origin. To prove efficient, the reuse of autochthonous genetic types (AGTs) for production should place ‘quality’ and ‘specificity’ at the centre of market differentiation strategies. Today, food production depends not only on quantity but mainly on the nutritional and extranutritional quality of food products, allowing to maximize the ‘food product / well-being / health’ relationship. Continuous acquisition of knowledge on the biochemical features of food products reveals the tremendous diversity of animal and plant food contents, owing to biological differences between taxonomic groups and individuals within these groups. As a result, biodiversity is a conditio sine qua non for producing food products characterized by their own nutritional and extranutritional specific features. Each AGT fits in harmoniously with its breeding environment and with its characteristic climate and flora. The combination of such conditions and genetic features added to autochthonous genetic types provides unique, high-value products which cannot be reproduced anywhere else (Matassino, 2003). ‘Typified traditional products’ play a key role in sustainability, both for people within their territories and for economic sustainability. Geographical area, autochthonous genetic types, typified traditional products and human well-being should be considered as a whole (Casabianca & Fallola, 1994). The fundamental tool from this point of view is obviously Regulation EEC/2081/92, which establishes the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), the Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) and the Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG). This tool regulates the protection of geographical indications and paves the way for a trade policy aimed at increasing confidence at consumer level by allowing to buy at prices higher than those of mass products. To date (2003), 619 products are classified by the European Union as either PDO or PGI. 53.31% of them are products of animal origin, 34.41% of plant origin; 2.1% are bakery products, 8.56% are beers and drinks and 1.62% are other products. Only 15 out of these 619 products benefit from TSG, 33% of which are of animal origin, 20% bakery products and around 4% beers.

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F igure 1. “ Mandala” : exemplification of a territory.

INSTITUTIONS POLITICA POLITIC

LEGISLATION

SERVICES (schools, health, telephone,

energy, roads, railways, airports, advices, compuretization)

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT (urban, rural, human structures demographic structures)

FIRMS (handicraft, industry, agriculture, commerce)

CULTURE (archeology museums, ect.)

RURAL TERRITORY

TRADITION HISTORY

RESEARCH

OROGRAPHY

‘ENERGY’ RESOURCE

‘WATER’ RESOURCE

‘SOIL’ RESOURCE SOL’

GLOBALISATION MARKET

‘GENETICS’ RESOURCE (animal, fungin, microbic, végétable)

TOURISM and FARM HOLIDAYS

TYPICAL PRODUCT TRADITIONAL

CLIMATE

BIOETHICS

TERRITORY

BIOETHICS AUTOCHTHONOUS ANIMAL

‘TYPIFIED TRADITIONAL’

PRODUCT

HISTORICAL TRADITION

NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS

(aromatic substances)

ANTHROPISATION (habitat, itinerary, conservation and territory safeguard)

FARM HOLIDAY (flow)

PRODUCTIVE LIMITS/ ANIMAL REARED

ANIMAL CHARGE / HA SURFACE

FEED FIRMS

INTEGRATION TRANSFORMATION

METHOD

INNOVATION OF THE TRADITION (research and technique

experience)

PROMOTIONAL CAMPAIGN

POLITICS and LEGISLATION

MARKETING

TRADEMARK AND TOTAL QUALITY CERTIFICATION

STRATEGIC ENTREPRENEUR

Figure 2. Some factors influencing ‘typified traditional’ products.

TYPICALITY (parameters, rules)

Figure 1.‘‘Mandala’’ exemplification of a territory.

Figure 2. Some factors influencing ‘typified traditional’ products.

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Biotechnology will never enable us to produce food products that could, at least in the EU, replace PDO- and PGI-protected products. Even though products resulting from genetic manipulation are found to be ‘safe’ in terms of substantial equivalence, they belong to a reality of highly standardized production processes, which is far away from production processes based on local resources. When considering the ‘global’ quality of food products as an intrinsic feature of products obtained from the interaction between local resources, environment and cultural factors (lifestyle and rhythm of life in the various seasons, religious or family-related events, culinary traditions), only PDO and PGI protection allows to safeguard these specific features (Boyazoglu, 1999). Yet, typified traditional products are rather dynamic than static, as production processes are continuously innovated to improve global quality by relying on research findings. This is confirmed by Article 9 of EC Regulation No 2081/92: “the Member State concerned may request the amendment of a specification, in particular to take account of developments in scientific and technical knowledge or redefine the geographical area”. Labelling of typified traditional products requires an integrated approach through characterization and definition –also by means of innovative biotechnologies– of the different parts of the production process (livestock, breeding environment, flow charts, products) to aim at total quality, where animal welfare is an important prerequisite. According to the apparently simple definition given by the ISO 8402 standard, “quality is the set of properties and characteristics of a product or service that enable it to respond to expressed or explicit consumer needs”. This definition emphasizes the complexity and therefore the difficulty of identifying parameters that may predict or explain the quality of animal products in general in a univocal manner. Such parameters depend on the products’ proper features and on the subjective evaluations of consumers. This is illustrated by studies carried out for several years (Szczesniak, 1963; Matassino et al., 1985; Geri, 1987; Tornberg, 1996; Nardone & Valfré, 1998) on the definition and importance of meat quality characteristics. They indeed point to both a subjective and an objective evaluation, related to the chemical and structural properties of raw matter. Currently, quality can be defined as the totality of objective characteristics (chemical, nutritional, extranutritional and hedonistic characteristics) able to satisfy the various consumer requirements with positive effect on human health.

Promoting autochthonous genetic resources through typified traditional products

The idea of linking the conservation of autochthonous genetic resources with their promotion through typified traditional products goes back a long way. While several typified traditional products originate from the cradle of the corresponding autochthonous genetic types, there is less decrease in their number than for autochthonous genetic types with no associated typified traditional product. Changes in the number of female cattle in several French local cattle breeds are an example of this: there has been an increase in the number of suckling breeds such as Salers and Aubrac and milking breeds like Abondance, partly due to initiatives taken by farmers to promote their production through quality products. Resources are structural elements in the challenges posed by territory building (Figure 1). There is no need to go over all the identified factors and build the matrix of all their interactions to understand that what really matters are the emerging properties of this complex system. Likewise, when performed with typified traditional products (Figure 2), this exercise leads to various levels of complexity, once again with a link between local genetic resources and the constituents of typified traditional products (Grappin & Coulon, 1996). Yet this link is neither obvious nor systematic, thus raising a number of issues: how legitimate is it to link the typicity of a product to one or several genetic types? How can this relationship be built and on

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which objective aspects should it be based? We will address both issues successively by considering the characteristics of animal products and their determination with livestock farming systems that mobilize autochthonous genetic types. We will then analyse challenges related to knowledge production in order to help actors of local production sectors manage the link between AGTs and typified traditional products.

Autochthonous genetic types and typicity of products of animal origin

Much has already been written on the determining factors of the analytical characteristics of animal products (i.e. milk and meat). We will only mention a few results of particular interest, as they highlight the importance of AGTs for these characteristics. An advantage (which is however difficult to report through analysis) lies in the fact that AGTs are most commonly associated with so-called ‘traditional’ management systems, in which particular attention is given to grassland (Bérodier, 1997). Their great diversity does not only stem from the variety of natural grazing lands or from grazing lands slightly altered by man, but also from the action of animals that can feed in the environment where they live, either on their own or through minor human intervention. Animals can select, choose or reject, i.e. influence the botanical change of environments, thus fully acting on agro-ecosystems. Do AGTs develop specific behaviours? Through work that is still to be confirmed it is possible to better characterize the feeding and spatial behaviours of animals in circumstances where they can select from complex plant covers. Further work is also needed to better understand what is at stake in the animals’ searching behaviour and in the influence of ration composition, as well as in mother-daughter learning. When considering the effect of these management systems on the characteristics of animal products, it is logical to consider micronutrients, whose positive impact on human organisms is becoming clearer. In particular, consumers’ attention is drawn on the analysis of food to find molecules that might prevent degenerative and chronic diseases, thus improving quality of life and ensuring higher life expectancy. Housed AGTs lead to lower antioxidant protection in food products for human consumption, either due to higher oxidative stress or lower amount of antioxidant molecules of feed rations. This is why livestock production from grazing lands is seen as a major source of ‘biologically active molecules’, most of which can be carried over to the manufactured products (Pizzoferrato et al., 2000). Lipids present a major challenge since fat metabolism is mostly at stake in efforts linked to the genetic selection of specific breeds. Feeding on ‘green fodder’ with less saturated (SFA) and more mono-unsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids is crucial for readjusting the fatty acid composition of the lipid fraction of food of animal origin, which is often undervalued as against fats of vegetal origin. For instance, several studies on Mediterranean porcine AGTs (Iberian, Corsican, Southern Italia) show that genotypes have an impact on carcass fatness and on the PUFA/SFA ratio. This feature is strongly amplified when finishing is performed using the traditional acorn and chestnut diet instead of concentrates (Andres et al., 2001). Meat is more marbled and has higher levels of intramuscular fat, better water holding capacity, higher levels of myoglobin (i.e. meat is more pigmented) than in classic breeds such as Large White slaughtered at similar liveweight (Coutron-Gambotti et al., 1998). Studies on a Tuscan porcine breed (Cinta Senese) produced interesting findings. The quality of the meat of housed animals of this AGT was higher than that of Large White in terms of colour (darker red), water holding capacity, weight loss after cooking and ham yield after salting. Though no difference could be found after cooking, the raw meat of Cinta Senese was found to be tougher. In the case of the Cinta Senese AGT, evidence was found showing that feeding animals on grass and acorn (without feed addition) for 60 days before slaughter led to higher levels of MUFA and less SFA in muscle triglycerides. Higher levels of thiobarbituric acid (TBARS) were also found in this

muscle tissue, indicating higher proneness to oxidation (Pugliese et al., 2002). Such differences may be related not only to the lipid contents of feed rations, but also to grazing intake of a higher amount of α-tocopherol. Consequently, controlling fat characteristics in porcine species through breeding techniques can change the nutritional and technological properties of meat. Similarly, in beef cattle the PUFA/SFA ratio depends on genotypes, as was recently shown by comparing Podolica and a crossbreed of Podolica and Limousine at pasture until 8 months of age (Marsico et al., 2002). From the perspective of consumer health and apart from the PUFA/SFA ratio, the ω6/ω3 ratio is given most attention in human nutrition. This ratio should be equal to 2 according to recommended daily allowances. Higher ratios (i.e. ω3 deficiency) indicate a higher risk of arteriosclerosis and coronary diseases. Ω3 deposits in food of animal origin were found to be lower in artificial living and feeding conditions of animals (Crawford, 1968). A study on cattle and sheep showed that pasture feeding improved the ω6/ω3 ratio by enhancing the levels of ω3, thus bringing this ratio closer to its optimum value (Enser et al., 1998). Outdoor-reared Cinta Senese pigs fed on grass and acorn proved to be prone to ω3-PUFA deposits in comparison with housed animals. Their hams also had higher levels of ω3 PUFA, an oilier consistence, better lean brightness and more marbling, aroma and flavour (Muriel et al., 2002; Pugliese et al., 2002). Lastly, still concerning nutritional aspects, it is vital to mention studies on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a specific type of PUFA made up of 18 carbon atoms including a mixture of 8 geometric isomers, some of them with a conjugated diene structure. Of this family, rumenic acid (C18:2 cis-9, trans-11 isomer) plays a major role as it accounts for 80 to 90% of total milk fat CLA and 75% of meat fat CLA. Rumenic acid is different from other isomers with only one exogenous origin due to the activity of rumen microbes, as it has two possible origins:• an endogenous origin, following the desaturation of vaccenic acid (trans 11 C18:1) due to the

action of the delta 9 desaturase enzyme in the mammary gland;• an exogenous origin, due to the biohydrogenation of linoleic acid (cis-9 and cis-12 C18:2) of

rumen bacteria such as Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens. Milk and its derivatives account for the main source of CLA, followed by ruminant meat. CLA owns more or less known properties such as anti-cancer, anti-atherogenic, immunostimulant, bacteriostatic, antiadipogenic, antidiabetogenic, and it promotes factors that stimulate tissue deposits (Parodi, 1997). The amount of this major natural anti-cancer element depends on several factors such as feeding, species, breed and individuals. Evidence was found showing that while decreasing with dry feed consumption, the levels of CLA tended to double in milk and meat of animals fed on grass or green fodder (Banni et al., 1996; Kelly et al., 1998). Such results may lead to the conclusion that haymaking leads to the destruction of constituents involved in CLA synthesis (Figure 3, see Martin et al., 2002). As regards monogastric organisms, human milk has higher levels of CLA than porcine and horse milk (0.4% vs. 0.2% and 0.1%). As for polygastric animals, sheep milk has the highest levels of CLA compared to cattle and goat milk (1.2% vs. 0.7% and 0.6%). Concerning meat, lamb meat has the highest levels of CLA, whereas the lowest levels can be found in pigs (5.6 vs. 0.6 mg per gram of fat). There are substantial differences in levels of CLA between the different breeds of each species. For instance, in Italian cattle there is more CLA in the milk of Garfignana and Massese AGTs than in Sarda (1.97% and 1.87g/100g fat respectively vs. 1.43 g/100g fat). Moreover, differences in the levels of CLA in milk were identified between individuals of the same breed and with the same diet. This would be mainly due to the polymorphism of the gene coding for the delta 9 desaturase enzyme (Secchiari et al., 2002). Finally, a further important derivative of linoleic acid can be found in ‘red’ meat: a-lipoic acid or 1,2-dithiolane-3-pentanoic acid, which has relevant properties such as: antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic,

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neurotrophic, neuroprotective and insulin-sensitising (Biewenga et al., 1997). The concentration of lipoic acid in animal tissues is related to the metabolic activity and the amount of mitochondria in the tissue cells. Still, extensive animal production increases the number of such bioactive molecules.

Livestock farming systems as ‘biological translators’

It now seems to be confirmed that original products in terms of taste and sensory characteristics can be obtained from AGTs. However, the intrinsic quality of ‘typified traditional products’ should be specified by identifying sensory molecular markers which contribute to the definition of the typicity of such products. Such evidence can be found by studies on the characterization of aroma to identify key molecules of aromatic typicity. To date, the instrumental and sensory approach has been successfully applied for the characterization of aromatic specificity in species identification, on traditional Italian cheeses such as mozzarella, Grana Padano, Pecorino, provolone and to benefit from the effects of heat treatments (i.e. pasteurisation and UHT treatment) on milk flavours. The aromatic component is interesting in that the aromatic profile of milk and its derivatives varies according to the feed given to animals (Figure 4 and Bosset et al., 999; Buchin et al., 1999; Verdier-Metz et al., 2000; Martin et al., 2002). Comparative analysis of the sensory profile of milk produced by ewes fed on natural grazing lands, cultivated grassland or concentrate, allowed to identify two aromatic marker sesquiterpenes in the milk of ewes fed on grazing lands and in the cheese from these ewes (Moio, 1997). The characterization of the physicochemical components and the profile of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in milk from goats in different grazing systems showed that, while physicochemical contents remained unchanged, VOCs reflected the aromatic plant species of rangelands (Fedele et al., 2000). Similar results were reported for milk from cows submitted to different management systems. This confirms that feeding plays a predominant role in expressing milk flavour, while genetic impacts have a minor influence in this respect.

C18:0 C18:1 c 9

C18:1 t 11

CLA

C10 - 14

C4

C6

Axis 1 (35%)

E vitamin luteine

 carotene

C18:3

Axis 2 (14%)

Antioxidant power

- hay

Ray grass silage

Natural grass hay

Concentrated Silage

early pasture

late pasture

C18:0 C18:1 c 9

C18:1 t 11

CLA

C10 - 14

C4

C6

C18:3

- Ray grass

Figure 3. Connection between the different types of foods of the ration and the micro-nutrients concentration present in the milk (inspired from Martin et al., 2002).

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The close relationship between aromatic profiles of grazing lands and milk shows that feeding determines typicity, which further substantiates the link between ‘typical’ and/or ‘traditional’ products and feed production areas (Monnet et al., 2000). Likewise, concerning the meat of the Ibèrico porcine AGT, differences were found in the composition of n-alkanes contained in the saponifiable fraction of fat cover obtained from animals reared only on concentrate and those fed only on acorn and grass 60 days before slaughter (i.e. in accordance with the Spanish tradition). In particular, neofitadiene was found to be a good indicator of grass intake (Cava et al., 2000). Thus, while selecting AGT may be crucial for achieving higher levels of quality, it may not be enough to reach origin-related typicity. Managing genotype-environment interactions, through which AGTs anchored in their ‘terroir’ can achieve original productions, is therefore essential (Coulon & Priolo, 2002). Local breeds may indeed very well be displaced or reared in completely different environments than the traditional ones. In addition, the more genotypes determine specific characteristics, the less environmental impacts are important. Here again the role of grazing lands comes to the forefront, not only due to existing floras but also to the capacity of animals to become actors and to select their ration from all those available in the same environment. When interacting with livestock management systems, where their capacity to choose is expressed, AGTs turn into a complex system and obtain the status of ‘biological translators’. However, this system should include feedback from farmers and knowledge accumulated from generation to generation. Progress should be made towards more knowledge on the mechanisms mobilized by farmers owning these AGTs in order to obtain the required outputs. Linking the abilities of AGTs, their interaction with their environment, and the management systems selected by farmers, would be a major improvement towards better control and understanding of these phenomena.

mountain pasture north side

mountain pasture

south side

abondance

mountain pasture high altitude

mountain pasture mean altitude

beaufort

mild

flavour

texture

hard fondant

strong

dactylis hay natural

grass hay

dactylis hay

natural grass hay

St-nectaire

plain

mountain

étivaz

Figure 4. Different sensory characteristics (flavour and texture) of different cheeses according to pasture type. Schematic representation of the results obtained by Bosset et al. (1999), Buchin et al. (1999), Verdier-Metz et al. (2000), Martin et al. (2002).

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Progress made in proteomics opens up important paths by reinstating epigenetic processes, thus coming closer to phenotypes. However, in interactions where the animals’ conditions of living have an impact on the part of genomes to be expressed, major issues remain unanswered: what should be taken into account in the notion of ‘environment’? To what extent can farmers alter these conditions to influence and shape the proteome of their animals?

Product technologies that respect raw matter

The influence of technology is a major issue as far as processed products are concerned. Some technologies may indeed be more prone than others to express the effect of biotechnical choices. Yet a distinction should be drawn between fermented products and those whose conservation involves slight or no action of microbes. Firstly, certain cheese production practices such as partial skimming or pasteurisation may partly offset impacts of biotechnical choices. Secondly, soft cheese technologies (which often have short life spans) apparently leave less room for finer raw matter characteristics than hard cheese technologies, which have longer life spans. In the latter case, cheese ripening period is a key factor. Recent studies show that differences in raw matter may be offset when reducing ripening periods, whereas longer ripening periods could allow such differences to be expressed (Jurado et al., 2002). It should be noticed that such advanced processes of lipolysis and proteolysis might also reveal raw material deficiencies, which cannot be identified at earlier stages of the product. For unfermented products like dry-cured ham, after the development of efficient meat conservation techniques, concentrations of basic amino acids such as tryptophan and phenylalanine, as well as thyroxin in raw ham, prove to be dependent on the proteolytic activity of cathepsins. More than 20 different types of cathepsins have been identified to date, of which cathepsins B, D, H and L are more active in muscles. Within the same genetic type, the level of enzymatic activity due to genetic polymorphism may display substantial individual variability (Russo et al., 2000; Di Luccia et al., 2002). Furthermore, the activity of cathepsins seems to be dependent on the atmosphere in drying and ripening facilities (temperature, hygrometry, ventilation). As a result, by knowing the initial proteolysis potential technologists can act on various parameters to influence or correct changes in their products. It can thus be expected that technology aims not only to produce typicity, but also to reveal the potential of raw matter.

Towards a social and technical integration pattern

Future works to be carried out comprise a series of issues. The prospects offered by sustainable development make it necessary indeed to take collectively into account resources and their management, current promotion and long-term adaptability, individual needs and the collective interest, thus reaching an unprecedented high level of complexity.Two major issues should be emphasized:• managers have to make daily and strategic decisions and seek advice from scientists to optimise

these decisions;• governments are in charge of allocating funds and distributing their efforts; in doing this, they

either consult public research or seek the expertise of scientists. Both issues outline a framework which might be helpful for organising future research, defining its priorities, and discussing these priorities in public debates with the numerous actors involved.

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Identifying biotechnical management priorities

On the one hand, both the specific dynamics of AGTs and the logic of typified traditional products obtained from them should be taken into consideration. As mentioned earlier, genetic features independent of their breeding environment are not the only significant aspect to be considered: building sustainable and strong links implies choosing technology and livestock management systems. The latter will be selected in relation to the sustainable management of the resources needed for the operation of production units. The observation of the history and traditions of mankind made enabled us to identify management systems able to highlight the specific features of the complex system based on AGTs. The challenges posed by knowledge production therefore depend on in-depth study of the interactions between the different parts of this system, for a better understanding and higher level of control by farmers. Nevertheless, the ‘profile’ of AGTs has also an impact on the system’s configuration. The characterization of AGTs indeed requires moving from zootechnical performances to the capacities that animals can express within the system’s limits (Casabianca & Piccinelli, 1996). As scientists are not interested in mere biological answers anymore, they rather consider regulations, memory and learning effects, threshold effects and metabolic compensations. On the other hand, the promotion of AGTs guides the choice of unevenly distributed capacities within the original population. As a result, the promotion of products as ‘typified traditional products’ does not allow to keep all of their original variability. This is particularly important for managers, as part of this variability will need to be conserved and is therefore partly unavailable to farmers who wish to promote their production through quality products. In such situations, AGTs are not only mobilized as a means of obtaining typified traditional products, but they are also transformed through this approach. Correctly assessing this situation implies giving priority to an approach through ‘local’ actor systems. Given that actors involved in the promotion process have gained new legitimacy to state their views on the future of AGTs, the analysis of such systems enables to assess the extent to which actors involved in the promotion process de facto introduce new criteria for choosing breeders and new rules for using animals from AGTs. Consequently, research on AGTs should take into account also the organisations which shape the future of AGTs (Verrier et al., 2003). Rule-making processes are not separated from innovation networks, where relevant evidence concerning AGTs is produced, circulated and assessed. One of the challenges posed by knowledge production consists in the ability of scientists to report on these processes. It is now of utmost importance to be able to jointly design changes for AGTs themselves, as well as for typified traditional products obtained from these. Finally, such a high level of complexity necesitates increased control by farmers over their technical achievements and specific support for their shift towards collective rules. Putting farming systems at the centre of scientists’ concerns provides them with new research topics within a revisited approach towards both production and relational practices of livestock farmers. They are thus prompted to pay attention to the various forms of consultancy and to all technical assistance programs currently changing.

Linking science and public policies

With the prospect of sustainable development, scientists are challenged to take into account the ever-closer relationship between recognized scientific knowledge and public policies in all their forms. Not only does this relationship concern the fact that research carried out by scientists is useful when appropriated by decision-makers, but it also defines new priorities among potential research topics.

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The close association between an AGT and a typified traditional product accounts for a series of specific objects, for which knowledge production is directly related with the protection of geographical descriptions. The aim is to contribute to the justification of obvious distortions of competition principles, such as the exclusive right to use a geographical designation for a food product. Various areas are thus addressed to highlight differentiation factors and their specific arrangement, such as local breeds (or plant varieties), know-how, a region-related reputation and a culture in which the link between inhabitants, animals, landscapes and gastronomy makes sense (Béranger et al., 1999). From the standpoint of science, data collection systems are also adjusted on the basis of assumptions concerning the importance of local aspects in helping grouped and coordinated operators to acquire new assets, market segmentation processes as well as broader movement of products outside their area of origin. The collective management of such activated resources often leads to conflicts in terms of access and exclusion phenomena, since the issue is not to seek to restrict these phenomena but rather to ensure democratic conditions for enacting rules imposed on everyone. Moreover, in terms of expertise, scientists are often required to perfect or reject arguments related to the protection of geographical descriptions and developed through emerging approaches (de Sainte Marie & Casabianca, 2000). This is not the easiest approach since it is prone to pressures and often leads scientists to face issues related to ethics. What is going to happen with AGT in view of such changes? There is a clear-cut trend towards increasing commitment of regional communities which consider AGTs as being part of local heritage. Consequently, national and international biodiversity conservation programs turn decentralized organisations into de facto managers of several AGTs. Decisions on the future of these resources can be taken at the level of regional conservation institutions commited to long-term in situ management. This shift is not different from that of regional political and economic organisation. Identifying resources is even more dependent on selecting a management level closer to the farmers. Consequently, research is guided by distinguishing resources that can be promoted from those that cannot be promoted and identifying conservation-strategic resources (Gibon et al., 1999). Once more, this illustrates the need to improve the formalisation of management objectives as well as rules and decision levels. How do the different European regions proceed in doing so? Europe-oriented research is a prospect in which each one of us should be active in order to help coordinate ideas and efforts. The decades to come will be crucial for significant progress in these approaches which still lack coordination.

Conclusion: sustainable development, a challenging issue

Nowadays, the awareness of the non-neutrality of science is increasing. While this issue goes back a long way, it is a hot issue based on environmental concerns (waste of energy resources, global warming) also known as ‘global change’, and also on the issue of sustainability which draws attention on new criteria to assess solutions implemented on the basis of empirical, practical and scientific knowledge built up by mankind. Is sustainable development a fashion that won’t last? Is it just a political motto that will be eventually dismissed by scientists? On the contrary, we are convinced that sustainable development is a ‘sustainable issue’, a duty of responsibility brought to the forefront. It is the awareness that scientific activities are not ‘neutral’ and that they are always in tune with the operation of societies on a scale of values not always clarified. The perspectives opened by sustainable development provide scientific activities with new normative frameworks to identify priorities and implementation-related issues at stake, and to help develop new questions involving the various branches of science and intergeneration aspects. Obvious and particularly relevant examples of this include biodiversity and AGTs linked with typified traditional products.

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Moreover, contrary to what might be said, every scientific area is concerned, be it physical, biological or social. The systemic approach, especially in agronomy, does not allow a strict separation of biotechnical aspects from social and technical ones. Every technical change is included in new social and organisational balances and every innovation modifies previous balances and ‘selects’ operators able (or not) to capture it (Sainte Marie (de) et al., 1995). Consequently, losing interest in such phenomena may lead researchers to run the risk of opening a Pandora’s box. This is a demanding task as it consists in ensuring uncompromising dialogue between scientific disciplines characterized by fundamentally different approaches, thus bringing to the fore the role of ‘biotechnical objects’ whose functioning mobilizes not only natural laws and human intentions, but also the state of knowledge and action capacities of the period involved. There is also a need to renew relationships between scientists and non-research actors by paying more attention to social and technical structures. It is in the latter area that our approaches should mostly progress. Given that improving links between science and public decision-making is our ultimate purpose, we should gain more efficiency in bottom-up approaches whereby interactivity creates an area of common concern between scientists and social actors (Hubert & Bonnemaire, 2000). New objects are being gradually included in this approach, i.e. both research objects and challenges posed by public/private action. As a result, linking science with public decision-making implies going beyond mere expertise to cope with the problems posed by actual decision support, i.e. support for designing public policies mobilizing available knowledge which can be assessed on a democratic basis. Finally, promoting the bottom-up approach urges scientists to play a role and assume risks in participative systems, to identify recurrences in resources and ‘local’ situations, beyond rendering knowledge operational, and to pay the utmost attention in keeping knowledge and action together.

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Food quality and human health: the human medicine point of view

N. Caporaso, P. Vitaglione, V. Fogliano, A. Ritieni, S. Stingo, A. Carbone & F. Morisco

Department of Food Science, University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

Summary

The link between diet and chronic diseases is very well documented. Contemporary medical research focuses on the prevention of major chronic diseases in order to reduce the current high cost of medical care. Nowadays, food is considered not only for its function of nourishing and satisfying the human senses but also, and particularly, as a tool for keeping people in an healthy status. This paper reviews and critically analyses the latest issues of principal interest about health and human nutrition. In particular, our attention focuses on the qualities that modern human medicine requires from food: nutritional quality, safety (microbiological and chemical), and health promotion. As regards nutritional quality and microbiological safety, Western countries have no serious problems to take into consideration. However, this is not the case when regarding chemical safety; the latter causes various problems related to the abuse of chemical substances used in agricultural activities and the insufficient role played bycontrolling authorities in establishing legal restrictions for some natural and synthetic toxic compounds present in foods. The relation between food and health promotion is discussed in this paper, with particular attention on i) false convictions present among the public opinion, ii) food which, on the basis of scientific research, has been correlated to improved human health status, and iii) the modern approach of medicine to food as complementary to pharmacological therapy (functional foods).

Keywords: food quality, health, medicine, meat, egg.

Introduction

The link between diet and chronic diseases is very well documented. Hearth disease, as well as one third of all cancers are related to and greatly influenced by our diet, especially by the amount and type of fat ingested (Block et al., 992; Gillman et al., 1995). Prevention is the optimal approach to disease control, and also an effective way to lower costs of medical care (Weisburger, 1999). A major goal of contemporary medical research constitutes in the prevention of major chronic diseases, not only as an ethical imperative to keep people healthy, but also as a way of reducing the current high cost of medical care (Greenwald & Sondik, 1986). In the USA, the total cost of diet-related diseases, such as vascular diseases, cancer and diabetes, is more than 250 billion dollars per year (USDA, 1995). Furthermore, this estimate does not include many other pathological conditions such as liver steatosis and steatohepatitis, gallstones and diverticulosis. In Italy there are no published data on the costs of food-related diseases, but in the last decades political awareness on the importance of this issue has been growing. In fact, the last two National Health Plans (1998-2000) had the promotion of healthy behaviour and life-style as their main objective. Among the factors contributing to the control and improvement of health status, diet has the first place. The nutritional needs of humans are satisfied by introducing macro and micro-nutrients in the right proportions. In Western societies, where no problems of nutritional deficiency exist, many diseases

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are linked to food abuse. Problems of overnutrition are very frequent and related to an increase in the consumption of “attractive” food, instead of healthy food. Nutritionists recommend to improve nutrition ways. The food guide pyramid, introduced in 992 in the USA as a symbol representing the three principles of healthy nutrition (proportions, moderation and variety), illustrates the bases of a healthy daily nutrition with regard to the quality and quantity of the alimentary groups (Figure 1). This paper reviews and critically analyses the latest issues of principal interest on health and human nutrition. In particular, attention is focused on the qualities that modern human medicine expects from food. Therefore, this paper has been divided into three main paragraphs dealing with i) nutritional quality of food, 2) food safety (microbiological and chemical), and 3) the capability of certain foods to promote health.

Nutritional quality of food

The nutritional value of any given food item, also known as its protein quality, depends on protein amino acid content and on the physiological utilization of specific amino acids after digestion, absorption, and minimal obligatory rates of oxidation. Therefore, amino acid bioavailability has to be taken into account. The availability of amino acids varies with protein source, processing treatment, and interaction with other components of the diet. In fact, the contemporaneous presence in food of antinutritional factors may interfere with the amino acid utilization or with the absorption of nutrients. That is what occurs in wheat and rye containing enzymatic inhibitors of pancreatic proteases and amylases (Friedman, 1996). The relation between chronic ingestion of residual levels of antinutrients and risks for human health has to be taken into consideration even if many studies showed how to inactivate these substances by proper processing. Moreover, trypsin inhibitors have also been studied as factors reducing cancer risk, being able to selectively bind to glycoconjugates and enter the circulatory system, thus representing a useful tool in nutrition and pharmacology.

Figure 1. The food guide pyramid(http://www.extension.iastate.edu/nutrition/portions/pyramid.html).

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Food safety

Western countries do not face serious problems regarding the nutritional properties and microbiological safety of food. In fact, in countries with a medium-high economic level – such as Italy – the most interesting topic on food and nutrition is related to chemical safety. Nowadays, microbiological safety in Western countries is guaranteed almost everywhere. The greatest food-related problem is chemical safety. The abuse of chemical substances, such as pesticides, in order to increase agricultural yield, the limited attention paid by controlling authorities to secondary biological metabolites with toxic properties (mycotoxins), and the increasing environmental pollution and heavy metal content in the biological chain, render our food unsafe from chemical risks. An example of food safety problems is contamination by aflatoxins. Aflatoxins, in particular B, are genotoxic and carcinogenic compounds. For this kind of substances there is no threshold below which no harmful effect is observed and thus no admissible daily intake can be set. Current scientific and technical knowledge is not able to entirely eliminate the presence of aflatoxins in food. The Commission of the European Community has thus established the maximum admissible level of aflatoxin in food as 2 µg of aflatoxin B per kg of cereals and 0.05 µg of aflatoxin M per kg of milk. In conclusion, the food production chain becomes progressively more complex and every single link of it has to be stronger to safeguard consumer health.

Health promotion by food

One of the most interesting issues concerning food is related to health promotion. In the discussion about food and health promotion, there are common habits and convictions to be taken into account in relation to scientific data. In the last years in particular, many false myths about the consumption of animal products have been largely diffused among the public opinion. The most common false convictions regard especially meat and eggs. In particular, the consumption of these products is often associated with risks of diseases or disorders to human organs and system functionality.

General convictions

Meat and coronary heart diseases

Many people think that regular consumption of red meat increases the risk of coronary heart disease, due to red meat fat composition. Scientific evidence about fat composition in meat demonstrated that the percentage of saturated fatty acids is today lower than in the past (Higgs, 2000). The main saturated fats in red meat are palmitic (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) (Higgs, 2000), while myristic acid (C14:0), the most atherogenic fatty acid having four times the cholesterol raising potential of C16:0, is found in minor amounts (Ulbricht and Southgate, 1991). Furthermore, 40% of the fat is constituted by monounsaturated fats among which the most abundant is oleic acid (C18:1n-9) (Higgs, 2000). Considering the composition of different types of meat, such as beef, lamb and pork, these provide useful amounts of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) belonging to the C20 and C22 series, including arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6), eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (Duo Li et al., 1998). It has to be underlined that arachidonic acid content in meat is not responsible for increasing thrombotic tendencies in Western societies. It is the imbalance of n-6:n-3 PUFAs in the

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diet, caused by excessive linoleic acid, that causes high tissue arachidonic acid levels, thus encouraging metabolism to eicosanoids (Sinclair et al., 1994; Mann et al., 1997). Moreover, many studies indicate that a healthy diet which includes lean red meat can produce positive changes in lipid biochemistry. In fact, equal amounts of lean beef, chicken, and fish added to low saturated fat diets, similarly reduce plasma cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolaemic men and women (Beauchesne-Rondeau et al., 1999). Meat is also an important source of a wide range of micronutrients such as iron, zinc, selenium, glutathione, and vitamins. Many studies have demonstrated the higher bioavailability of these compounds when consumed in association with meat instead of vegetables. The best sources of zinc are meat, poultry and seafood. The major bioavailability of zinc when associated to animal protein explains the finding in several studies of lower plasma zinc in vegetarians and vegan individuals, in spite of higher intake. Meat is, in fact, a major influencer of zinc status (Freeland-Graves, 1988). As to zinc content, bioavailability is enhanced when consumed with animal protein, and is reduced by inhibitors such as phytate and oxalate. Its absorption and retention is greater in high-meat diets compared to low-meat or zinc-supplemented diets. Regarding selenium, meat provides about 10mg/100g of meat, which is about 25% of the daily requirement (Shi & Spallholz, 1994). The importance of meat as the richest natural source of glutathione is also undisputed. Glutathione is an important reducing agent providing a major cellular defence against a variety of toxicological and pathological processes. It is active in the intestinal tract, reducing the mutagenicity of aflatoxins, and it inhibits the formation of mutagens in model systems (Trompeta & O’Brian, 1998). Its importance in the defence against chronic disease provides positive potential for meat and merits further research (Bronzetti, 1994). Furthermore, meat is a useful source of all B vitamins, except for folate and biotin. Pork, including its products, is one of the richest sources of thiamin: typical servings providing the daily requirement. Meat also provides the richest sources of niacin and vitamin B6. Half the niacin provided by meat is derived from tryptophan, making it more readily absorbed by the human body than that bound to glucose in plant sources. Food of animal origin provides the only dietary source of vitamin B2. It also contains vitamin A in its active form, retinol. Red meat is also an excellent source of iron. Containing 50-60% in the haem form (Walker, 1998), iron absorption from meat is typically 15-25%, compared with 1-7% from plant sources (Fairweather-Tait, 1989). This is a very important feature if we consider that iron deficiency anaemia is the commonest deficiency in the world. It is also thought that chicken and turkey meat does not contain iron. Scientific evidence assures that the iron content of these kinds of meat often results equal or superior to that contained in the so-called red meat. The different colour of “white” and “red” meat is due to a major presence of myoglobin in the latter and has no influence on the nutritive value of meat.

Meat and cancer

Meat has been also associated with increased risk of various forms of cancer. Four components of meat provide the basis for potential mechanisms which could play a part in the development of cancer: fat, heterocyclic amines, N-nitrosation products and iron. From the epidemiological point of view, it is difficult to distinguish the influence of animal fat, protein and meat on human health because no direct link has been found to date between any dietary factors and human cancers (Hill, 1997). As regards heterocyclic amines, it has to be mentioned that these are produced in overcooked meat and have been shown to be carcinogenic in rats. At normal cooking temperatures and average cooking times, their level is not excessive. Moreover, N-nitrosamines, produced from nitrates added to meat as

3

antimicrobial agents, are present at very low levels in meat products and their carcinogenic potential is likely to be minor at such levels. In conclusion, of particular importance is the need to assess the role of meat when consumed in normal quantities, by normal cooking methods and within the context of a mixed, balanced diet.

Meat and digestion

One of the most diffused convictions is that pork meat is difficult to digest because of its fat content. Against this observation, scientific evidence demonstrates that nowadays pork meat is lean and has the least amount of fat compared to other types of meat. Moreover, the saturated fat content of pork meat is inferior to that of bovine meat (39% versus 45%), as shown in Figure 2. Furthermore, the Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) content in bovine meat protein is superior to that of other kinds of meat (see Figure 3).

Figure 2. Fatty acid composition of beef, lamb and pork (Enser et al., 1996). The black bars represent saturated fatty acid percentage, the grey bars represent monounsaturated fatty acid percentage while the white bars represent polyunsaturated fatty acid percentage.

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Figure 3. Branched Chain Amino Acid (BCAA) content of pork, lamb, chicken and beef. The oblique line filled bars represent leucine content, the black pointed white bars represent isoleucine content while the vertical line filled bars represent valine content.

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)

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Other generalized convictions concern chicken and turkey meat. Many people think that they are not very nutritious and therefore not really indicated for the diet of athletes and young people. To confute this credence, Figure 4 reports the protein content of chicken breast and turkey, showing that chicken and turkey, containing 23 and 24 % of proteins respectively, are richer than other types of meat, which contain 2% of protein on average.

Eggs and liver

Many people think that eggs are difficult to digest, that they can cause allergical symptoms, and that they are harmful for the liver. Concerning the first two convictions, it is clear that digestibility depends on the way of cooking eggs, while allergies can be avoided by cooking methods that bring about the denaturation of albumen proteins. The correlation egg-liver has to be taken into account, considering that eggs stimulate the emptying of the gallbladder, and this property is favourable in normal conditions because it helps with the digestion of other fats. Furthermore, eggs are rich in methionin and phospholipids and may have a protective action for the hepatic cell; in fact, they are recommended for a correct hepatocyte metabolism and a better liver trophism (Stadelman & Cotteril, 1995). Food and human health

A strict relation between food and disease cannot be defined. It has to be underlined that often it is not the type of food that causes the disease, but its consumption without considering the right moderation, proportion and variety. In fact, it would be more correct to associate many diseases with unhealthy lifestyles and wrong nutritional habits than with a single food. Many studies correlate, for example, liver disease and body weight. Considering that 55% of the US population is overweight (BMI >25) and 22.5% is obese (BMI > 30), 80% of obese subjects suffers from liver diseases mainly related to fatty change (Fong et al., 2000). Furthermore, body weight reduction improves liver functional tests. Palmer and Shaffner (1990) documented improvement of ALT levels by 8.1% for every 1% of reduction in body weight. Such evidence confirms that correct nutritional habits can act positively towards maintaining a healthy status and thus reducing the risk of diseases. It is well documented that the incidence, severity and progression of many diseases can be reduced by following certain guidelines, such as the reduction of fat- and cholesterol-rich food intake, the

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

Turkey Chicken Calf Pork Lamb Veal

Prot

ein

cont

ent (

%)

Figure 4. Protein content of different meats.

33

moderation of sweet food, salt, and alcoholic drinks intake as well as the increase of starch and fibre intake associated to a varied diet and a frequent body weight check. Moreover, many studies documented that the decrease in the incidence of many types of cancers and chronic diseases is associated with a large consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables, thanks to their content of antioxidants (Gillman et al., 1995). The protective role of many foods in human health has to be attributed especially to the action of antioxidants because many diseases can be correlated to an increased production of free radicals and/or significant decrease of antioxidant defence (Weisburger, 1999). The role of oxidative stress in aetiology of many kinds of liver injury has recently been demonstrated (Morisco et al., 2000). A large number of studies have focused their attention on the therapeutic use of antioxidants, both natural and synthetic, and of antioxidant-rich food. In addition, recent studies suggested that the consumption of antioxidants in association with foods is more efficacious than their consumption as pure compounds thanks to a particular interaction and synergism that improve bioavailability (Beecher, 1998). Scientific evidence also supports the hypothesis that diet and nutrition, in particular the amount and type of fat intake, can directly affect hepatic fatty infiltration and oxidative damage. In a recent study, Musso and colleagues (2003) showed that the diet of subjects affected by non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) was richer in saturated fatty acids and poorer in polyunsaturated fatty acids, fibres and antioxidant vitamins C/E, compared to the diet of healthy subjects. It is thus demonstrated that dietary habits may favour the development of NASH by directly affecting liver steatosis and oxidative damage. An epidemiological study carried out by Corrao and colleagues (1998) showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and liver diseases. In particular, a heavy intake of coffee reduced the incidence of cirrhosis. The effect was not due to caffeine alone but rather to other factors, which probably included different coffee ingredients, as well as lifestyle factors correlated with coffee consumption. Esposito and colleagues (2003) demonstrated that the habitual regime of Italian-style coffee consumption determines an increase bu 16% of glutathione (GSH) plasma concentration. Glutathione is one of the main mechanisms of defence against cell oxidative stress, therefore dietary compounds that increase plasma GSH concentration may be of great importance for human health. As a consequence, it was of great interest to identify the main coffee component responsible for the increase of GSH plasma concentration. The authors hypothesized that, among the various coffee components, phenolic compounds could play a fundamental role in the increase of GSH plasmatic levels due to their antioxidant properties.

Human medicine and food

A Greek adage says: “It is the function of medicine to help people die young as late as possible”. This phrase can be used to summarize the main goal of modern medicine. Considering what has been discussed above about the relation between human health and food, the importance of food as an easy to use tool by medicine for keeping humans healthy and for improving their mental and social well-being is obvious. The first function of food is, in fact, related to nutrition, the second one is related to the satisfaction of the human senses,while the third function is the possibility of food to regulate some physiological parameters related to a healthy status. Food having the same characteristics of conventional food but capable of exerting physiological benefits or preventing chronic pathologies in humans can be defined as functional food (FF). FF is food, not drugs, and if ingested in reasonable proportions it should be able to modify a physiological parameter. By modifying this parameter, FF should be able to improve the health and well-being of consumers. In an broader definition, FF could be considered as complementary to pharmacological therapy, being able to improve the efficacy and/or to reduce the collateral effects of such therapies.

34

The major part of existing or developing functional foods presupposes the addition of antioxidants. Recently, a FF constituted by tomato paste, along with 10% extra-virgin olive oil, was tested as a complementary therapy of chronic hepatitis C. This study was based on the fact that these kinds of patients normally present an alteration of oxidative status (Morisco et al., 2000) and that the increase of oxidative stress ribavirin-related causes the more drastic side-effect of the therapy, that is anaemia (Vitaglione et al., 2003; Morisco et al., 2003). It has been documented that this antioxidant-rich FF reduces the severity of ribavirin-related anaemia, thus improving tolerance to the full dose of ribavirin in patients with chronic hepatitis C.

Conclusions

In the last years, many epidemiological studies have associated the consumption of some kinds of food with the decrease in incidence of some chronic diseases (Gillman et al., 1995). Furthermore, scientific evidence often confutes false convictions of the public opinion, thus encouraging the consumption of a varied diet, even in the case of pathologies for which, until some years ago, many doctors prescribed dietary restrictions. Nowadays, it is clear that correct dietary habits and life-style influence human healthy status positively, more than certain restrictions. In fact, the consumption of a varied and moderate diet containing all nutritive principles in the right proportions is the basis of a healthy daily nutrition. The ability of many kinds of food to prevent the risk of some diseases is progressively bringing medicine to focus its attention on functional food as a useful tool to help patients prevent the side-effects of pharmacological therapy, and thus improving its efficacy. Nowadays, medicine requires food industries to produce food that not only nourishes healthy people adequately and safely, but also helps unhealthy people. To achieve this goal, major co-operation between food industries and medicine has to be encouraged. Furthermore, if health is conceived not merely as the absence of disease but a state of complete physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being, food plays definitely a central role in human health.

References

Beauchesne-Rondeau, E., A. Gascon, J. Bergeron and H. Jacques, 1999. Lean beef in lipid lowering diet: effects on plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein B in hypercholesterolaemic men. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Pratice and Research, 60, June Supplement.

Beecher, G.R., 1998. Nutrient content of tomatoes and tomato products. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 218: p. 98-100.

Block, G., B. Patterson and A. Subar, 992. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutrition and Cancer 18: p. 1-29.

Bronzetti, G., 1994. Antimutagens in food. Trends in Food Science and Technology 5: p. 390-395.Corrao, G., P. Torchio, A. Zambon, A. D’Amicis, A.R. Lepore and F. di Orio, 1998. Alcohol consumption

and micronutrient intake as risk factors for liver cirrhosis: a case-control study. The Provincial Group for the study of Chronic Liver Disease. Ann. Epidemiol. 8: p. 154-159.

Duo Li, N.A., N.J. Mann and A.J. Sinclair, 1998. Contribution of meat fat to dietary arachidonic acid. Lipids 33: p. 437-440.

Enser, M., K. Hallett, B. Hewitt, G.A.J. Fursey and J.D. Wood, 1996. Fatty acid content and composition of English beef, lamb and pork at retail. Meat Sci. 42: p. 443-456.

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Esposito, F., V. Verde, A. Alezio, A. Ritieni, F. Morisco, N. Caporaso and V. Fogliano, 2003. Coffee consumption increases plasma glutathione and not homocysteine in healthy volunteers. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapy 17: p. 595-601.

Fairweather-Tait, S.J., 1989. Iron in foods and its availability? Acta Pediatrica Scand 361: p. s12-s20.

Fong, D.G., V. Nehra, K.D. Lindor and A.L. Buchman, 2000. Metabolic and nutritional considerations in nonalcoholic fatty liver. Hepatology 32: p. 3-10.

Freeland-Graves, J., 1988. Mineral adequacy of vegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48: p. 859-862.

Friedman, M., 1996. Nutritional value of proteins from different food sources: a review. Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry 44: p. 6-29.

Gillman, M.W., L.A. Cupples, D. Gagnon, B.M. Posner, R.C. Ellison, W.P. Castelli and P.A. Wolf, 995. Protective effect of fruits and vegetables on development of stroke in men. Journal of the American Medical Association 273: p. 1113-1117.

Greenwald, P. and E.J. Sondik, 1986. Cancer control objectives for the nation: 1985-2000. National Cancer Institute Monograph 2: p. 3-74.

Higgs, J.D., 2000. The changing nature of red meat: 20 years of improving nutritional quality. Trends in Food Science and Technology 11: p. 85-95.

Hill, M.J., 1997. MLC Workshop on meat and colorectal cancer. ECP News 31, August Supplement.Mann, N.J., A.J. Sinclair, M. Pille, L. Johnson, G. Warrick, E. Reder and R. Lorenz, 1997. The effect

of short term diets rich in fish, red meat or white meat and thromboxane and prostacyclin synthesis in Humans. Lipids 32: p. 635-643.

Morisco, F., A. Carbone, V. Fogliano, R. Marmo, A. Ritieni, A. Ascione, G. DeLuise, A. Galeota Lanza and N. Caporaso, 2003. Effect of carotenoid-based functional food on ribavirin induced anemia in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a randomized pilot study. Digestive and Liver Disease, Abstracts, Proceedings of the IX National Congress of the Italian Federation of Digestive Disease, 22-26 February 2003, Florence, p. 28.

Morisco, F., V. Verde, A. Ritieni, V. Fogliano, C. Tuccillo, P. Iasevoli and N. Caporaso, 2000. Changes in the oxidative profile during combination therapy (IFNá-2b+ribavirin) in chronic hepatitis C. Journal Hepatology 32: p. s5.

Musso, G., R. Gambino, F. De Michieli, M. Cassader, M. Rizzetto, M. Durazzo, E. Faga, B. Silli and F. Pagano, 2003. Dietary habits and their relations to insulin resistance and postprandial lipemia in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatology 37: p. 909-916.

Shi, B. and J.E. Spallholz, 1994. Selenium peroxidase is highly available as assessed by liver glutathione peroxidase activity and tissue selenium. British Journal of Nutrition 72: p. 873-881.

Sinclair, A.J., L. Johnson, K. O’Dea and T. Holman, 1994. Diets rich in lean beef increase the arachidonic acid and long change N-3 PUFA levels in plasma phospholipids. Lipids 29: p. 33-343.

Stadelman, W.J. and W.J. Cotteril, 1995. Eggs science and technology, 4th Edition, Food Products Press, New York.

Trompeta, V. and J. O’Brian, 1998. Inhibition of mutagen formation by organosulphur compounds. Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry 46: p. 4318-4323.

Ulbricht, T.L.V. and D.A.T. Southgate, 1991. Coronary heart disease: seven dietary factors. Lancet 338: p. 985-982.

Vitaglione, P., S. Scarpati, V. Fogliano, A. Ritieni, F. Morisco and N. Caporaso, 2003. Bioavailability of an antioxidant-rich functional food in subjects with chronic hepatitis C. Digestive and Liver Disease, Abstracts, Proceedings of the IX National Congress of the Italian Federation of Digestive Disease, 22-26 February 2003, Florence, p. 28.

Walker, A.R.P., 1998. The remedying of iron deficiency: what priority should it have? British Journal of Nutrition 9: p. 22-235.

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3

Animal food quality and human health: the animal science point of view

C. Kijora1, K.J. Peters1, A. Nardone2 & M.G. Keane3

1Humboldt-University of Berlin, Institute of Animal Sciences, Philippstr. 13, House No. 9, 10115 Berlin, Germany 2Dipartimento di Produzioni Animali, Facoltà di Agraria, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Via San Camillo De Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy 3Teagasc, Grange Research Centre, Dunsany, Ireland

Summary

From the standpoint of evolutionary biology, animal products are a natural source of nutrients, which, due to the high quality of its nutrients has been responsible for the evolution of mankind and the improvement of human health and life. In affluent societies, however, the risks related to the consumption of animal products are increasingly emphasised, risks which are linked on the one hand to the possible content of undesirable components (residues and contaminants, which are not discussed in this paper) and on the other hand to the consequences of malconsumption. Problems of undernourishment related to animal products, as it is evident in many developing countries, are affecting millions of people in their mental and physical development. On the other hand, the overconsumption of animal products in industrial countries increasingly causes health problems and the so-called “diseases of civilisation”. The intense public debate, linked also to groups propagating alternative lifestyles, about the overconsumption of animal products in industrial countries aims at a modification of consumer habits, which, however, have only a small effect on overall consumption of animal products. In view of the real health risks associated with overconsumption, actions in research and public awareness are aimed at minimizing health risks linked to specific product components, and concentrating on the health-stimulating effects of animal products. The term “functional food” does describe these health-stimulating effects of animal products, encompassing related activities to improve health effects of animal products. This article discusses the natural ingredients of undesirable and desirable nutrients and identifies possibilities for modifying the nutrient content of animal products through means of feeding and breeding. It can be concluded that the health-related interests in animal products should focus on those ingredients which are not at all present in plant products or are found only in very small amounts. Any other objectives for modifying animal products are artificial and will not lead to a balanced diet for humans. Possibilities for modifying in particular the composition of fatty acids are described, with due consideration of the ethical aspects of the consequences of modification (animal welfare concerns). A large potential is seen in the utilisation of biotechnical methods for the production of pharmaceutical proteins. The possibility to produce these proteins by modification of the mammary gland of dairy animals is in the phase of research. Some indications of potential impact offer less costly and risky methods of health treatment.

Keywords: animal products, quality, malconsumption, quality modification.

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Introduction

The study of the quality of animal food products and their effect on human health should address the following aspects. First, there are quality parameters with desired and undesired characteristics. The desirable ingredients are the valuable and partly essential nutrients. The undesirable components are unhygienic and toxic factors (bacteria, spores or moulds), residues (drugs, pesticides, heavy metals) and noxious substances ingested by animals along with the feed. The second topic is the level of consumption of animal food, because malnutrition (overnourishment and undernourishment) plays an important role in human health. The reason for many diseases is over- or undernourishment. Underfeeding is found mainly in the developing countries, while overfeeding, leading to the so-called civilisation diseases, is a problem of the developed industrial countries. Thus, optimising nutrient intake through food of animal origin for the benefit of human health is of primary interest to society. A third consideration in addition to the nutritional and physiological properties of animal products is their relationship with cultural specificities. Religious reasons for either disapproving or preferring animal products, and different subjective assessments of characteristics like smell, taste, colour and softness, are very important in shaping societal or cultural preferences.

Nutrient requirements

The consumption of animal products in general affects human health positively but can also have a detrimental effect, particularly in cases of overconsumption in relation to the nutrient requirements of humans. Malnutrition and overconsumption present considerable health risks for humans. Guidelines for a healthy supply of nutrients are published by various national nutrition committees. The recommended values are targeted at healthy people. Usual recommendations contain values for the intake of energy and essential nutrients and for nutrient ratios in the diet. The essential nutrients are proteins, essential fatty acids, carbohydrates, water, minerals and vitamins. Requirements for nutrients, however, are modified by endogenous and exogenous factors and are normally equivalent to “average values”. Requirements are not always clear, so they are formulated as recommendations (e.g. protein, essential fatty acids, vitamin A, etc), estimated values (e.g. vitamin K, potassium, selenium, iodine), or guiding values (energy, fat, water). No clear recommendations are formulated for the optimal composition of diets. Normally, a varied diet is recommended, including food of animal origin. In this context meat is a valuable but not an essential food item for humans (Leitzmann, 1999).

Energy requirements

The energy requirement is calculated on the basis of basal metabolic rate, metabolic rate of working, heat production related to food intake, and the specific requirements of functions such as growth, pregnancy or lactation. In well-balanced diets for adults the relationship of protein : fat : carbohydrates should represent 10:30:60 of the total energy intake. Recommendations for fat vary between 25 and 30%, and for carbohydrates between 55 and 65% of total energy intake. Children have a higher protein requirement.

In this paper the expression malnutrition is used to indicate both overnourishment (overfeeding) and undernourishment and is used where appropriate (Allison, 2000; Elveloll & James, 2001).

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The energy yield from 1 g protein or carbohydrates is 17 kJ (4 kcal) and from 1 g fat is 37 kJ (9 kcal) (DGE, 2000).

Protein requirements

The protein requirements are specified according to age, i.e. 2.7 g (0-1 month of age), 2.0 g (1-2 months of age), 1.0 g (1-4 years old) and 0.8 g per kg body weight (up to 19 years old). These requirements are valid for protein sources of animal and plant origin although the composition of essential amino acids may vary between different foods. The profile of essential amino acids in animal products is closer to human requirements especially in products such as milk, eggs and meat, which have a higher protein quality than any plant product. Vegetarians run the risk of lysine deficiency, the first limiting amino acid. An adequate supply of essential amino acids in Vegan diets of young children is not possible (DGE, 2000).

Requirements for essential fatty acids

Fat should not exceed 30% of the total energy. Of special importance is the intake of the essential poly-unsaturated fatty acids such as the linoleic acid (C18:2) and the omega 3 fatty acids: linolenic acid (C18:3), eicosapentanoic acid (C20:5), and total docosahexanoic acid (C22:6). It is recommended that the total energy intake be composed of 10 % saturated fatty acids, 10-13 % monounsaturated fatty acids and 7-10% poly-unsaturated fatty acids (DGE, 2000).

Nutritional conditions in different regions and projected demand up to 2020 in the developing countries

The difference in consumption levels of animal food products in developed and developing countries is illustrated in the nutritional recommendations. On the one hand, we currently witness a livestock production revolution in countries with fast growing economies such as China and other South East Asian countries (Delgado et al., 1999) and, on the other hand, the nutritional scientists of industrial countries warn about new diseases and the increasing risk of obesity caused by overconsumption of food and unbalanced diets. Malnutrition is therefore a major concern for human health in many societies. The per capita consumption of meat and milk in the different world regions and the projected trend for 2020, calculated by FAO, are shown in Table 1. Different values for the developing countries result from different methods of calculation. The trend in consumption of meat and milk is increasing in developing countries, but a strong correlation exists between income and consumption of animal products. However, even in 2020, the consumption level will still be much lower in developing than in developed countries, where milk consumption seems to reach a plateau and there are only small increases in meat consumption (Table 1). To satisfy the estimated needs in 2020, major changes in total production and production efficiency need to take place in the developing countries. Different scenarios are possible to meet this challenge:. raise the number of animals;2. increase animal production efficiency;3. intensify the use of traditional animal species, exploit new species (unconventional livestock), fish

and other aquatic products;4. expand monogastric animal production (pig and poultry), characterised by shorter reproductive and

productive cycles, higher birth rates, more efficient feed conversion rate, and better adaptability to intensification (Nardone & Gibon, 2000).

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Intensification of animal production, however, will increase the challenge to avoid higher environmental pollution, to maintain hygienic production conditions and product safety, and to ensure acceptable animal welfare. The large regional differences that exist at present will increase in future, due to increasing diversity of purchasing power. The supply of animal products in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) will not increase. Converting the per capita/year consumption values into daily amounts, shows that in SSA the average daily consumption stands at only 30g of meat and 82g of milk or milk products. This corresponds to 8 g protein of animal origin per day. Considering the large variability in consumption levels, this indicates that a large part of the population in SSA suffers from malnutrition. On the contrary, the high consumption of animal food products in most industrial countries and the associated health risks demand additional attention directed at product composition in order to reduce those components causing health risks and to increase health enhancing factors. However, precise recommendations on the optimal intake of animal products do not exist. There seems to be an agreement on the fact that children require milk for normal development, the absence of which cannot be compensated for by other food items (DGE 2000; Erbersdobler, cited by Leitzmann, 1999).

Health related quality of specific nutrients in animal products

Protein quality is different in animal and plant products. Very high protein quality can only be found in animal products like eggs, milk, meat and fish, having a true digestibility of around 95%. The amino acid profile of animal products is virtually identical with the amino acid requirements of humans. Animal nutritionists developed the concept of “Ideal protein” for pig nutrition. It reflects the optimum ratio of the essential amino acids. In adopting this concept, developed for animal nutrition, in human nutrition the protein-digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) was defined (Erbersdobler, 1992; FAO, 1991). Determination of the optimal protein intake, considering protein

Table 1. Per capita meat and milk consumption and relative energy and protein intake from animal products (kg per head per year).

Meat Milk

Calories from animal

products %

Protein from animal

products % Region 99a 2020° 1993° 2020° 1993° 1993° Developed World Developing World

75.8 24.0

83.0 30.0-36.5b

92 40

189 62

2

56 26

Latin America Sub Sahara Africa South Asia2 Southeast Asia East Asia China India

53.0 9.9 5.6

18.1 42. 33.0

4.0

59.0 11.0 10.0 24.0 67.0 60.0 6.0

100 23 58 6

58

30 82 6 20 2

25

18 9 8

5 5

46 20 22 25 38 28 5

a = from: Rosegrant et al. (2001); ° = from: Delgado et al. (1999) b = Nardone (2002). = without China; 2 = Without India; Note: Consumption refers to direct use as food, measured as uncooked weight incl. bone. Meat includes beef, pork, mutton, goat and poultry. Milk is cow and buffalo milk and milk products in liquid milk equivalents.

4

quality, is of current interest to human nutritionists. The PDCAAS value is formulated as a temporary equivalent. An oversupply of protein according to current knowledge is not harmful, but the disposal of the excess nitrogen requires energy, increases the glomerularic filtration demand on the kidney (Brändle et al. 1996) and increases calcium excretion by the kidney (Ball & Maughan, 1997; Itoh et al., 1998; Zernel, 1988). Thus, N oversupply, in situations of Ca-deficiency, could cause problems with bone stability and increase risk of kidney-stones (Ca-oxalate). Fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of feeds are important factors affecting human health. The nature and amount of fat intake and the energy density of diets influence the health status of people and in particular the incidence of obesity and cardiovascular diseases (CHD)2. Excessive intake of fats, especially of animal origin, in industrial societies has led to a high degree of CHD, hypertension and overweight. The main reason is that fat intake amounts to more than 30% of the total energy intake. The lipid status, including cholesterol and triglyceride content, and the ‘low density lipo protein’ (LDL): ‘high density lipo protein’ (HDL) ratio provide a comprehensive assessment of health status. The recommended energy intake from fats should consist of a third of saturated (SFA), a third of mono-un-saturated (MUFA) and a third of polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids. The ratio of omega 6 to omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is considered optimal at a ratio of 2.5 : . Plant products have a higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids than animal products, which tend to have a rather high concentration of saturated fatty acids. The fatty acid composition in different foods shows considerable variation. The predominant saturated fatty acids in beef meat are stearic acid (C18:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0). Stearic acid accounts for about one third of saturated fat in beef. Neither stearic and nor palmitic acid raise blood lipids consistently. Myristic acid (C14:0) is the most atherogenic fatty acid. It has four times the cholesterol raising potential of palmitic acid but it is found in only minor quantities in beef (Higgs & Mulvihill, 2002). Trans fatty acids are unsaturated but, because of their chemical structure, they raise the levels of undesirable LDL cholesterol and lower the levels of the desirable HDL cholesterol. Thus, the intake of these fatty acids should be as low as possible but in a normal diet it would be impossible to eliminate them completely. The main sources of trans fatty acids are hydrogenated vegetable fats and foods containing them. Trans acids are produced in the hydrogenation process transforming oils to solid fat. Trans fatty acids in beef and milk (and animal products generally) are very low compared to the amounts found in food where hydrogenated vegetable fats have been used. Furthermore, the type of trans fatty acids found in beef and ruminant animal products generally are not the same as those found in hydrogenated vegetable fats. Thus, they may not have the same adverse effect on cholesterol level (Meister et al., 2003). The essential polyunsaturated omega 3 fatty acids [Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and Docoshexanoic acid (DHA)] are found only in fats of marine fish, algae, sea weed and ferns. They are formed by converting the omega 6 fatty acids to omega 3 fatty acids, and play an important role in preventing cardiovascular diseases, rheumatism, asthma and multiple sclerosis. A further PUFA of interest is arachidonic acid, which exists solely in animal products. It can be synthesised from the essential linoleic acid. It has essential functions in the transport process through membranes, but too high a concentration (overproduction or wrong diet) accentuates inflammation processes. The contents of these three polyunsaturated fatty acids in different fish products are described by Adam (1994). The majority of health enhancing components of food are perceived to be of plant origin but animal products have such components too. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a fatty acid found almost exclusively in foods of ruminant animals. It is produced as an intermediate in the biohydrogenation of

2CHD = usually the abbreviation for coronary heart disease

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dietary linoleic acid to stearic acid. CLA is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid with double bonds at positions 9 and 11, 10 and 12 or 11 and 13. The cis 9, trans-11 isomer is thought to be the biologically active form and the sole CLA in milk. The concentration ranges between 0.4% (human milk) and 1.3 % (sheep milk) of the total fatty acid methylester content (Jahreis, 1999). A number of potentially beneficial health effects have been attributed to CLA. These include anticarcinogenic activity (Belury, 1995), inhibition of the development of atherosclerosis (Lee et al., 1994), reduction of the catabolic effects of immune stimulation (Cook et al., 1993) and reduction in body fat (Pariza et al., 1996). Other effects mentioned include growth promotion and improved feed efficiency in animals. The relationship between diet and cancer is poorly understood and the results of many studies are inconsistent. Some authors found that meat consumption was not associated to cancer (Missmer et al., 2002), while others found an association (Meister et al., 2003; Higgs & Mulvihill, 2002) with increased risk of cancer, depending also on the type of cancer.

Vitamins

The necessary vitamin supply is generally adequate in a mixed diet. For sufficient vitamin C and tocopherol supply, food of plant origin is important, and food of animal origin is the main supplier of B Vitamins. The public debate about the best strategies to secure adequate vitamin supply oscillates between the propagation of diet diversity (vegetable) and the need to create functional crop products (Golden rice - higher in vitamin A).

Minerals

Mixed diets are also the guarantee for meeting the requirements for minerals. Women and children consuming insufficient meat face the risk of iron shortage. The content of iron in plant products is lower than in animal products. Animal products have a higher iron content and a higher iron absorption rate than plant products. Required intakes of calcium, zinc, iron, iodine and vitamin A for pregnant women, nursing mothers, babies and small children can only be guaranteed with foods of animal origin, especially meat and milk.

Influencing the quality of animal food products

Nutrient content of animal food products

Human nutrition can be optimised simply with a mix of nutrients of animal and plant origin. An exclusively vegetarian diet requires specific knowledge about the nutrient content of various plant products in order to avoid deficiencies. Especially in developing countries, a balanced nutrient supply can best be guaranteed by an appropriate diet composed of plant and animal products. The quality of animal products is primarily determined by species, breed, sex and maturity. The protein content of milk varies between 3 to 5 % according to species, breed and lactation phase. The protein content of meat varies between to 23 % depending on the respective fat content. In 100g of product, the fat content can vary between 1.0 and 37 g (Souci et al., 1991). Venison, poultry breast and muscle meat are lean but the fat content of meat from certain high yielding poultry species (duck, goose, turkey and culled hens) has increased during recent years. Today, meat of hybrid poultry broilers must be categorised as fat rich meat. The fat content of indigenous chicken

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breeds is much lower than that of modern commercial breeds. Ferguson and Theeruth (2002) and Van Marle-Köster and Webb (2000) measured 1.8-2.5% fat in the whole empty body of indigenous chickens compared with 4.3 – 6.5 % in hybrid broilers. Likewise, in ruminants the fat content of indigenous breeds is generally lower than that of breeds selected for fast body weight gain. The fat content of milk is on average higher in indigenous cattle breeds with low milk yield and lower in high performing dairy breeds.

Influencing the quality of animal food products by feeding

The effect of animal nutrition on the composition of fatty acids in animal products has been widely described. The following examples show the wide range of possibilities:• Feeding of fats from marine fish to fresh water fish raised the content of EPS and DHS by 100%

(Steffens, 1993). • Increasing the proportion of grass in the diet improves the fatty acid profile of beef from a human

health perspective. French et al. (2000) measured the fatty acid composition of muscle from beef cattle fed grazed grass only, grazed grass plus low concentrates, grazed grass plus high concentrates, grass silage plus concentrates or high concentrates. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) decreased with increasing proportion of grass (or silage) in the diet and both MUFAs and PUFAs increased. Accordingly, the PUFA: SFA ratio increased with increasing grass in the diet.

• Feeding of rape-seed oil significantly increased the content of oleic acid (C18:1) and decreased the content of palmitic acid (C 16:0) in milk fat of cows. This desired effect was partly neutralised by the increased formation of trans-fatty acids. However, the possibility of modifying the fatty acid composition by supplementary oil feeding in ruminants is limited due to the tolerable fat content of the ration and fat saturation in the rumen. Higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids in the products increase the risk of undesirable oxidation/rancidity.

• Feeding seaweed biomass to chicken increased the content of the health-enhancing DHA in chicken eggs (Langholz, 1995).

• There is a large number of publications describing the effect of feeding different fats on the fatty acid composition of pig meat, and increasing the ratio of essential unsaturated fatty acids by modifying the ration composition (e.g. mais) is well known.

A high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in pig meat, however, reduces the consumer’s acceptance of the meat (soft fat, rapid rancidity, bad taste). Thus, changing the composition of fatty acids in pork by supplementary oil feeding does not seem to be a suitable way to influence the fatty acid composition in human food. The mineral content of meat is rather stable under conditions of normal supply. Only iodine and selenium can be influenced by nutrition (Windisch et al., 2002; Schöne et al., 2002; Kaufmann et al., 1996), but as Schöne et al. (2002) explained, even a remarkable increase in iodine content of meat, caused by feeding a high iodine diet, does not make meat an iodine-rich food. Supplementation with mg of iodine per kg of layers feed increased the iodine content in eggs so little, that consumption of 240 eggs per year would meet only about 10% of the iodine requirement (Richter, 1995). The vitamin content of meat and other animal products is rather stable and comparable to the mineral content. Only the vitamin E content in meat, or rather the content of different tocopherols, can be affected by feeding. This fact is of special interest from the aspect of maintaining product quality due to the antioxidative property of tocopherols, which is the main benefit of increasing the supply of this vitamin. Summarizing, it can be concluded that the modification of the nutrient content of meat through feeding in order to produce “functional food” gives variable results. Influencing the composition of other animal products (e.g. milk or eggs) may be more reliable.

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Influencing animal food products by breeding

Breeding programmes usually encompass three objectives, all strongly correlated with product quality. These are selection to modify the composition of products, selection for disease resistance and selection against stress susceptibility.

Meat

Major selection objectives of breeding programs in developed countries over the recent decades were the modification of the meat : fat ratio in pig meat and that of the protein : fat ratio in milk. Selection for a high proportion of lean meat is, however, correlated with significant meat quality deficiencies and functional weaknesses in lean animals. The best known meat quality defects are the meat conditions described as DFD (dark, firm, dry), PSE (pale, soft, exudative), and acid meat. Meat of this quality has impaired processing and consumption characteristics, and reduced keeping quality. DFD meat, with its insufficient acidification, can exhibit accelerated bacterial contamination. Rapid metabolism of glycogen in PSE meat leads to a decrease in pH, resulting in reduced product stability. Marker genes causing these effects are known for pigs, allowing selection of animals with stable product quality and stress-resistance. The genetic antagonism between content of lean and reproductive performance as well as meat quality shows that alterations to natural product composition can result in biologically undesirable side-effects. Thus, the possibilities for genetic selection to change meat composition are rather limited. Examples of other unwanted effects caused by selection for lean and muscle growth in specific body parts are the high breast muscle proportion of turkeys and the high ham and loin muscle proportion in pigs. These selection activities have negative effects on animal welfare and are termed “pain-breeding”. Molecular genetic approaches to search for marker genes such as the PSE-gene should provide additional scope to overcome these genetic antagonistic correlations. Among the polygenetic breeding methods, crossbreeding strategies are more suited to achieve desired composition changes without negative consequences (e.g. myostatin double muscling), through the combination of additive genetic breed performances and the utilisation of heterosis in hierarchical breeding programmes.

Milk

A major area of interest is directed towards altering the casein protein fraction to improve the processing yield of milk. Other areas of interest are directed towards biotechnological methods, like production of transgenic animals, that change the composition of milk so profoundly that the lactating animals act as “Bioreactors” (Jahreis, 1995; Niemann, 1998). Examples of achieved changes in milk protein are shown in Table 2. The aim of these changes is the adaptation of cow milk to human milk and the production of therapeutically active proteins.

Health

Reducing the susceptibility to diseases improves the quality of products and therefore is a primary research objective in animal science. The development of biotechnological methods, like gene mapping, is the first step towards the use of functional genomics in breeding strategies aimed at improving health. Major categories of diseases, according to Simianer and König (2002), are infection diseases, abnormalities and gene defects, and functional diseases. For all categories of diseases, genetic selection can make a positive contribution. Examples of successful resistance to infections are: resistance against nematodes in sheep, Marek’s

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disease in chicken, trypanotolerance in cattle and scrapie resistance in sheep. By means of molecular genetic analysis, the association of different alleles in the Prp- gene with varying degrees of scrapie resistance has been demonstrated. An effective example of improving udder health by breeding is the selection of cattle for resistence to mastitis and udder health based on somatic cell counts (SCC) and veterinary treatment records as practised in Scandinavian countries (Heringstad et al., 2000). This selection procedure has led to significantly lower SCC than selection solely based on SCC as practised in Germany (Simianer & König, 2002). Breeding for greater fitness is complicated by the fact that undesirable performance traits and resistance traits against diseases are often genetically correlated. According to Simianer et al. (1991), the genetic correlation (rg) between milk yield and mastitis sensitivity is 0.47, and that between milk yield and ketosis sensitivity is 0.66.

Undesirable substances in animal products

Noxious substances in animal products can result in considerable health problems. Noxious substances are contaminants or residues, related to production conditions or husbandry practices. Residues are remnants of materials, ingested by animals or applied by producers, which remain in the animal to be slaughtered and remain in the food products at the time of consumption. Contaminants are often undesirable components of feedstuffs such as aflatoxins which pose a real and growing threat in intensive pig and poultry systems and require actions to secure “safe” feed (sterilisation, fermentation). The metabolism of pollutants is possible in 3 pathways: excretion, catabolisation and deposition. The catabolisation mostly happens in the liver and is a non specific pathway that can produce non-toxic metabolites but also highly toxic substances. The excretion of pollutants occurs in urine or faeces, but excretion via milk and eggs is also possible. Deposited pollutants, depending on their chemical characteristics, are accumulated in different organs. Heavy metals like Pb, Cd and Cu are stored in the liver and kidney. Fat-soluble organo-chlorine compounds, like the pesticide DDT, Lindane and PCB’s, are stored in the fat tissue. In industrial countries these chemicals are forbidden and their content in meat has decreased substantially to harmless concentrations (Honikel & Hecht, 1999). However, some of these chemicals were exported to developing countries where they were used. They are a major threat to human health because they have been identified as carcinogens. Radioactive caesium (Cs), which appeared after the Chernobyl accident, is a further pollutant that must be taken into account in various European regions, especially in extensive grazing systems.

Table 2. Expression of proteins in the mammary gland of animals.

Species Gene creation Specific product Produced amount

(per ml) Sheep ß-Lactoglogulin Human blood clotting factor IX,

VIII resp. or Human α-Anti-Trypsin

25 ng 5-10 ng 35-63 mg

Goat mWAP tissue plasminogen-activator 2-3 mg Sow mWAP Human protein C mg Cow Bovine casein

promoter Human lactoferrin Human erythropoetin

30 mg -

mWAP = muriner acidic whey protein promoter cit. after Niemann, 1998.

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Another serious health risk arising from pollution of animal feed is BSE. This resulted from the incorrect treatment of meat and bone meal (insufficient heating of bone meals). The transmission of this disease between animal species has been demonstrated experimentally and is also considered to be the cause of nCJD in humans. Steroid hormones are used in some regions of the world to increase the performance of animals. Synthetically produced hormone-like derivatives (Diethylstilbestrol, Zeranol, Trenbolone) used to replace natural hormones, require careful and precise administration. Improper application can cause both animal and human health problems. These substances are permitted under strict rules and limitations in USA, Canada, Australia and other countries. Adverse effects on human health from consuming products of animals treated with these substances have not been established (Steinhard & Fritsche, 1999); nevertheless, consumers in EU and other countries reject their use.

Conclusion

Animal food has been and will always be very important to secure a high standard of human nutrition and health. Malnutrition does exist, in forms of undernourishment and overnurishment with animal food, though requirements and supply standards are not always well defined. The highest benefit is derived from animal protein, while animal fat (especially saturated fatty acids) is often associated with CHD problems. Breeding and feeding efforts to reduce the fat content in meat have been succesfull; however, there are biological boundaries and dangers of cruel breeding and production processes. Other efforts are directed at increasing the health enhancing content of unsaturated fatty acids in animal products, for which grass-based feeding systems are best suited.

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Animal genetics and functional food

F. Pilla1, A. Valentini2, J.A. Lenstra3 & P. Martin4

1Dipartimento Scienze Animali Vegetali e Dell’Ambiente, Università del Molise, Italy 2Dipartimento Scienze Produzioni Animali, Università della Tuscia, Italy 3Institute of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Utrecht University, The Netherlands 4Génomique et Physiologie de la Lactation, INRA, Centre de Recherches de Jouy-en-Josas, France

Summary

A functional food is defined as a food that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains. Among the different quality aspects, functional properties are emerging as a very important food attribute. In this paper, the genetic determination of functional properties of milk and meat - ruminant meat in particular - is reviewed, and the role of local breeds as resources of genes for functional features is examined. Finally, the main concerns arising from this kind of gene exploitation are considered and discussed.

Keywords: functional food, genetic polymorphism, livestock biodiversity.

Introduction

Animals were domesticated in order to satisfy human needs of food, commodities (wool, skin) and services (transportation, ploughing). In the XIX and XX centuries, due to the exploitation of steam and fossil fuel, food production became the main function of domesticated animals, at least in the developed countries. Nevertheless, in the past decades, once the animal food needs in Europe and America were largely satisfied, quality emerged as the most important food attribute, rather than quantity. At the same time, new kinds of services are required from animals such as landscape preservation, leisure and pet therapy. What is food quality? In fact, food quality is a very broad concept that can be defined in various ways in different circumstances. A wide approach to food quality consists in considering the existence of multiple aspects of quality. These aspects can be divided into two main categories, the first including all the intrinsic characteristics and the latter all the extrinsic ones. Intrinsic characteristics are the inherent features of the product such as hygiene, chemical composition, taste (more generally, the technological properties), while extrinsic are those characteristics which are attributed to the product by the system, such as animal welfare, environmental sustainability, or cultural heritage. In other words, quality includes different aspects, some of them belonging to the product, others provided to the product by the system. For example, a product can be considered as quality product because its production method ensured animal welfare: this quality does not belong directly to the product but to its production system (the system includes the production aspect as well as the consumers’ attitude and expectations). The concept of the functional properties of food emerged in the eighties. A commonly accepted definition of functional food is “any food or ingredient that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains”. A functional food is similar in appearance to, or may actually be, a conventional food. It is consumed as part of a usual diet and it is demonstrated to have physiological

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benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic diseases, beside its basic nutritional functions (Kwak & Jukes, 2001). Functional properties must be considered among the intrinsic features of quality and, as mentioned above, the consideration of these qualities is a new attitude that went beyond the traditional concept of food as a source of nutrients. However, functional foods are not drugs and they can be consumed within the daily dietary pattern. For this reason, the functional properties have to be considered together with all the other aspects of quality (tipicity as an example). This new concept fits very well with a new vision of animal production aiming to satisfy the general well-being of people. During the last few years, several functional foods (mainly of vegetable origin) have been identified or are currently investigated. Regarding livestock production, dairy products can be cited for their content in CLA or their hypoallergenic effect, fish for their content in omega 3 and beef again for the CLA content. Benefits for health can be also achieved by consuming dairy products containing probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Given their direct effect, environmental factors have monopolized the interest until now; however, more recently, increasing attention has been paid to the role of genetics. Single genes or the entire genome can be exploited in this context. For instance, a particular breed, with centuries-old selection towards adaptation to a particular environment, can be more fitted than other breeds to a quality-oriented production system. For example, a local alpine breed is better fitted in a semi-extensive, eco-sustainable system than the Holstein-Friesian breed. Functional properties seem to be under the control of specific loci rather than of the entire genome. They behave like mendelian traits. In fact, functional properties mainly rely upon the presence (or absence) of a specific variant of a molecule if coding regions are involved, or depend upon the amount of that molecule, if regulatory elements controlling the expression of the gene are polymorphic.

Genetic aspects of milk as functional food

As far as milk is concerned, conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) are undoubtedly amongst the best-known compounds enabling milk to be classified as functional food. Numerous biological and physiological effects (including anti-lipogenic effects) have been reported (Ha et al., 1987), providing evidence for the anticarcinogenic effect of CLA. The amount of CLA in milk is in part determined by the diet, but mainly depends on endogenous synthesis catalyzed by stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) or ∆9 desaturase (Griinari et al., 2000). Even though mechanisms involved in the captation and metabolic pathway (biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by ruminal microorganisms) leading to the synthesis of CLA are quite well-known, there is little, if no, information about the effect of genetics on CLA biosynthesis and content in milk. Given the SCD function and the occurrence of QTLs controlling milk fat percentage on bovine chromosome 26 (Zhang et al., 1998), it is reasonable to consider the SCD gene, localized to bovine and goat chromosomes 26q21 (Bernard et al., 2001), as a good functional candidate whose polymorphism has to be studied. Molecular tools are available. Besides lipids, the protein fraction is the second class of milk components thoroughly studied. Functional food properties have been found either in milk and in fermented milk products (bacterial strain or yeast dependent). Agents affecting immune function are by far the most intensively studied. Factors conveyed via milk to the neonate are responsible not only for imparting passive immunity, but also for inducing immune competence (Telemo & Hanson, 1996). There is now a large amount of evidence concerning the presence of cytokines in milk, and their involvement in the differentiation and maturation of the immune system (Goldman, 2002). Various milk-borne glycoconjugates (glycolipids, oligosaccharides and glycoproteins) enhance the infant’s defence against several pathogens by impairing their binding to the target cell surface. Lactoferrin, an iron-chelating glycoprotein, as well as several other whey proteins (lactoperoxidase,

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lysozyme...) display antibacterial activities. All these anti-infectious sentry proteins provide a broad range of responsive reactions to infection (Clare et al., 2003). Lactoferrin, whose concentrations are extremely variable according to the species (high in human mammary secretions and surprisingly low in cow’s milk), presents a bacteriostatic effect attributable to its iron-sequestration capacity. Lactoferrin also acts as a cytokine capable of initiating a cascade of host defence responses. In addition, a 5-residue peptide derivative (lactoferricin, amino-acid residues 17-31 of the mature bovine lactoferrin) was shown to display antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi (Strom et al., 2000). Numerous other substantiated (hormones, growth factors...) or potential bioactive protein components have been found in milk or remain to be found either as intact protein or as derivative peptides encrypted in the sequence of milk proteins. It is probably in this register that genetics (search for polymorphisms) and genomics (identification of novel proteins) may allow us to gain new insights into biological functions played by milk components as well as to provide the basis for their health promoting properties to be included as ingredients in functional foods. The genomic approach relies upon gene expression profiling technologies, such as proteomics and/or DNA arrays, which can be applied to search for factors promoting the status of functional food for milk and/or to find out novel or unexpected proteins in milk. The genetic approach would rather correspond to a post-genomic process. Major milk proteins represent a reservoir for bioactive peptides, which are potential modulators of regulatory processes controlling physiological functions. Angiotensin-converting Enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory peptides exerting an antihypertensive effect, or peptides stimulating proliferation of human lymphocytes and phagocytic activities of macrophages (immunomodulating properties) have been found in caseins (Meisel, 1998). Antithrombotic peptides inhibit fibrinogen binding to a specific receptor region on the platelet surface and also inhibit aggregation of platelets. Likewise, caseinophosphopeptides (carriers for different mineral divalent cations, especially calcium) and opioid agonistic and antagonistic peptides, present in the sequence of caseins, have to be released and thus activated through enzymatic proteolysis, during gastrointestinal digestion or during food processing (Maubois & Léonil, 1989; Meisel & Fitzgerald, 2000). Genes encoding milk proteins are subject to more or less subtle mutations (point mutations, insertion/deletion), giving rise to proteins whose primary structure and/or content in milk differ significantly both within and between species. Such variability may account for differences in allergenicity (Bevilacqua et al., 2001) and may abolish or reveal biological properties, by generating novel peptide sequences.

Genetic polymorphisms of caseins

The primary structures of milk proteins vary both between and within species, due to point mutations (SNP, Single Nucleotide Polymorphism), insertion/deletion (e.g. the bovine αs2-casein variant D loss of a phosphopeptide sequence due to an exon skipping event), splicing patterns. This situation is exemplified particularly well by caprine αs-casein. Indeed, the unusual and complex genetic polymorphism detected in goat milk (Grosclaude et al., 1987), and further analysed at the locus encoding this protein (Leroux et al., 1992), is now well-characterized (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). The 15 alleles described and characterized so far are distributed into seven different classes of protein variants, of which some appear to be internally deleted (F and G), associated with four levels of expression. At least nine differentially processed transcripts have been identified, arising from a single weakly expressed allele (F) (Leroux et al., 1992). Properly spliced mRNAs are produced, as well as transcripts in which up to 5 small-sized exons are missing. Some of the multiple protein isoforms, either originating from non-allelic skipping events or from cryptic splice site usage, reflecting a relatively weak “spliceability ” of mRNA precursors, where shown (Ferranti et al., 1997) to also occur with non defective alleles (A, B and C).

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Genetic polymorphisms, together with non-allelic variants and post-translational variability (discrete phosphorylation of seryl residues), lead to the occurrence of up to 40 different molecular species in the milk of a single goat heterozygous A/F at the αs1-Cn locus. The human (Martin et al., 1996) and horse (Miranda et al., 2004) counterparts, recently characterized, are shorter (170 and 193 amino acid residues respectively, versus 199 a.a. residues for the ruminant proteins) and display very low similarities with the cognate αs-caseins. This feature is mainly due to specific combinatory processes of splicing, characteristic for each species (Martin et al., 2003). Structural diversity and variability in expression level are both responsible for modifications in the organization and, consequently, changes in the physico-chemical properties of the casein micelle (Remeuf, 1993). Thus, as far as the goat αs-casein is concerned, significant effects have been reported on coagulation parameters, cheese yields, but also fat content and organoleptic characteristics (Grosclaude et al., 1994). In addition, it has been shown at the cellular level, that the absence (or low amounts) of αs-casein induces a dysfunction of the mammary epithelial cell by slowing down the transport of the other caseins from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus (Chanat et al., 1999). With the growing number of genes encoding milk proteins which have been shown to display complex patterns of splicing, thus increasing the coding capacity of genes, the extreme protein isoform diversity generated from a single gene can no longer be considered as an epiphenomenon. A parsimonious vision of this issue addresses the following major concern: does this convey any biological or functional significance? Important new insights are expected in this field in the near future, especially through genomics (functional) and proteomics.

Genetic aspects of meat as functional food

In the last few decades, meat started to be considered as a primary food, containing fundamental nutrients and microelements for human health (with the exception of populations with particular religious beliefs). Subsequently, several studies demonstrated that fat contained in meat may be harmful to human health, therefore one of the first nutrients altered by the food industry was fat, because of its implications concerning cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and cancer. We may consider lean meat as a functional food as it supplies important micronutrients, like iron (Thane et al., 2000) retinol, vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium and zinc, while maintaining the LDL/HDL ratio at the same level as fish and poultry diet (Hunninghake et al., 2000).

Genes and molecular markers for leaner meat

To obtain a higher proportion of lean meat, fat in animals was initially limited by appropriate diets and by selection through quantitative genetic tools that allowed for a substantial reduction of the overall fat percentage, particularly in pig and poultry. Only recently have molecular tools been applied in order to further reduce or modulate fat depot. The approach to search for a genome-wide scan of regions that may influence fat depot (QTL, Quantitative Trait Loci) has produced remarkable results, especially in pigs (Evans et al., 2003) and poultry (Ikeobi et al., 2002). However, the exploitation of a QTL in selection schemes is not a minor problem and the translation of a QTL region into the actual gene that influences the trait is largely advocated, although not many examples exist of targeting these genes in animal science (Nezer et al., 1999). Another approach is that of candidate genes, where genes are inferred to be involved in a particular trait because of the metabolic pathway they belong to or because of their behaviour in other species. The latter approach led to the important discovery of the role of myostatin gene in double-muscled cattle after its characterization in the knockout mouse (McPherron & Lee, 1997). Double-muscled cattle are characterized by a generalized hypertrophy, a lower fat deposition and a higher dressing percentage (Ansay & Hanset, 1979; Oliver & Cartwright, 1968; West, 1974; Geay et

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al., 1982; Shanin & Berg, 1985). Meat from double-muscled subjects has a lower fat percentage than meat from normal ones, due to a reduction of the volume of fat cells and not to a reduced number of them (Shanin & Berg, 1985; Bailey et al., 1982). In particular, a lower total lipid content and a much higher percentage of polyunsaturated fats (11% of fatty acids, compared to 2.7-6.1% reported for other breeds) have been observed in the intra-muscular fat of double-muscled Belgian Blue (Webb et al., 1998). Significantly higher proportions of polar lipid fatty acids and linoleic acid have been observed in the intra-muscular fat of Belgian Blue cattle (Webb et al., 1998; De Smet et al., 2000). The overall composition of fatty acids in the intra-muscular fat of Belgian Blue animals was considered to be closer to reported observations for pork (Webb et al., 1998). Adipocytes comprising the subcutaneous and internal adipose tissues of double-muscled cattle seem to be smaller than in conventional cattle, although adipocyte size within the intra-muscular fat appeared to be similar between both types (Hocquette et al., 1999). Several breeds are known to carry mutations that disrupt the myostatin function and cause the double-muscled phenotype with the desirable quality of leaner meat, notably different mutations in the third exon of Belgian Blue (Grobet et al., 1997), Piemontese (Kambadur et al., 1997), Marchigiana (Marchitelli et al., 2003); respectively, nt821(del11), C313Y and E291X are some of the most common and with major effect on the phenotype. Specifically, Myostatin affects muscle cells. However, it is expressed in other tissues and may carry out cell cycle control functions in these tissues as well. For example, although Myostatin is expressed only at low levels in adipocytes (McPherron & Lee, 1997), it has been shown to inhibit the differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes, probably by inhibition of transcription factors (Kim et al., 2001). Myostatin can thus be said to have a direct effect on adipogenesis, in addition to its well-described indirect effects that result from the radical change of the muscle to adipose tissue ratio. So far, only variants of myostatin that disrupt its function have had a practical exploitation. However, double-muscling is associated with some drawbacks, mainly due to dystocia. Recently, the promoter region of myostatin in cattle has been investigated, resulting in the finding of one polymorphism in this region, associated with higher muscularity in the animals, without being scored as “double-muscled” (Crisà et al., 2003). The possibility to exploit also natural variants of the regulatory regions creates new perspectives for a better modulation of any gene that affects a desired phenotype. Many other genes are candidates to influence the amount of fat in meat, like leptin and its receptor. At phenotype level, a positive correlation exists between serum leptin and marbling score and fat deposition (Geary et al., 2003) and a significant association has been found between leptin haplotypes and content of intermuscular and subcutaneous fat (Lagonigro et al., 2003).

Genes for better fat

Reduced consumption of animal products may actually be harmful because these products supply a variety of important vitamins, high quality proteins and minerals for growing children and old people who have problems receiving adequate nutrition. Animal fats are an important source of arachidonic acid for children because the latter cannot synthesize this fatty acid, which is essential for growth and development (Weiland et al., 1999). Food scientists and human nutritionists introduced the use of low-fat food, which led to a decline in saturated fat intake. Eating less animal fat and more plant oil has increased the ratio of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the human diet, which, when based on biochemical data, favour inflammatory responses that contribute to the incidence of cardiovascular diseases, certain types of cancer, and bone diseases (Koga et al., 1997). Processed food and hydrogenated vegetable oils also contain less n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids and may contribute to these inflammatory processes.

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Consumption of wild ruminant fat represented the primary lipid source for pre-agricultural humans. It has been demonstrated that the ratio polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids in wild ruminants approaches that of domestic ones if fed on grazing (Cordain et al., 2002). Several attempts have been made to enrich animal products with specific nutrients/health protectants. However, supplementation in the diet represents a constant cost and sometimes it causes a collateral deterioration of the organoleptic qualities of the animal product. A better solution could be to exploit genetic variants that may lead to an increased production of the desired fat molecules. Unfortunately, research is just in the beginning in this field and there are very few reports on the genetic variation of “healthy” lipids. Recently, Wachira et al. (2002) reported that Soay lambs contained higher proportions of 18: 3n-3 than Friesland and Suffolk lambs in the longissimus dorsi, while in the adipose tissue Suffolk lambs had the highest level. Another important molecule is cholesterol, considered both as a lipid with its biochemical properties and as a regulator of lipogenesis. The changes in cholesterol metabolism are due, at least in part, to the effect of cholesterol on the nuclear content of a family of specific transcription factors called sterol regulatory element binding proteins or SREBPs (Jump and Clarke, 1999). Three SREBP subtypes have been described (SREBP1a, SREBP1c, and SREBP2). SREBPs are helix-loop-helix transcription factors binding at specific cis-regulatory elements called sterol regulatory elements (SRE) in the promoters of several genes involved cholesterol, and fatty acid metabolism. Binding of SREBP to SRE induces transcription of specific genes, leading to an increase of their expression level. SREBP proteolysis declines leading to a fall in the nSREBP and suppression of gene transcription. Thus, cholesterol is a feedback regulator for its own synthesis by controlling the nuclear content of SREBPs. Several reports have suggested that SREBP1c plays a major role in both hepatic and adipocyte lipogenesis, i.e., the synthesis of fatty acids and triglycerides (Brown and Goldstein, 1997). Feeding animals with diets supplemented with polyunsaturated fatty acids suppresses the mRNA encoding SREBP1c as well as both the precursor and nuclear forms of SREBP1c. Since SREBP1c is a key factor in the transcription of several lipogenic genes, its decline leads to a reduction in lipogenic gene expression and de novo lipogenesis.

Rare breeds as a resource of genes affecting functional properties

Are there functional genes in local breeds of domestic animals? In order to answer this question we must consider the following:. the processes that have led to the formation of breeds;2. the genetic consequence of breed formation; and3. the relation between gene variants of food-producing animals and human health. Ad (1). The domestication of farm animals has been accompanied by selection of those animals that were most useful for our purposes. Tameness was probably the first criterion, but was soon followed by desirable properties such as draught power, meat yield, milk production, fur quality, etc. Regional differences in this process then led to the emergence of the first breeds by selection of a desired breed-specific coat colour and morphology, often very different from the wild progenitor. However, genetic isolation of most breeds remained for long rather incomplete,while genetic differentiation was gradual. Only during the last centuries selection of performance and external appearance became more systematic and thus breeds became more isolated. During the last decades, there was worldwide concentration on a few ‘cosmopolitan’ breeds with a high economic yield, such as Holstein-Friesian for dairy production and Merino sheep for wool. This was at the expense of local traditional breeds, which often allow a more extensive management. Another concern is the small population size, both in highly selected and in endangered breeds, leading to inbreeding and a decrease of disease resistance and fertility.

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It is important to realize that most breeds (with Chianina cattle as one of the notable exceptions) have a relatively recent origin. In the documented history of breeds, upgrading with sires from other breeds is often reported as late as the last century. Ad (2). Considering the history of breed formation, it is not surprising that the visible differences between breeds are not completely reflected in a differentiation at the molecular level. Studies of genetic diversity in several domestic animals have shown that breeds differ in allele frequencies rather than in gene variants. Factors controlling the allele frequencies appear to be (a) the geographical origin of a breed; (b) a strong genetic drift because of the small male population size; and (c) introgression, either accidental or resulting from intentional upgrading. Although selection of performance and breed phenotype is likely to have led to a fixation of the corresponding gene variants, most breeds contain 80-90 % of the diversity of the total species. Ad (3). The most obvious targets of a study dealing with the relationship between gene variants of food-producing animals and human health are the milk proteins of dairy animals. The potential of this research has been demonstrated by studies on the incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) and type 1 diabetes, which is highly variable among human populations (McLachlan, 2001). Although in early studies a role of milk consumption has been proposed, populations that consume milk from African cattle, yak or goat appear to have a much lower frequency of CHD than those populations consuming European cattle milk. More in-depth epidemiological studies (McLachlan, 2001) suggest consumption of taurine cattle milk containing the b-casein A variant as a risk factor for CHD and type 1 diabetes. This allele has a high frequency in North-Western European dairy breeds. Studies with laboratory animals fed with experimental diets have not been conclusive yet, but are not necessarily informative as regards the effects of food on human health. We conclude that further research, both on the epidemiological and the physiological level, may very well establish more links between human health and gene variants of domestic animals. Secondly, gene variants which are not present in the cosmopolitan breeds are most likely to be found in breeds with a long history of isolation or in relatives of the common farm animals: wild boar, zebu, banteng, gayal, yak, water buffalo, mouflon, wild goat species, etc. Most of these species can be crossbred with the domestic animals. This would allow an introduction of new and potentially health-promoting traits in the genome of domestic breeds.

Conclusion: importance of the preservation of traditional system, exploitation of genes

In the previous chapters, several examples have been reported of animal-derived food having functional properties. Even though research to definitively ascertain the mechanism and the entity of functional effects is still in progress, it can be concluded that there is a real perspective to have animal functional food. Moreover, the knowledge about functional effects is still at the beginning and only the more evident cases have been investigated. Undoubtedly, much more functional effects are still to be recognised and characterised. In fact, milk and meat contain hundreds of different molecules, and more can be produced with the progress of food processing. Some of them may potentially affect human health and well-being. Some functional effects are only demonstrated by direct experience through the years but they have been neither sustained nor ascertained by a comprehensive experimental work. The opportunity to find functional molecules is also greatly increased by the existence of a wide variety of typical products reflecting a huge quantity of potentially active molecules. The delayed knowledge about animal functional food is also responsible for the virtual absence of such food on the functional food market, contrary to plants. As soon as this gap is filled, a profitable

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commercialisation of animal functional food will be possible, especially for the quality-oriented livestock production systems. Genetics plays a crucial role in determining functional properties, and since the effects rely upon the presence, amount and structure of specific molecules, the genetic determination is due to single locus action or, in other words, functional properties are mendelian traits. Traits of this kind are theoretically simpler to investigate, and the single gene responsible can be identified, characterised and manipulated at the molecular level. Since rare breeds contain the majority of domestic animal genetic variability, they could be an important resource for these genes. However, even if all the theoretical and molecular tools are available, specific genes cannot be investigated because of the lack of information regarding their effects. In other words, before starting investigations on the genotype, an important and essential amount of work has to be done in describing the phenotype. Since functional food seems to be a future option for livestock production and given typical products and rare breeds are the reservoir of a promising variety of potentially active molecules with functional effects, it is essential to preserve and investigate farm animal biodiversity and traditional products specificities in a controlled scientific framework. Last but not least, once genes are found and characterised, discussions and debates arise about their exploitation. Basically, two main strategies are possible: in situ exploitation and extra situ exploitation. With the first option, the food is produced by the same breed and in the same environment where it has been detected. In this case, not only the gene is exploited but also the systems, with all the known positive consequences (economic, social, environmental...). The functional effect is therefore considered as an added value, useful for the maintenance and the development of a local sustainable production system. However, the existence of intrinsic constraints allows to implement only minor changes in the system. For example, the general low number of individuals in a local breed is not compatible with an appropriate genetic selection programme. The overall consequence is that in local systems only a limited amount of food is available. The second hypothesis (extra situ), consists in the extrapolation of the gene from the original breed and system. The traditional way to perform such a transfer is to introgress the gene from the local to a more productive breed by crossbreeding. Progress in molecular genetics allows also to transfer the genes through the species; in this way, the genes could be exploited in other domestic animals but also in plants or in bacteria. However, it has to be kept in mind that gene transfer will not always permit gene exploitation, due to gene interactions. There is no guarantee for its correct function in a new genome. All the constraints of the local system have been definitely overcome but, at the same time, any favourable effect on the original system is impossible to reproduce. Moreover, the question of the intellectual property rights on genes arises, as well as if and how the original system has to be rewarded for the exploitation of one of its components. The choice between the two strategies will depend mainly on the size of the functional effect. The relevant effect on health will help overcome the consumer concerns of eating food produced by genetically modified organisms. In case of a very relevant effect, the system will shift from the production of a functional food to the production of a drug. In any case, the science of animal functional food is still in a preliminary stage and future scientific multidisciplinary efforts should be supported to fully exploit the enormous potential of genes for functional foods.

5

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6

Establishing a quality convention, certifying and promoting the quality of animal products: the case of beef1

B. Sylvander1, G. Belletti2, A. Marescotti2 & E. Thévenod-Mottet3

1INRA-SAD, Chemin de Borde Rouge, 31327 Castanet Tolosan Cedex, France 2Department of Economics, University of Florence, Via delle Pandette 9, 50127 Firenze, Italy 3Service romand de vulgarisation agricole – SRVA, Avenue des Jordils 1, 1000 Lausanne 6, Switzerland

Summary

This paper proposes a conventionalist approach to quality, which implies considering the definition of quality as the result of a social construction process. It demonstrates, on the basis of examples from France, Italy and Switzerland, that the establishment of a successful quality convention for a given product requires a combination of specific conditions. After having introduced the conceptual framework of the analysis, the process by which quality conventions emerge and spread on the market is analysed and the diversity of conventions in the beef sector is highlighted.

Keywords: quality, convention, beef, regulation, labelling.

Introduction and conceptual framework

Farming and agri-food sectors worldwide are affected by the ongoing economic globalisation, with marked changes in the rules governing international trade and in national and supranational policies on agriculture and competition. These sectors are faced with the general saturation of food markets and with increasing consumer requirements as to the final quality of the products. Quality may include safety, several types of quality differentiation (including specific quality actions), or social qualities (public interest in protecting the environment, promoting biodiversity, enhancing animal welfare, fair trade, etc.)2. Within this general context, agri-food firms have identified as a strategic requirement the need to constantly work on the characterisation and quality of their products. In this paper, we propose a conventionalist approach to quality, which implies considering the definition of quality as the result of a social construction process3. A convention is defined as a “particular type of rule that embodies some measure of arbitrariness and that most of the time is not accompanied by juridical sanctions; its origins are obscure and while its formulation may be either vague or precise, there is no official version” (Favereau, 1999)4. From

We would like to thank François Roncin (Institut National des Appellations d’Origine), Nicolas Trift, Guy de Fontguyon and Pierre Sans (INRA) for their precious help.2See the works and reports of the CNA on the notion of quality (Sylvander, 2002) and on the specific quality (Lagrange et al., 2003)3 Some of the ideas developed in this paper come from researches in the frame of the FAIR project: “PDO-PGI: supply chains, markets and institutions”, and of the European Research Concerted Action DOLPHINS, “Development of Origin Labelled Products: Humanity, Innovation and Sustainability” (www.origin-food.org). We gratefully thank the European Commission and the researchers involved in the projects.4Refer to the seminal work about conventions theory by Dupuy et al. (1989).

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this perspective, a “dispute” between two actors is settled by recourse to a shared, higher order principle or convention (Thévenot & Boltanski, 1991; Thévenot, 1995). That is, convention theory operates at two different levels of logic: that of the rule and that of the higher order principle. As Favereau clearly states: “a constitutive characteristic of this form of convention is a set of rules and not merely a category of rules among others. All rules, or more generally, institutions, have an underlying convention (Favereau, 1999). As argued by Eymard-Duvernay, the classical economic question of co-ordination can be addressed not only in terms of prices but in terms of “conventions of product quality” that enable actors to co-ordinate their behaviour (Eymard-Duvernay, 1989). For example, in order to assess the quality of their products, they may draw upon various criteria related to interpersonal relationships (trust and brand-domestic convention), standards (scientific measures, third party certification—industrial convention), or the market (direct assessment of quality, price-market convention). But the “dispute” between actors may also become a “crisis” when the actors refer to different or even contradictory conventions. In such a case, the establishment of a compromise, or a combined convention, is a means to escape from the crisis. Regarding specific quality products (Allaire & Sylvander, 1997), these compromises are generally expressed by inter-professional agreements; then there are micro-conventions, which are the “local” version of macro-conventions. Macro-conventions consist in establishing (or using or adhering to) a social convention about the product through which a majority of the players involved can attain their objectives. This means that the interested parties share converging views as to their objectives and the way to develop a project based on the product’s quality. We will thus make no effort to give an objective definition of quality. Such an attempt would indeed raise considerable scientific questions. For the ISO, users define quality as “all the various properties and characteristics of a product, process or service, conferring on this product, process or service its ability to satisfy implicit or explicit needs” (ISO 8042). While practical, such a definition is of little scientific value because it implies an infinite number of quality states and is not consistent with the convergence of individual preferences required for market mechanisms to function. It is impossible to imagine a market where each producer or seller and each consumer would meet to agree on quality for each transaction. Accordingly, market operators must negotiate at least partial convergence as to quality to facilitate exchanges on the markets (Becker, 1997). There are then subjective qualities, which account for a diversity in preferences (economists speak of ‘horizontal quality’) and so for the differentiation between goods and quality standards which are subject to negotiation and agreement (social and/or regulatory consensus, termed ‘vertical quality’ by economists). These vertical qualities - which may be determined by research findings, become established in law (after socio-political negotiations) and thus become almost ‘objective’5 - are threshold qualities (cf. the entire demonstration in Sylvander, 2002). Where such negotiations lead to voluntary norms, products are characterised under “official signs of quality”. In this paper, after adopting a conventionalist approach to quality, we will focus on the process of establishment of a quality convention and the factors behind successful characterisation. We will demonstrate in the paper, on the basis of examples from France, Italy and Switzerland, that the establishment of a successful quality convention for a product requires a combination of specific conditions. In the present state of our work we are unable to provide a comprehensive and complete

5Even if these norms are based on scientific arguments, recent developments have demonstrated that they may evolve in relation with scientific and political disputes (Sylvander, 2002).

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analysis of these processes, but we can give some guidelines based on our studies of characterised supply-chains. After having introduced the conceptual framework of the analysis (part 1), we will analyse from a theoretical point of view the process by which quality conventions emerge and spread on the market (part 2). Then we will apply our model of analysis aiming at presenting the establishment of a quality convention by analysing a number of cases in Europe, chosen for their diversity (part 3).

The establishing of a quality convention: the methodological approach

The establishing of a social convention on quality can be analysed as a (not necessarily chronological) four-stage process: motivation, appropriateness of the response, social and political legitimation, and collective and coherent action (see Figure 1). The conjunction of those four stages determines whether or not the project is successful. The process consists of four stages: 1. Motivation: the quality convention often originates from a general social crisis (crisis of consumer

trust in the organoleptic or health-related quality of a product) or a competition crisis (cases of unfair competition, usurpation of notoriety, or simply high costs of production because of natural disadvantages). Such crises, which may threaten the very existence of a system of operators in the short or medium term, act as motivations for setting up the project. In some cases, it is rather the anticipation of a crisis – before it occurs – that motivates the operators. Thus, many changes in the quality conventions may derive from social interaction and changes in value systems (e.g. ethical, social, environmental values) without any real crisis occurring. Moreover, several quality conventions may coexist, whether peacefully or in conflict.

2. Relevance: producers, their representative organisations and the supply-chains involved set up a project designed to provide a relevant response to the expectations of society and/or consumers. In a free-market economy, the supply thus constituted has to meet demand from a group of consumers (market segment): this is the relevance of supply relative to the market. Such relevance can also be analysed in terms of economic feasibility (can the excess costs of specific farming methods be offset by the market? With or without public subsidies? etc.).

Figure 1. Establishment of a quality convention for typical and origin-based products.

CONSUMERS MARKET Social crisis, threats on systems of

production with strong

constraints

Crisis due to unfair

competition or usurpation of

notoriety

Regional, national,

European, international institutionnal

and legal frames

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3. Coherence of collective action: such projects are in most cases collective projects with large numbers of small farmers needing to be co-ordinated. In addition, since official intervention is required to some extent to create the conditions for establishing a public good (particularly in the PDO-PGI context), there must be agreement between the operators to secure public legitimacy (see next point). Collective action breaks down into two components: ex-ante negotiation of the project, and ex-post management of the system of operators. Such management is effected through management functions shared between the players within a unified centre of command capable of developing a collective strategy and reducing transaction costs.6

4. Legitimation: the quality convention must also be legitimated so as to fit into an institutional and legal framework (and to enable it to evolve): registration and protection of the product name, negotiation of the production conditions and the geographical area, legitimation of the collective action developed by the system of operators (e.g. in connection with competition law).

If these four fundamental conditions are brought together, then a quality convention may arise, in the sense of Favereau (1999), that is to say a collective cognitive process, a dynamic process which creates indicators of co-ordination for all the operators involved (Thévenot and Boltanski, 1991). To do this, the system must be a coherent one. We concur with Belletti and Marescotti (2002) when they consider these conditions in the form of a virtuous circle (see Table 1). A quality convention is validated by the notion of success, which depends on the stated objectives of the projects but also on the objectives of the different operators involved in the projects, objectives that may diverge to varying degrees. In research, analysis of whether systems are maintained or developed often relates to general objectives:• Economic objectives, which consist in maintaining or developing systems, by reinforcing the

competitiveness of the local production system for origin-based products in a globalised and competitive economy. In one way or another, the achievement of economic objectives is a prerequisite for achieving any associated objectives. The indicators of economic success are market share, quantitative growth or turnover, employment levels, etc.

• Social objectives, which consist in maintaining activity in a given area so as to promote rural development, combat population decline or protect the environment, including cultural objectives

Table 1. The stages in establishing a quality convention.

PDO-PGI success factors

(Barjolle & Sylvander,

2002)

1. Motivation

2. Collective action to set

up and manage supply

3. Relevance to consumers

4. Public legitimation

Economic and social objectives

Virtuous circle of typical

products (Belletti & Marescotti,

2002)

1. Motivation (protect and reproduce regional

resources)

2. Building process

(operator strategies)

3. Remuneration (if there is an

relevance)

4. Validation

Reproduction of local

(material and human)

resources

6See Chappuis et al. (1998), Barjolle & Chappuis (2000).

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(maintaining traditions within a defined population and area) and heritage objectives (preserving genetic heritage, know-how, etc.). Economic and social objectives are not always consistent and achieving social objectives does not necessarily follow economic success. Here we are dealing with the notion of quality of economic development (which ties in with sustainable development).

This distinction between the two types of objectives is debated by economists, the question being whether economic activities can or should pay for externalities and whether, consequently, economic regulation is limited to commercial activities or also includes all connected activities. This debate is underway at the WTO, where Europe aims at legitimating the notion of multifunctional agriculture to justify farm support independently of export support. In the case of typical products, this notion explains the diversity of the operators often involved in collective strategies of product enhancement: co-operation networks, alliances, conflicts, problems of free-riders, etc. (Belletti et al., 2002). Even if the study of such objectives is a highly valuable starting point (Barjolle & Sylvander, 2002), research shows that the diversity of the existing systems leads to diversification in the types of objectives and thus to diversification in the evaluation of these systems in relation to their specific situations (Arfini, 2003; Allaire & Sylvander, 1997; Perrier-Cornet & Sylvander, 2000; Sylvander et al., 2000; Lagrange, 1999).

Examples of conditions for the establishment of a quality convention

In this part we will apply our conceptual framework (the conventionalist approach) and methodological tool of analysis (the four-step process of establishing a quality convention) to a number of case-studies relating to quality and origin in the beef sector selected across Europe (France, Italy and Switzerland). The case-studies, summarised in Table 2, have been selected in order to give an idea of the diversity

Table 2. The selected cases. Country and product Type of characterisation France

Maine Anjou PDO Taureau de Camargue PDO Boeuf du Limousin Label Rouge + PGI Veau de l’Aveyron et du Ségala Label Rouge + PGI Viande bovine Biologique Organic farming Filière Qualité Race Normande Supply-chain and distributor brand (Carrefour)

Italy Vitellone Bianco dell'Appenino Centrale (Chianina)

PGI

Vacca Maremmana PGI + organic farming + rural development Carne bovina di Pisa Reg. (EC) 1760/2000

Switzerland Viande séchée des Grisons PGI Viande séchée du Valais PGI Appenzeller Mostbröckli PGI (not yet registered) Viande de nos Monts Collective trademark Swiss Premium Rindfleisch aus der Zentralschweiz

Distributor brand (Migros)

Viande de race d’Hérens (Vaud): Lo Bâo Private trademark

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of the types of conventions that are developing on the beef market, including the various legitimation structure they refer to.

Motivation and food scares

‘Productivist’ farming helped to promote, or sometimes to reinstate, in the minds of many consumers, values designed to correct its excesses. Many consumers take a dim view of the ‘modern’ (post World War II) diet: they perceive a deterioration of taste, a loss of diversity (particularly in plant varieties and livestock breeds), a threat to health - which is not unfounded (pesticide residues, nitrates in water, etc.) - a degradation of the environment and even, since the mid 1990s, a health danger (BSE crisis, dioxin crisis, GMO, etc.), which seemed to have been ruled out until then. After those crises, even if the food risk has objectively decreased, it is less and less accepted by the consumers, who demand a zero risk level, which has led to an ever-stricter application of the precautionary principle by professional bodies, major distributors and central governments. During the 1990s a favourable ‘culture medium’ was available for ideas that were relatively vague for consumers, all being based to some extent on nostalgia: ‘natural’, ‘farmhouse’, ‘local’, ‘regional’, ‘authentic’, ‘ancestral’, ‘old-style’, ‘traditional’, ‘ecological’, and countering ‘junk food’, and whatever was ‘industrial’, ‘modern’, ‘chemical’, etc. This situation provided an opening for many systems operating on the fringe of the standard economy and looking to develop specific quality on the basis of codes of practice for production that differ from those of mass production. Nevertheless, it has to be noted that these crises are also seen as opportunities by the big industry which manages to demonstrate the existence (or the absence) of certain qualitative characteristics (of the product, of the process, of the origin), even when using standardised production techniques. This is the case, for example, with the certification of conformity systems in France or the optional labelling systems provided for under Regulation (EC) 1760/2000. It also has to be acknowledged that ‘industrial’ firms enjoy considerable advantages over the ‘traditional’ producers who, although the legitimate holders of the reference to tradition, find it very difficult to provide the requisite guarantees and certifications and to standardise their production to meet the requirements of modern distribution networks. This is true of the Filière Qualité Carrefour, for example, which in about 10 years has managed to meet consumer expectations as to re-assurance and quality for beef in particular, while adapting supply to the restrictive conditions of large retailers. This has not been done without a degree of opportunism, as we shall see. A similar case in Italy is the meat Prodotto con amore: the retailer (COOP) drew up its own specification (which anticipated most of the restrictions brought in by the EU after the BSE crisis) and organised a specific supply-chain with medium-term contracts with producers and a system of guarantees for consumers. For the meat of Chianina from Vitellone Bianco dell’Appennino Centrale, the traditional farming system had to be modified because of the conditions imposed by the major retailers, who were increasingly keen to sell that meat; the result has been a difficult compromise over farming and feeding practices (Marescotti, 2000). More generally, it has been observed in France that, where quality is concerned, food scares have often structured the development of supply and the legal frameworks (wine crisis in 1912, poultry crises in France in 1954 and 1964, hormone-treated veal crisis in 1976, BSE crisis in 1996, dioxin crisis in 2001, etc.). Another kind of crisis may derive from the growth of free-market economies. An increasingly generic market may endanger output which is confined to regions with narrow constraints. This is particularly so in Switzerland, where, under the pressure of the process of economic deregulation in farming, a long-overdue change in the agricultural policy has been initiated in order to provide solutions

6

to farmers accustomed to operating in what was virtually a state economy. In such a context, producers in marginal areas must absolutely find ways of securing adequate remuneration for their output or they will go out of business. But standard ‘industrial-scale’ food industry firms, seeing the reputation of these specific products, imitate their production conditions and/or usurp their names; they try to benefit from their established reputation, the product names being generally not protected by a trademark or registered as a PDO-PGI, but without complying with the specific constraints of production and, finally, producing at lower costs. When combined with a misleading product name (name of the product or zone), such unfair competition has weakened a lot of traditional and artisan sectors and a lot of less favoured regions. For some economists, it is a legitimate marketing strategy to imitate and even try to improve on the model being imitated (‘me too’ strategy). Nevertheless, such practice is held to be unfair in many legal systems in Southern Europe and in international agreements (Paris, Madrid, Lisbon agreements, etc.), as well as by the WTO Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (1995). In other situations, PDOs and PGIs can be promoted by ‘industrial’ firms which meet the requirements of the specifications although they do not use the more traditional and restrictive methods of production, allowing these typical products to be integrated into more modern retailing systems. Such cases raise questions about the utility of the PDO and PGI processes as tools for protecting traditional farming systems which have to cope with competition brought about by the industrialisation of the beef sector. For beef, the first motivation is predominant. In France, during the BSE crisis, the interprofessional body Interbev created the logo Viande Bovine Française (French Beef Meat), which guaranteed origin and traceability without any other characteristic, so as to reassure consumers worried about health risks. This was the beginning of the establishment of a quality convention (Besombes, 2000). Regulation (EC) 1760/2000 subsequently set out to organise traceability and labelling at the European level, with the same aim (see Table 2). In Italy, these provisions were used for the carne bovina di Pisa, for example: Pisean origin, traditional farming (but without greatly detailed requirements), livestock farmed for a minimum of six months in the defined area, sale through traditional butchers. The Label Rouge in France was introduced in the 1980s, before the food scares, to maintain production in less intensive farming areas (Charolais, Limousin) rather than as a reaction to any loss of trust. These labels stagnated until 1996, the year of the BSE crisis, after which they came into their own. Their main advantages before 996 were that they were based on beef breeds, with better carcass conformation and matured better (normally yielding more tender meat), but that was not always enough for consumers to accept to pay a higher price. Since 996, the provisions on traceability meant these labels could develop, particularly because they concerned suckling breeds which were less affected by BSE. Lastly, product conformity certification of red meats, a tool based on these two fundamental characteristics but with fewer constraints than the Label Rouge, has developed greatly between 996 and 2003. Label Rouge Limousin was recognised as a PGI Bœuf du Limousin, thus protecting the farmers in this area against competition from other farmers. There was no true crisis, but only an initiative to improve the standing of a group of farmers in the usual competition conditions by securing a commercial added-value and stable prices for livestock from the delimited area (specialised suckling systems, see Sans & De Fontguyon, 1999). In Italy, initiatives for enhancing the trade value of the Vacca Maremmana in relation to the BSE crisis were developed to reassure consumers about health concerns, not only on the basis of territorial authenticity (which is guaranteed by the narrow territorial localisation of the breed) and farming method (organic farming), but also on the basis of the nutritive characteristics of the meat and particularly its low cholesterol content. In Switzerland, breeding traditionally specialised in milk production. Hence, before the market was deregulated in the 1990s, beef was generally of rather poor quality, except for very small productions such as beef from Valais (Hérens breed, brand “Lo Bâo”). When over-production occurred for milk,

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imports increased at the same time as the BSE crisis was developing in Europe and consumers felt increasingly concerned about animal welfare. Market opportunities arose for labelling local meats from farming systems complying with consumers’ requirements on meat quality, animal welfare and food safety. One of the aims of the establishment of such a quality convention, which is the re-location or maintaining of production in defined areas, is rather difficult to achieve, as shall be seen.

The collective development of a relevant supply

The technical development of a specific supply

Numerous systems of operators engaged in quality processes, not in order to comply with the conclusions of marketing studies but on the basis of the producers’ own convictions which led them to reject the implications of ‘modern’ production methods. Such a development of a specific supply is not only a ‘return to the past’, but a dynamic compromise between the re-discovery of certain technical peculiarities and a degree of innovation (Salette, 1997). In the case of Bœuf fermier du Maine (PGI), the return to traditional farming methods is combined with the recent incorporation in the cattle feed of ω3-rich flax seeds. The connection between an ancient breed and a particular geographical area may be recognised. This is the case of the Maine-Anjou (PDO), which is based on the Rouge des près breed, which can cope with the region’s summer droughts and develops characteristic interstitial fat because of these production conditions (Crisalide, 2002). Similarly, the typicity of Taureau de Camargue (PDO) is attributed to the extensive breeding conditions in Camargue and to the special breeds. Furthermore, all animals must take part in bullfighting and other bull games, which also contribute to typicity. In brief, production conditions do not attempt to maximise farming performances but rather to strike a balance between natural resources and the animal’s biological rhythms (Trift, 2003). Much the same is true of the Maremmana breed, a ‘rustic’ breed of Maremma, Tuscany and Lazio, which was originally a draught animal, well suited to harsh environments. It went through a period of crisis in the post-war period (130,000 head in 1955 versus 3,000 today). A specification is being drawn up to apply for registration as a PGI while initiatives are underway to develop objective criteria for the meat’s characteristics (low cholesterol content) and to make consumers more familiar with it. Because of poor yields at slaughter, the hope is to promote the breed in close conjunction with initiatives to develop the Maremma area especially through rural tourism. However, Regulation 59/99 support for breeds in danger of extinction is essential if the breed is to be farmed viably. Limousin beef (Label Rouge and PGI) characteristically provides better yield at slaughter because carcass bones are not as thick in mountain areas where the soil is acidic. This is correlated with better carcass conformation and thus more tender meat. There is also the possibility that foreparts can be regarded as prime cuts by extending cutting and thanks to the skills of butchers (De Fontguyon & Sans, 1999). Vitellone Bianco dell’Appenino Centrale (PGI) comes also from a draught breed (Chianina, Romagnola and Marchigiana). The breed consortium is moving towards an ever more restrictive process (restricted areas, prohibition on silage for the last four months’ fattening). Organic beef (France), produced in compliance with the organic code of practice, does not have intrinsically different characteristics, but because of the requirements producers must meet as to the

Raço di biou or raço Brava (or “race de combat”) or crossings between those races.

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origin of livestock (organically farmed for at least three-quarters of their lives) and traceability, it is claimed to be practically free for any BSE risk. In Switzerland, as there are no local traditional beef breeds, quality convention is established through collective brands (Viande de nos Monts, regional brand), distributor brands (M7 for Migros, Naturaplan for Coop, based on animal welfare and ecological farming), and organic certification, based on methods of breeding and rarely on geographical areas rather than on specific breeds. In Valais it is the Chamber of Agriculture, rather than the farmers themselves, which has taken an interest in establishing a quality convention on the Hérens breed beef, because it is essential for local consumption and because producers are more concerned about dairy production (although the breed is not a high yielding one). This has not resulted in any qualification such as PDO or PGI. However, such a special breed is the basis for an agreement among farmers and a large butcher (both located outside Valais), the meat being sold under the Lo Bâo (brand name). The various specifications may include:• regional and national origin. This was the crucial factor when BSE first broke out. However, a

distinction should be drawn between the straightforward origin, indicating where the beef cattle were farmed and/or slaughtered and/or processed (Regulation (EC) 1760/2000 lays down the provisions for mandatory and optional labelling), and provenance as a concept specific to PDOs, which indicates both the source area and the specific production conditions of the product and the area which make it typical (Barjolle & Thevenod-Mottet, 2004);

• traceability, which must be complete both upwards and downwards;• ‘traditional’ feed, which is not always clearly defined;• farming conditions: time spent outdoors, stalling characteristics, etc.;• breed: meat breeds (suckler herds), rustic breeds that have been maintained or improved to varying

degrees (native or local breeds);• sometimes maturation for guaranteeing tender meat. These specifications are negotiated when making an application for recognition8 for PDO-PGIs, or when drawing up the specification for the other schemes. Negotiations depend on the framework of which this scheme is part, but they are also affected by a complex which may include9:• the desirable technical supply in view of the state of production, the market, competition and

consumer expectations (and often the factors behind the crisis);• a maximum level of restrictions beyond which costs, and therefore prices, would be prohibitive;• divergent interests among the operators involved or excluded from the approach, e.g. on the matter

of PGI or PDO zoning.

Relevance of supply to consumers

Until 1996 the limiting factor that defined the quality sought by consumers was inconsistency in tenderness. Since 1996, the health issue has become the central one. Since the BSE crisis broke out in France, 7% of consumers have stopped eating meat entirely and 30% have cut down considerably, reinforcing a trend which began in the mid-1980s. For consumers in supermarkets, reassurance has come from origin (Viande Bovine Française), traceability and the prohibition of animal meal. Whereas the “product conformity certificates” have boosted supermarket meat sales in France (Table 3), in Italy sales have recovered largely through voluntary labelling schemes (Regulation (EC) 1760/2000). In both countries, private initiatives (Filière

8 Several publications deal with the negotiation process (Casabianca & de Sainte Marie, 1998; Biencourt & Sylvander, 2002; Barjolle & Thévenod-Mottet, 2004; Beranger et al., 1999).9 For a theoretical approach of negotiation, see Biencourt & Sylvander, 2002.

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Qualité Carrefour or Prodotti con Amore from Coop) based on production regulations had the same effect. In the countries under study, for consumers quality has long been guaranteed by trust in the butchers’ professionalism. Nonetheless, since the BSE crisis, consumers have also sought reassurance in the Label Rouge, in some private brands and in direct supply promoted by butchers and, a new feature, through farmers selling the meat of their own animals. In Italy, for want of anything equivalent to the Label Rouge scheme, consumers have continued to rely on local contracts in traditional channels (butchers), and in some cases the optional labelling system under Regulation (EC) 1760/2000 has been used. Obviously, mandatory labelling has helped reassure consumers. PDOs and PGIs are also aimed at this market opening, although they are not very numerous due to problems of specifications and typicity, and represent only small volumes. In Switzerland, the return to local breeds is less of a motivation (the best known breeds not being Swiss) than organic farming or animal welfare. Nonetheless, the reputation of processed products like dried meat (Bündnerfleisch, Appenzeller Mostbröckli or Viande séchée du Valais) may be a way to establish a quality convention and move back to local production, despite the obstacles (see below). Research shows that the more typical a product is, the more consumption depends on familiarity on the part of the consumer who shares the culture and knowledge of the producer (Van Ittersum, 2002; Tregear et al., 1998). When a common culture is established, consumers are ready to accept variable quality of the finished product and remain loyal despite occasional disappointments. Hence the relevance of the idea of typical quality in some markets for connoisseurs. In fact, it can be seen from specific quality products that consumers perceive quality as a feature of the product as a whole, based, of course, on attributes that set it apart from others (Filser, 1998) but which must be consistent with one another and ought not all be emphasised when communicating on the product. With beef it seems impossible – and undesirable – to communicate on all the characterising factors (breed, origin, farming conditions, traceability). The most successful experiences are those where a choice has been made among the sale arguments from a coherent set: consistency, traceability and provenance are essential attributes for supermarkets, whereas breed and personal trust may be more distinctive arguments when buying meat through butchers, by direct sales or by mail order. Therefore, within well-constructed, relevant and coherent supply systems, success factors and the way success is gauged vary from one system to another.

Collective action

Not all the initiatives aiming at establishing a quality convention are collective ones. Particularly those that involve individual brand names, conformity certifications, which can be filed and taken out by individual firms (McDonald) as in organic farming too, with ‘supply chain brands’ such as Filière Qualité Race Normande.

Table 3. Changes in beef sold under official quality signs in France (tons equivalent carcasses). Tons/year Quality signs 993 99 999 2000 2001 Label Rouge 4,800 23,000 23,600 25,600 29,200 Organic farming 3,000 4,000 5,200 Certificate of conformity 3,000 43,000 46,200 4,400

Source: Guy de Fontguyon, after CEPRAL, CERQUA, Eleveurs bio de France, Intervev.

Conversely, Label Rouge and AOCs are necessarily collective schemes, as are European PDOs. PGIs may be taken out by individual firms in France combined with a certificate of conformity (which is an individual scheme), whereas in Italy the PGI is always collective. In fact, public policy on specific quality features may be considered as a tool made available to farming and small businesses to put in place and promote products with specific qualities, which these systems of operators do not usually have the financial resources to do. As so often in agriculture, the actions are frequently undertaken collectively.

Levels of collective action

Collective action can take place at several levels (Barjolle et al., 1998):• creation and collective negotiation of the relevant supply (see above), which goes hand in hand

with the administrative procedure for recognition: these functions are fulfilled by consortia, quality groups or interprofessional bodies (Casabianca & de Sainte Marie, 1998);

• collective monitoring and inspection of production conditions and products against the approved specification: these functions are carried out by public authorities or by private certifying organisations accredited by central government (Barjolle & Sylvander, 2002);

• management: product quality management (grading, sorting, downgrading, variety control); market management (control of quantities put on the market, product promotion); research and development management.

Whereas the first two functions are commonplace in the schemes under study, the third is much less frequent, although it is fairly widespread in sectors other than meat, (e.g. cheese). Generally, collectives set out to share the promotion of the brand and the PDO in order to enjoy a stronger market position in the face of competition from retail chains (Albisu, 2002).

The limits to collective action

Two obstacles may hamper collective action when it comes to the establishment of a quality convention: the overall state of the market (external impediment) and opportunism (internal impediment). Given the sometimes limited size of quality convention schemes for beef as for other products, it is often difficult to adjust to the market in terms of quality and volume. If the product becomes better known, it may become a victim of its own success, which may lead to corner cutting in the specification or procurement from outside the region. Because of the specific context of Switzerland, quality conventions on beef could be more readily established for processed products rather than fresh meat. But this gave rise to a problem of availability of raw materials in the traditional processing region. The reputation of the processed products outstripped the possibilities of local supply. Moreover, the regions where traditional products fared best were also those traditionally given over to dairy production with renowned cheeses (Raclette du Valais, Bündnerkäse, Appenzeller). The Bündnerfleisch (PGI) therefore abandoned the idea of local origin, and even Swiss origin, of the meat. There is no requirement in the specification as to where the raw material comes from and dried meat producers addressed the idea of raw material quality without reference to its origin. For the Viande séchée du Valais (PGI), thought was given to whether the supply area could be restricted to Valais, or even to neighbouring cantons, or at least to promote such local procurement through a specific indication. Because of the shortfall between the supply of beef from Valais and the needs of the dried meat producers, this option was soon abandoned, although the meat still had to come from Switzerland. Producers of Mostbröckli (dried meat of Appenzell) followed the example of Valais producers in demanding that raw material come from Switzerland, although this was done to comply

2

with the line laid down by the government for registering PGIs, after negative reactions caused by the example of Bündnerfleisch rather than on grounds of quality related to origin. On the contrary, producers of dried meat consider that raw meat from Argentina is of better quality than raw meat from Switzerland. For fresh meat, there are collective marketing projects. The Partenariat de Sévery between a large butcher of the canton Vaud and farmers of Hérens cattle in Jura vaudois (with specific quality criteria), sell the beef under the Lo Bâo (dialect word for ox) brand. Other small and local supply chains are worth mentioning such as Viande de nos Monts (115 farmers and 5 butchers) in the eastern part of the Vaud canton or Swiss Premium Rindfleisch aus der Zentralschweiz in Migros supermarkets, but they do not require any specific breed, being only based on methods and geographical origin. The second obstacle to collective action is logically the phenomenon of individualistic excess (opportunism in economics), which may jeopardise the cohesiveness of the group and/or the value of the product (Barjolle & Sylvander, 2002). For example, with the Filière Qualité Race Normande, the specification and the brand were registered by the FQRN association, made up of producers, UPRA, Carrefour, and industrial partners (‘supply chain brand’). But Carrefour also set up a parallel specification, which was more flexible over carcass conformation and fattening, to increase its supply. This system operated alongside the ‘official’ one, illustrating the temptations of operator opportunism in a collective framework and prompting us to consider this as a weakly characterised product. For veal from Aveyron and Ségala (Label Rouge and PGI), the interprofessional body sells much of the meat through supermarkets. The farmers’ association Société SA4R works closely with the two other operators (slaughterer and distributor) to plan the farming programmes, direct flows to the slaughterhouse, and organise promotional events in stores throughout France (by farmers from Aveyron). There are regular meetings to review product quality and make any adjustments. It is a very flexible set-up (no employees) that runs by the strong collective involvement of the farmers and regular dialogue with the other operators (several meetings a year). The specification for Vitellone Bianco dell’Appenino Centrale refers to quality convention of the Chianina breed established by a private collective brand, 5R, to protect the typical Italian beef and veal breeds (Chianina, Marchigiana, Romagnola, Maremmana and Podolica) and cross breeds derived from them. In addition to managing breeds, the 5R consortium is unusual compared with equivalent organisations in France in that it controls a commercial circuit bringing together farmers, slaughterers and butchers under a private production regulation.

Legitimation

Legitimation is a dialectic (or interactive) process between professional schemes and institutional arrangements. The former anticipate and change to fit the context and may be caught up with by changes in overall policy. This is what we have termed a legitimation process of quality policies (Sylvander, 1995). For example, while France has had AOCs since 1919 and 1935, it was only in the early 1990s that public policy explicitly called for them to be developed and to play a role in agricultural policy and regional development at both national and European level. The same is true of Label Rouge, which was set up by professionals before becoming the subject of legislation that went through unnoticed in 1965 and being advocated by the ministry in 1990. Finally, whereas the Labels and product conformity certificates had largely anticipated the need to prohibit the use of animal meal and the need for traceability of beef and beef products, these measures were legitimated in 1996 with the BSE crisis. In the table in Annex 1, we synthesize the most important European and national regulations for the certification of quality and origin in the bovine sector. This table shows how diverse the public and private actions have been during the last decades about quality regulations and promotion.

3

Because it is an evolving process, this process is, of course, not self-evident. The social and political interplay gives rise to a learning process with regard to public mechanisms (case by case interpretation, reforms, development of doctrine, arbitration and compromise), to a process of contradiction and arbitration among public policies (Barjolle & Thévenod-Mottet, 2003) and to a process of progressive consolidation of credibility (Sylvander, 2003).

Learning process of public mechanisms

Rules are interpreted as and when they become applicable in the field. In this sense, the rule is a collective learning process which eventually gives rise to a doctrine (Favereau, 1999). Thus, for example, PDOs have been developed on the basis of more than a century of experience in winemaking determining the concepts of typicity and geographical origin. Even so, when in 1990 the Institut National des Appellations d’Origine was given responsibility for other products (dairy products and others), the approaches and terms had to be adapted (Scheffer & Roncin, 2000; Scheffer, 2002). Relationship with geographical origin as an essential concept of PDOs (Bérard & Marchenay, 2002) should therefore be reviewed in order to found a true European and soon worldwide doctrine. It has been seen that simple reference to breed or provenance was a weak quality convention. Accordingly, Regulation (EC) 2081/92 does not make provisions for PGIs or PDOs based on breed, which leads proposers of projects to specify production conditions that are consistent with breed (setting up supply) and producing typical features that consumers can recognise (relevance). This may give rise to a quality convention shared, by definition, by all concerned (including the authorities). This is no easy task when it comes to beef, which is less closely connected to the geographical environment than plants (and most of all wines) are (on this point, see Béranger et al., 1999). However, the example of Maine Anjou beef is noteworthy, because, after the Taureau de Camargue whose typicity was not in doubt, it is the first “conventional” beef to obtain a PDO (in March 2004). This shows that the adaptation of the breed to geographical, pedological and climatic conditions is a relevant concept in PDO meat. Taureau de Camargue is a breed with very poor qualities as butchers’ meat (very light carcasses with low fat levels), which means that a special classification system has to be adopted for the product. But it is a specific breed, farmed in a unique ecosystem (Camargue wetlands) with a highly specific type of farming (herds). For Label Rouge, the specifications are quite objective and give rise to marked differences in the final quality of the product. However, in the case of the BSE crisis, conformity certificates were able to reassure the consumers for a while (through prohibition of animal protein in feedstuffs), but the general legislation ‘caught up’ with those specific codes of practice, thus raising a problem with the evolutive nature of the provisions and therefore with the interpretation of the changes. In organic farming, specifications impose a duty to use certain techniques but not a duty to achieve a specified result. True, the absence of pesticides, antibiotic treatments and growth activators is a basis for presuming better health quality. However, a recent report by the French food safety organisation (AFSSA) claims that nutritional differences between organic meat and standard meat are negligible. Furthermore, unlike Label Rouge, the organic quality sign does not guarantee that the meat has been matured (and consequently that it is tender). On the contrary, the low volumes and the simultaneous presence in supply of young animals, dairy cull cows and suckler cows leads to highly irregular quality, which can be detrimental to the market. To establish a quality convention of this product, sounder, organic meat needs further regulatory definition, either through its own code of conduct or by pairing it with another specification (of the Label Rouge product conformity certificate type).

4

Policy arbitration processes

The changes in national and community policies come about through progressive additions guided by ‘legislative preambles’ which themselves derived from problematic situations in contextualised economic sectors. For instance, in the European Regulation on PDOs and PGIs, a distinction needs to be made between the objectives of the legislation and the expected effects, as set out in the Regulation. Examination of the preamble of Regulation 2081/92 brings out the following distinction reflecting the divergences among Member States during negotiations. Its application can be evaluated relative to these points. Objectives: a uniform legal framework for protecting geographical names for all EU Member States; clear information for consumers about the origin of the product; diversification of agricultural production so as to achieve better balance between supply and demand on the market (providing a legal framework for differentiating products by origin). Expected effects: products with certain characteristics may become an important asset for the rural community, particularly in less favoured or remote areas, by improving farmers’ incomes and retaining rural population in these areas. The economic (markets, farm incomes, consumer information) and social (rural development) concerns of citizens and legislators are readily apparent in this. Nonetheless, this policy is not necessarily in step with the Common Agricultural Policy at a more general level. For example, the dairy quota policy applies to the PDO cheese sector and restricts its development, whereas supply is often well below the level of demand in this sector.10 Grass premiums or suckler cow premiums are not subject to quality constraints and thus not necessarily consistent with Regulation (EC) 2081/92. In Switzerland, product characterisation processes are limited and come up against the general evolution of concern for the environment or animal welfare. As Switzerland is anticipating on WTO agreements by introducing a bold direct payment policy (obligation to keep animals in the open air, free stalling, etc.), product demarcation is much more difficult, integrated production being already a standard practice on almost all farms. This difficulty comes in addition to a general specialisation in cheese production, which does not favour any qualification gathering breed, geographical area and methods of breeding. Overall, the CAP is not in step with competition policy either. It has been seen above that operator groups, in terms of specific quality, fared better in promoting their products and managing quality and markets when working collectively (Reviron, 2001). However, anti-trust authorities see this as restricting competition and thus as making illegal agreements. Several interprofessional bodies have been investigated and even sanctioned on this basis (poultry Label in 1995, Cantal cheese in 1990). Economic theory legitimises such anti-trust actions in principle. However, it has been shown (Chappuis, 1999) that the collective management of a market is addressed at a much larger relevant market than those in question (the generic meat market is far larger than that of organic meat from Burgundy) and that the agreements do not prevent operators joining or leaving, and so are not closed-shop agreements. The authorities therefore have to arbitrate constantly and to amend the law accordingly. In France, for example, 996 legislation and the 999 farming framework legislation legitimise interprofessional bodies engaged in collective quality schemes. Other CAP measures (cf. Regulation (EC) 2078/92) support this line, as do measures by national authorities within the common market organisation for meat. In Italy, part of the national package for the CMO is for paying support for farmers using quality certification schemes and in particular within the PDO/PGI framework.

10 Even so, restriction of the supply may help structure a specific market for an emerging characterised product (cf. AOC Abondance).

5

Progressive consolidation of credibility process

Examination of the conditions for registering PDOs and PGIs (examination of applications) and of their inspection shows wide variations across Europe by country and region (Barjolle & Sylvander, 2002). In examining applications, the nature and representative character of applicant groups are not subject to common rules, which may distort competition and lead to unequal treatment. Some points in registration applications are examined by competent specialists in some countries, genuinely able to judge the geographic consistency of the production area and justifying the criteria chosen in the specification and evaluating the links with the natural and human environment. The capacity to make expert assessments is important for professionals and out of concern for fairness in processing applications. The issue of the relevance of the geographical zones of PDO-PGIs and the way they are evaluated is particularly important. As far as sanctions are concerned, strict controls on PDO-PGIs should lend credibility to the system, especially in the eyes of consumers, but also in the eyes of intermediate buyers for mass distributors or foreign operators. Checking that the products are in accordance with the specification, controlling traceability and monitoring raw materials in particular in the case of PDOs are important points for ensuring the future commercial success of such products. Evaluation of the product’s final quality, especially its appearance and its taste, is also one of the pillars of consumer confidence. Article 10 of Regulation (EC) 2081/92 provides for checks on PDOs/PGIs. It lays downs that inspection structures should be set up by Member States and that these should be either authorities or private bodies. All should provide the same guarantees of objectivity and impartiality with regard to any producers or processors under their control and have the necessary staff and resources to carry out testing and inspection. These criteria refer to the conditions laid down by standard EN 45011, but the accreditation of the inspection structures is not mandatory. Several studies show that here conditions vary again from one country to another, whichever form of organisation (private or public) the Member States favour. Decentralisation in some countries leads to improved proximity and thus improved effectiveness but sometimes also to poorer supervision by the authorities or private bodies in question. The specific conditions for supervising PDO and PGIs are not greatly detailed and vary with country and product. Requirements are not equivalent in terms of:• separation between the professional body and the control/certification body;• the three levels of i) inspections of firms and processes; ii) controls of traceability; and iii) final

product evaluation;• costs, thereby distorting competition;• inspection plans drawn up by quality groups, as there is no common basis for this. Lastly, as the defence of PDOs-PGIs is the responsibility of national authorities, there is no common strategy capable of ensuring protection across the European Union. Given the current situation of international agreements on the use of geographical names of agricultural products, an active defence at international level of protected names is not yet operational.

Conclusions

It would be rather rash to draw any firm and definite conclusions from the foregoing considerations. However, the following summary chart (Table 4) can be proposed on a provisional basis, being considered as an expert assessment. For the projects involving big operators (slaughterers and supermarkets) and making the necessary compromises to develop volumes, success is measured by market presence and by a price differential

6

for producers, enabling them to maintain production in the area (bœuf du Limousin, veau du Ségala et de l’Aveyron, Vitellone Bianco dell’Appennino Centrale). The price differential may be of as much as 10–15% compared with conventional supplies. On this basis, annual growth rates of 15% over ten years, as is the case with certified meats, or 10% for Label Rouge meats, may be considered as indicators of success, as may the number of producers and operators involved. Two weak points may then appear: the product is not specific enough, that is, it is not clearly differentiated from standard products (carne bovine di Pisa: two-thirds of output are not specific enough, but the other part is composed by the native Mucca Pisana breed, which is highly distinctive; in addition, quantities produced are very small, and no large firms are involved) or the emergence of more opportunistic and less ‘cooperative’ behaviour (Filière Qualité Race Normande). In small supply chains, traditional distribution combined with a well-organised supply may produce success stories, even if price differentials are not high (or do not even exist), since the aim is often to simply maintain production rather than to develop it to a high level (Taureau de Camargue, Carne bovine di Pisa, Vacca Maremmana). In this way, Taureau de Camargue does not have a positive price differential over standard meat (of the same carcass grading level), but enhances the value of bull meat, compared with the situation before the recognition as PDO. Experts believe that without the PDO the price would be even lower and production would thus be threatened. In fact, this form of farming is a way of enhancing the value of animals not selected for bullfighting. It is a form of diversification that stabilises economically

Table 4. Extent of characterisation of the examples studied.

Producers’ motivation

Collective action Relevance Legitimation Quality

convention Viande Maine Anjou + + + Weak Taureau de Camargue + + + + Strong Viande Limousin + + + + Strong Veau de l’Aveyron et du Ségala + + + + Strong

Viande bovine biologique + + Weak

Filière Qualité Race Normande + + + Weak

Vitellone Bianco dell'Appenino Centrale + + + + Strong

Vacca Maremmana + + + + Strong Carne bovina di Pisa + + Weak Viande séchée des Grisons + Weak

Viande séchée du Valais + + Weak

Appenzeller Mostbröckli + + Weak

Swiss Premium Rindfleisch aus der Zentralschweiz

+ + Weak

Viande de nos Monts + + + + Strong Lo Bâo + + + Weak

fragile farms. Similarly, the Maine Anjou breed seemed doomed in the medium term with only 57,000 specimens in 1994, but may be saved by obtaining the PDO. However, the lack of hindsight regarding many products makes it impossible to say whether the product is relevant to the market, and the lack of guarantee as to final quality or the lack of coordinated management may undermine the project. Typicity, within the framework of a characterisation process, may meet the very different demands expressed by the different operators in the beef and veal industries. Consequently, typicity is incorporated in several strategies that are often in conflict with each other. In any case, it is not a question of rediscovering something from the past but of constructing (on the basis of a connection with the geographical environment) a network among a number of private and public operators at the different points in the supply chain, so as to make expectations of producers and consumers consistent, with regard also to the expectations of society as a whole.

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Annex 1. The national and European regulations on quality and origin

Country and type of characterisation Definition Comments Date

created

Europe

Reg. (EC) 1760/2000 (beef

and beef products labelling)

The objective of the Regulation (EC) 1760/2000 is to maintain and reinforce consumer trust in beef and beef products (market stability, improvement of transparency for the conditions of production and commercialisation of the products processed with beef). The European Union has established a system of “identification and registration of cattle” in addition to a system of “mandatory labelling based on the origin of beef to ensure traceability from the producer to the consumer”. Firms’ strategies mainly relate to the optional system of labelling: operators or organisations selling beef and beef products can include additional information in their labelling rather than just the mandatory indications. They have to communicate a specification to the competent public authority in the Member State where the meat is produced or sold to obtain an authorisation. The specification includes: • the information to feature on the label; • the means of guaranteeing the truth of the information; • the checks which apply at each step of production and

commercialisation, including testing and inspection by independent bodies approved by the competent authority;

• and, for organisations, penalties for members who do not comply with the specification.

Individual or collective process 2000

Organic zootechnics

The objective of the Council regulation (EC) 1804/1999 is to complete the legislation with reference to organic productions, given that demand for organically produced agricultural products and livestock productions is rising and consumers are increasingly attracted by such products. Mode of production according to the ECC 1804/99 (supplementing ECC 2092/91) includes: • totally organic feedings; • low density of heads in pens and paddocks (grazing preferred); • preferably homoeopathy and phytotherapy (non-systematic use

of conventional medicine); • prohibition of embrio-transfer practices; • no GMO in feedings; • no coexistence of conventional and organic breedings.

Individual process 999

Protected Denomination of

Origin EC Reg. 2081/92

“Name of a region, a specific place or, in exceptional cases, a country, used to describe an agricultural product or a foodstuff originating in that region, specific place or country, and the quality or characteristics of which are essentially or exclusively due to a particular geographical environment with its inherent natural and human factors, and the production, processing and preparation of which take place in the defined geographical area.”

Collective process 992

Protected Geographical

Indication EC Reg. 2081/92

“Name of a region, a specific place or, in exceptional cases, a country, used to describe an agricultural product or a foodstuff originating in that region, specific place or country, and which possesses a specific quality, reputation or other characteristics attributable to that geographical origin and the production and/or processing and/or preparation of which take place in the defined geographical area.”

Collective process (individual processes

are exceptions) 992

Collective trademark

Trademark registered with the national intellectual property institute (or WIPO), based on a customary regulation. Collective process

Distributor brand Trademark registered with the national intellectual property institute (or WIPO) by a retailer.

Individual or collective process (if there are contracts)

81

Country and type of characterisation Definition Comments Date

created

France

Label Rouge

“Certification that an agricultural or agri-food product complies with all the various characteristics determined beforehand which guarantee a superior level of quality, that level distinguishing the labelled product from similar common products. The Label rouge is a collective trademark owned by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.”

Collective official process

1960 and 965

Product Conformity Certification

“Certifies that an agri-food product or a non processed and non food agricultural product complies with the specific characteristics or rules determined beforehand on its production, processing or packaging. These characteristics must be objective, traceable, measurable and significant for the consumer.”

Individual process of a firm 1990

Organic farming

Mode of production using no synthetic chemical products for fertilising or phyto-sanitary treatments, using specific production practices (green manure, compost, biological pest control) and using only listed treatment products.

Individual process 1980

(France) 1991 (EU)

Controlled Appellation of

Origin

The AOC (or PDO) label identifies a raw or processed agricultural product whose typicity is due to its geographical origin. It guarantees a close connection between the product and its geographical environment and protects an established reputation. Production conditions take into account local, fair and unchanging practices.

Collective process 99

(France) 935, 1990

Italy

Private trademarks

Before Regulation (EC) 1760/2000, there were numerous private individual or collective trademarks. In some cases, these systems had internal regulations (for example those of the big retailers, or big industrial slaughterhouses, or herd books). Some of them referred to rational farming methods.

Individual and collective processes

Switzerland

PDO-PGI PDO-PGI system similar to the European one Federal Ordinances RS 910.12 et 910.124 Collective process 99

Organic agriculture Federal Ordinances on organic farming RS 910.18 et 910.181 Individual process 99

Retailer trademark Trademark registered at the Federal Institute of Intellectual Property pursuant to the Federal Law on the protection of trademarks and indications of source, RS 232.

Individual process 1890, 1992

Collective trademark

Trademark registered at the Federal Institute of Intellectual Property pursuant to the Federal Law on the protection of trademarks and indications of source, RS 232.

Collective process 1890, 1992

Certification trademark

Trademark registered at the Federal Institute of Intellectual Property pursuant to the Federal Law on the protection of trademarks and indications of source, RS 232.

Individual or collective process 1890, 1992

Labelling of beef meat

Ordinance on foodstuffs, RS 817.02 Ordinance on the indication of the country of production of basic ingredients composing foodstuffs and for meat sold in bulk, RS 817.021.51

Individual process 1995, 2000

82

83

Consumer attitudes towards specific beef and lamb quality products in different European regions

A. Bernués1, A. Olaizola2 & K. Corcoran3

1CITA, Gobierno de Aragón, Ap.do 727, 50080 Zaragoza, Spain 2Universidad de Zaragoza, Miguel Servet 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain 3University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK

Summary

The concept of meat quality is constantly evolving, partly in response to the rising concerns of consumers in terms of safety, health, ethical aspects, origin, etc. As a consequence, the demand for Quality Meat Products (QMPs) that deliver specific quality attributes appears to be increasing across the EU. Within this context, extensive livestock production systems could have a comparative advantage if farmers’ organisations and small meat companies are able to translate the demands of consumers into consumer-led quality products. Data obtained from a survey carried out in 4 regions of the EU were used to analyse the positive and negative factors perceived by consumers in relation to QMPs. The main positive factors were: levels of satisfaction, region of origin and the guarantee/certification associated with QMPs. Negative factors were: a price considered high and lack of information on the product’s attributes. Differences in attitude towards QMPs between species (beef and lamb) and regions were identified and discussed, and their relationship with purchasing motives, quality requirements, sources of information on quality, labelling preferences and socio-economic features was analysed. The paper concludes that there are opportunities for the development of certified labelled QMPs that can help to restore consumer confidence. In this way, farmer groups and meat SMEs can benefit from the exploitation of quality/safety-driven markets.

Keywords: consumer attitudes, quality beef, quality lamb, Europe.

Introduction

Consumption of red meat, especially beef, has been in steady decline in Europe over the last two decades. In 1996, the BSE crisis in the UK caused a great distortion in the European beef market (and indirectly in other meat markets) (Latouche et al., 1998). Although beef consumption has now partially recovered, it is anticipated that the general downward trend will continue. Many factors have contributed to changes in red meat consumption in Europe; lack of consumer confidence in the meat industry is often highlighted as a key problem for the red meat sector (Issanchou, 1996; Henson & Northen, 2000). Food quality, as perceived by consumers, is a subjective, multi-dimensional and dynamic concept (Grunert et al., 1998; Bernués et al., 2003a). Consumers are becoming more demanding about product quality and their perception of quality is constantly changing (Grunnert & Walli, 2001; Steenkamp, 1990). Meat credence quality attributes, qualities that cannot be ascertained, not even after consumption (Steenkamp, 1990), and which mainly focus on the production process rather than the product itself (Becker, 2000), are becoming increasingly important, in response to

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growing consumer concerns about safety, health, ethical considerations, etc (Harrington, 1994; Wandel & Bugge, 1996). Within this context, the demand for quality meat products (QMPs) that deliver specific quality attributes seems to be increasing across the EU. The promotion of quality is regarded as a major driver of new EU agro-environmental policies and an essential element of the competitive strategies of meat companies (Wolff, 1986). In this prevailing situation, extensive livestock production systems and meat small and medium enterprises (SMEs) could have a comparative advantage (van Ittersum, 2002), because production is perceived to be of higher quality or even ‘safer’ by some consumers (credence quality). The translation of extrinsic quality attributes into consumer-led QMPs can form a key strategy for farmer associations and small meat companies which can then better target certain consumer segments, but for this strategy to be effective, greater cooperation/ integration between firms (Barjolle & Sylvander, 2002) and common definition of quality standards are necessary (Bernués et al., 2003a). The objectives of this paper were: firstly, to measure the importance attached to different factors when deciding to buy QMPs (beef and lamb) in different European regions and secondly, to identity relationships between consumption of QMPs and different consumer characteristics in terms of purchasing motives, quality attitudes, quality information sources, labelling preferences and a number of socio-economic features.

Methodology

A sample proportionally stratified by geographical area, size of place of residence and type of outlet, was used to obtain information on consumption of quality beef and lamb in 4 European regions in England, France, Scotland and Spain, between October 1999 and January 2000 (Table 1). Data were obtained from direct questionnaires carried out with persons responsible for meat purchase in the household. Exploratory research was carried out in all regions studied, using qualitative focus group investigation (Corcoran, et al., 2001) and expert meetings with meat industry representatives. The results of this exploratory phase served as the main source of input to the quantitative questionnaire. Respondents were firstly reminded about some regional/ national quality meat products in order to put the following questions into context. The QMPs were: “Cotswold Lamb” (collective brand); “Agneau Catalan” (collective brand); “Specially Selected Scotch Beef” (collective brand); “Vedella dels Pirineus” (Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) in process) and “Ternasco de Aragón” (PGI),

Table 1. Number and percentage of observations in the sample per region. Country Area of study Beef Lamb Total England Cotswold

(South-west of England) - 448 448

(25.1%) France Languedoc-Roussillon

(South-east of France) - 308 308

(17.3%) Scotland Scotland 500 - 500

(28.0%) Spain Aragón and Lérida

(North-east of Spain) 22 300 52

(29.6%) Total 2

(40.8%) 056

(59.2%) 783

(100%) The areas of study and animal species were determined by the SMEs participating in the project (see Acknowledgements).

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in England, France, Scotland and Spain (beef and lamb) respectively. These products were of most interest for the SMEs involved in the project. Respondents were then asked whether or not they had ever bought any specific quality beef and lamb product. Those who gave an affirmative answer were asked about factors that influenced their decision to buy QMPs and factors that would influence their decision to buy more. Those respondents giving a negative answer were asked about factors that had influenced their position and factors that could reverse it. Respondents were also asked to report on the importance of: 1) purchasing motives (factors important for the consumer when deciding the type of meat to buy); 2) seven meat characteristics (extrinsic attributes, as defined by Bernués et al., 2003a) thought to contribute to quality of beef/lamb; 3) different informational stimuli or cues (Steenkamp, 1997) used to assess meat quality in the shop; 4) information items that could appear on meat labels; 5) several socio-demographic characteristics (Table 2). A frequency analysis was performed by region to assess the relative importance of the different factors in relation to the purchase of QMPs. Beef and lamb consumer samples were considered separately in Spain, the only country where both beef and lamb products were studied. A Chi-square analysis was carried out crossing the variable ‘consumption of QMPs’ with the other variables: purchasing motives; extrinsic quality attributes; sources of information on quality; labelling preferences and socio-economic conditions, in order to identify differences between consumers that had tried QMPs vs. those who had not.

Table 2. Variables used in the chi-square analysis.

Purchasing motives Socio-demographic variables Family and children Knowledge of

preparation Age Population:

rural/urban Nutrition and health Tradition 18-35 years old <5,000

Safety Price 36-65 years old 5,000-50,000 Ease of purchase Satisfaction obtained > 65 years old >50,000 Ease of cooking Meal occasion Sex Family size

Extrinsic quality attributes1 Male -2 members Origin/ region of

production Animal breed Female 3-4 members

Environmentally friendly Processing/ packaging >4 members Animal welfare Storage Socio-economic

status Presence of

children Animal feeding Low yes Sources of information on quality: cues1 Medium no

Retailer/ supplier Label/ brand High Direct assessment

(colour, fat) Price

Labelling preferences1 Brand name Cooking

recommendations

Origin of meat Name of cut Nutritional information System of production

Maturation time Traceability/ quality control

Deadline (consume by) Classes were: ‘not-important’; ‘important’; ‘very important’.

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Results and discussion

Importance of factors when buying QMPs

In general, the main factors positively influencing the purchase of QMPs were the satisfaction derived from the product (32.8% of the total sample), the region of origin (31.2%) and a better guarantee (25.5%) (Figure 1). However, there were differences between regions. In England, the traditional character of the product (lamb) and the rearing method were also relatively important. In France, traditional character, natural elaboration and rearing method had similar importance for the satisfaction obtained from the product. Scottish consumers (48%) attached relatively greater importance to the region of production. In contrast, Spanish beef consumers attached less importance to this factor. In most countries, the main factor that respondents felt could affect an increase in consumption of these products, was a reduction in price (34.7% of the total sample) (Figure 2). More information (11.2%) and especially better product guarantees (16.9%) could also increase the consumption of QMPs in all countries. Meat produced in their own country (15.1%) or area (9.1%) was more relevant for English and Scottish consumers. As can be seen in Figure 3, a lack of information was the main factor that prevented consumers buying QMPs (11.1% of the total sample), with particular relevance in France and Spain (beef consumers). Some Spanish beef (10%) and lamb consumers responded that unavailability of the product was also an important factor. Similarly, Figure 4 shows that the main aspect that could convince people (mainly French and Spanish beef consumers) to start buying QMPs was more information on the product (7% of total sample) and better guarantees (3.3%). Lower prices had also some relevance (around 5% of English, Scottish and Spanish beef consumers). In Spain, locally produced quality beef could encourage 8% of consumers to buy it.

Profile of consumers that buy QMPs

In Table 3, significant differences between consumption of QMPs and other variables are presented (for further information on the importance of purchasing motives, extrinsic quality attributes, quality cues and labelling preferences of the whole sample see Bernués et al. (2003a, b). Many differences are observed between consumers of beef and lamb quality products, especially in terms of purchasing motives, extrinsic quality attributes and labelling preferences. Whereas lamb consumers tended to attach greater importance to price when purchasing quality lamb, consumers of quality beef did not attach importance to this factor, but were instead more influenced by such factors as family and, especially, safety. Beef consumers that were more concerned about safety and nutritional aspects of meat seemed to have more trust in specific quality beef products. It could be argued that these products deliver better guarantees and address consumer concerns better than standard undifferentiated beef. It is also significant that consumers of quality beef attached greater importance to animal feeding as an extrinsic quality attribute. Animal feeding was considered one of the most important extrinsic attributes of beef and a particularly relevant cue for predicting credence quality, relating specifically to safety (Cowan 1998; Henson & Northen, 2000; Glitsch, 2000; Bernués et al., 2003a). On the other hand, consumers of quality lamb tended to attach greater importance to extrinsic attributes such as environmental friendly production and animal welfare. Other authors have pointed out that consumers increasingly hold ethical concerns in relation to the impact of intensive rearing methods (Harrington, 1994; Wandel & Bugge, 1996) and therefore these attributes can become indicators of ethical demands.

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0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Engla

nd

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

B

Spain

L

better taste/like it(32.8%)

better guarantee(25.5%)

region of origin(31.2%)

method of rearing(7.0%)

traditional product(10.3%)

natural elaboration(5.1%)

Figure 1. Factors that influence the purchase of QMPs1.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Engla

ndFra

nce

Scotla

ndSp

ain B

Spain

LEn

gland

France

Scotla

ndSp

ain B

Spain

LEn

gland

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

BSp

ain L

Engla

ndFra

nce

Scotla

ndSp

ain B

Spain

LEn

gland

France

Scotla

ndSp

ain B

Spain

LEn

gland

France

Scotla

nd

Spain

BSp

ain L

lower price (34.7%)

more information(11.2%)

better guarantee(16.9%)

country produced(15.1%)

area produced(9.1%)

nothing (14.5%)

Figure 2. Factors that could influence the purchase of more QMPs1.

0%

10%

20%

30%

Engla

nd

France

Scotlan

d

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotlan

d

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotlan

d

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotlan

d

Spain

B

Spain

L

Engla

nd

France

Scotlan

d

Spain

B

Spain

L

high price (1.7%)

no difference (1.1%)

not from own region(0.8%)

not available (2.4%)

don't know theproduct (11.1%)

Figure 3. Factors of influence for not purchasing QMPs1.

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

Engla

ndFra

nceSc

otland

Spain

BSp

ain L

Engla

ndFra

nceSc

otland

Spain

BSp

ain L

Engla

ndFra

nceSc

otland

Spain

BSp

ain L

Engla

ndFra

nceSc

otland

Spain

BSp

ain L

Engla

ndFra

nceSc

otland

Spain

BSp

ain L

Engla

ndFra

nceSc

otland

Spain

BSp

ain L

lower price (3.4%)

more information(7.0%)

better guarantee(3.3%)

countryproduced (1.5%)

area produced(1.6%)

nothing (3.4%)

Figure 4. Factors of influence to stimulate purchasing of QMPs in the future1.

1For clarity purposes, the options ‘don’t know’ and ‘other’ were not represented in Figures 1 to 4. These options had some relevance in Figures 3 and 4, especially in Spain and France.1For clarity purposes, the options ‘don’t know’ and ‘other’ were not represented in Figures 1 to 4. These options had some relevance in Figures 3 and 4, especially in Spain and France.

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Table 3. Chi-square analysis between buyers of QMPs and purchasing motives; extrinsic quality characteristics; sources of information on quality; labelling preferences and socio-economic features1. Beef Lamb Scotland Spain England France Spain

Family-children***

Family-children* Price* Price**

Safety*** Safety** Ease of purchase**

Ease of cooking*

Tradition**

Purc

hasin

g m

otiv

es

Meal occasion**

Origin/ region**

Origin/region** Environ. friendly**

Origin/region prod.***

Environ. friendly**

Animal feeding**

Animal feeding* Processing/ pack*

Environ. friendly***

Animal welfare**

Animal breed*

Storage** Animal welfare**

Storage**

Extri

nsic

Q at

trib.

Animal breed**

Label/ brand*

Label/brand* Direct assessment**

Label/brand* Label/brand**

Price** Label/brand** Qua

l. cu

es

Price** Brand name**

Consumed by* Brand name** Brand name** Origin of meat**

Cooking recom.**

Origin of meat***

Origin of meat***

Consumed by*

Nutritional info.*

Nutritional info.**

Name of cut**

Consumed by**

Maturation time*

Production system**

Cooking inst.**

Name of cut**

Name of cut** Production system***

Labe

lling

pre

fere

nces

Traceability/Q control**

Traceability/Q control**

Soci

o-ec

onom

ics

-Mainly 36-65

years old**

-Presence of

children**

-Mainly 36-65 years old* -Populat.<5,000 and >50,000** -Family: mainly >4 members*

-Mainly 36-65 years old** -Sex: mainly male*

-Socio-econ.: medium-high***

-Family: not single*

-Populat.: >5,000 and

specially >50,000***

-Family: mainly 3-4

members*

Text in table means positive relationship between consumers that have tried QMPs and the importance give by the consumers to the variable. Significances are: * 0.1> P ≥ 0.05; ** 0.05 > P > 0.001; *** P ≤ 0.001.

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The origin or region of production was very important in France, Scotland and Spain (beef). Many studies have demonstrated the importance of the origin of meat as an indicator of quality, some in relation to the perception of safety (Becker, 1999; Henson & Northen, 2000; Glitsch, 2000;), others in relation to the value consumers attach to ‘locality’ (De Cicco et al., 2001; van Ittersum, 2002); this could be the case in France and Scotland, where consumers might have a stronger sense of identity and regional belonging. In Aragón (Spain), where traditionally the consumption of lamb is very high, origin was not explaining differences between standard and quality lamb consumers, maybe due to the fact that either of them assume that both standard and PGI “Ternasco” are similar products that come from the region. Label and brand, as might be expected, constituted important informational cues for consumers buying QMPs in all regions. Bernués et al. (2003b) pointed out that consumers who were more concerned with quality (safety, nutrition, health) demanded also more information and tended to rely on and use labels more. Price appeared to be an important informational cue of quality in Britain, where higher prices would be perceived as an indicator of better quality meat. Direct assessment (colour, fat, presentation of the meat) was significantly more important for consumers of quality lamb in England. The name of the brand in the label was very important in all regions except in Spain, where meat is normally sold unbranded. Origin of meat, as an item of information on the label, was important for consumers who had bought quality lamb as opposed to those who had not. A similar phenomenon could be observed for information related to the system of production and traceability, and the system of quality control. Information on ‘system of production’ and ‘measures of quality control’ is becoming increasingly important (Wandel, 1997) and can constitute relevant cues to inform consumers better on the credence quality attributes of meat (Bernués et al., 2003a). If quality meat products are appropriately labelled to target concerns of consumers in terms of origin, characteristics of the production system and the traceability and quality control systems implemented, producer associations and meat SMEs can find an opportunity to differentiate their products, increase consumer loyalty (van Ittersum, 2002) and better access quality-driven segments of the market (Bernués et al., 2004b). Table 3 points out many differences between European regions in terms of consumers’ appreciation of QMPs, some of which were pointed out in the paper. Therefore, it is important to take into account the cultural differences between countries and regions when studying meat quality perception, as other studies have established (Grunert, 1997; Cowan, 1998; Henson & Northen, 2000; Glitsch, 2000). Socio-economic features also helped to profile consumers of QMPs who tended to be middle-aged (36-65 years old), with medium-size families, normally with children, living in rural areas but principally in large cities. French consumers of quality lamb tended to be male, with medium or high economic status.

Concluding remarks

Factors that positively influenced the purchase of QMPs were the satisfaction derived from consuming the product, the region of origin and a perception of better guarantees delivered by these products. Other factors, such as ‘traditional character’, ‘natural elaboration’ and ‘method of rearing’, were also considered important by some consumers. Two factors seemed to be limiting the purchase of these products: price, perceived as too high by many consumers, and the lack of reliable information/ guarantees delivered. The latter has been often highlighted as one of the main reasons that constrain the development of the red meat industry. Labelling and branding of QMPs can serve different purposes: labels/ brands help to differentiate a product and can also improve product attractiveness. Another function of labelling and branding is to deliver an assurance of certain levels of quality through the provision of appropriate information.

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This is particularly true for consumers with concerns about safety, nutrition/ heath issues, ethical considerations, etc., who tend to rely more on labels and brands and appear to demand more information on the production process (animal feeding, method of rearing, etc.), meat traceability and systems of quality assurance applied. In this way, labelled and branded QMPs can help to restore consumer confidence in beef and lamb products, which have suffered from a tarnished image in the past, and also benefit from the development and exploitation of quality/ safety-driven markets. Extensive livestock systems could have comparative advantages due to the extrinsic quality attributes they can deliver (animal welfare, natural/ traditional way of production, animal feeding assurance, protection of the environment in rural areas, etc), which, if appropriately indicated, could fulfil the credence quality expectations and demands of consumers. Farmers’ associations, producers’ cooperatives and meat SMEs can also benefit from the ‘proximity’ of their products, with which consumers can identify, by trying to reduce the ‘distance’ between consumers and production processes, the latter often perceived as unnatural and technology-driven. Also, if consistent quality attributes satisfying consumers are delivered, consumers might develop loyalty towards branded QMPs. In conclusion, the expansion of markets for QMPs will be improved if producers are able to translate the demands and concerns of consumers into differentiated product quality characteristics. Nevertheless, independent and credible certification and information are required to reassure consumers of the quality specifications offered by the quality meat product.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the European Commission for the financial support to carry out the research project: “Marketing read meat in the European Union; extending the options” (CRAFT: FA-S2-98-9093). Participants in this project were: 1. SMEs: Quality Meat Scotland (Scotland); Cotswold Sheep Group (England); Coopérative Ovine

des Pyrénées Orientales (France); Consorzio Nazionale Zootécnico, PRO.IN.CARNE (Italy); Carnes Oviaragón, Criadores de Carne Natural de la Alta Ribagorza (Spain).

2. Research Institutes: University of Edinburgh (Scotland); Royal Agricultural College (England); Insitut National de la Reserche Agronomique (France); Centro Ricerche Produzioni Animali (Italy); Universidad de Zaragoza, CITA-Gobierno de Aragón (Spain).

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93

Ass milk: nutritional and functional characteristics

E. Salimei1, F. Fantuz2, P. Polidori2, R. Coppola3, B. Chiofalo4 & G. Varisco5

1Dipartimento di Scienze Animali, Vegetali e dell’Ambiente, Università degli Studi del Molise, Via De Sanctis, 86100 Campobasso, Italy 2Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università degli Studi di Camerino, Via Circonvallazione 93, 62024 Matelica (MC), Italy 3Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Agroalimentari Ambientali e Microbiologiche, Università degli Studi del Molise, Via De Sanctis, 86100 Campobasso, Italy 4Dipartimento di Morfologia, Biochimica, Fisiologia e Produzioni Animali, Università degli Studi di Messina, Polo Annunziata, 98016 Messina, Italy 5Istituto Sperimentale Zooprofilattico della Lombardia e dell’Emilia, Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy

Summary

In order to contribute to knowledge on ass milk and its feasible production, 6 asses (3 of the Martina Franca and 3 of the Ragusana breed) were studied over two consecutive lactations. Both studied lactations lasted 150 days. During the experimental periods, starting from d 28 after parturition, asses were milked every 5 days; results on ass milk yield and characteristics refer to morning and afternoon milkings. Over the experimental periods, asses produced on average 740 ml milk/milking; milk yield was higher in the second lactation. Results on ass milk composition confirm the relative dilution of this product, characterised by low fat (averaging 0.38 g per 100 g milk) and protein (averaging 1.72 g per 100 g milk) contents but with a high lactose content (mean value 6.88 g per 100 g milk). Protein fraction of ass milk showed a low β-lactoglobulin content along with a higher content of lysozyme (1.5 g/L) compared to bovine milk. Regarding the fatty acid composition, average PUFA n3 content was higher than in cow milk (7.45 g 100 g- total fatty acids); PUFA n3:PUFA n6 ratio was 0.86.

Keywords: donkey, milk, infant nutrition.

Introduction

Cow’s milk protein intolerance, the most frequent food allergy in infancy, can evolve also into intolerance to alternative foods in some infants; in these cases, the risk of malnutrition is considered high (Carroccio et al., 2000). Clinical studies confirm donkey milk feeding as a safe and valid treatment of most complicated cases of multiple food intolerance (Iacono et al., 1992). On the other hand, scientific references on donkey milk composition have been scarce for a long time (Schryver et al., 1986; Oftedal & Jenness, 1988). Based on the possibility of ass milk to function as a hypoallergenic infant food, the present study has been carried out in order to deepen knowledge on both quantitative and qualitative aspects of donkey milk production, with a special consideration of its lipid and protein fractions.

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Materials and methods

Six pluriparous donkeys (3 of the Martina Franca and 3 of the Ragusana breed) were used to provide milk samples in a study carried out over two consecutive lactations. The animals, stabled with their foals in boxes provided with a wide external paddock, had never been milked before; they were fed a similar diet over the two lactations, consisting of 10 kg meadow hay (CP 9%, EE 1.8%, DE 6.8 MJ kg- as fed) and 2.5 kg grain-based commercial concentrate (CP 15%, EE 2.2%, DE 11.5 MJ kg- as fed), divided into two daily meals. Concentrate was never administered during the milking. Both studied lactations lasted 150 days. During the experimental periods, which started on d 28 after parturition, donkeys were machine-milked every 15 days. The pilot milking machine consisted of a type of wheeled trolley with a sheep cluster; according to studies on dairy mares (Salimei et al., 1996a), operative parameters were established at 42 kPa vacuum level, 50% pulsation ratio, with a pulsation rate at 120 cycles/min. During the first year of the study, the animals were milked three times/d (at 12:00, 15:00 and 18:00 h) while in the second year the animals were milked twice a day (at 12:00 and 15:00 h), since no significant differences in milk yield and composition had been observed between the afternoon milkings in the first year. Foals were physically separated from the dams 3 hours before each milking. Individual milk yield was recorded for each milking; at the same time, individual milk samples were taken, divided into aliquots and appropriately preserved and stored for analysis. Refrigerated samples (4°C) were analysed by NIRS (Milkoscan 605, Foss Italia) for fat, total protein (N x 6.38) and lactose content; dry matter and ash content of the samples were determined according to the directions of the Italian Association of Animal Production (ASPA, 1996), as well as measurements of titratable acidity and pH (potentiometer). Calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium were determined in bulk milk samples by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, phosphorus by spectrophotometry and chloride by potentiometric method (ASPA, 1996). Milk hygiene and healthy status of udder were monitored respectively by total bacteria (Bactoscan, 8000) and somatic cell count (Fossomatic, Italia). As regards mid-lactation frozen samples (20 ml, -80°C) from the second lactation, the NPN content was determined (ASPA, 1996) and analysis of the protein fraction was carried out by SDS -PAGE, according to the methods described by Pagliarini et al. (1993). Proteins were identified on the basis of molecular weight (MW marker 97.4, 66, 42.7, 31, 21.5 and 14.4 kDa; BioRad) and by comparing the migration pattern with that of equine milk (Bonomi et al., 994; Pagliarini et al., 1993). Semi-quantitative analysis of SDS-PAGE was performed using an image analyser based on Quantiscan software (Biosoft). The fatty acid composition of ass milk bulk samples (40 ml, stored at -20°C) was characterised by gas chromatographic analysis (HRGC) of the methyl esters, prepared by direct transesterification (Christie, 1993). Quantitative and qualitative data on milk production have been analysed by descriptive statistics (SAS, 2001); results are reported as mean values ± s.e.m. Milk yield and its major constituents were also analysed by ANOVA (SAS, 2001) considering the lactation milking time and breed effects along with the covariate effect of days in milk.

Results and discussion

Experimental subjects quickly adapted themselves to the milking machine routine; over the entire experimental period, average milk yield was 740 ml/milking (±32.3 ml), being significantly higher (+40%; P<0.001) during the second year of the study. This could be explained by the probable adaptation of both animals and milking operator to the milking procedures. The average milk

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yield of the morning milking was found statistically lower than that observed in the afternoon milkings (549.2±31.5 ml/milking vs. 949.3±39.0 ml/milking; P<0.001). The overall average milk composition together with the minimum and maximum values are reported in Table . The observed average total protein content, consistent with data reported for ass milk by Oftedal and Jenness (1988), did not vary significantly with lactation, milking times and breed. It must be noted that the total protein content of donkey milk is very close to the protein content of human milk (Pagliarini et al., 1993). The average fat content of donkey milk (Table 1) was on the other hand much lower than that reported for ruminants’ milk (Solaroli et al., 1993) but similar to values observed in mares’ milk (Doreau & Boulot, 1989); the large variability of fat content is also consistent with previous observations in mares’ milk (Doreau & Boulot, 1989; Salimei et al., 1996a). The high lactose content detected (Table 1) was consistent with values reported for mares’ milk (Martuzzi et al., 1995) and human milk (Travia, 1986). The milk lactose content, major responsible for the high palatability of ass milk, is also thought to be qualitatively preferable to other carbohydrates contained in semielemental formulas for allergic infants (Iacono et al., 1992). The concentrations of macro-elements in ass milk (Table 2) were consistent with data reported in the literature for equids’ milk (Doreau & Boulot, 1989; Csapò-Kiss et al., 995; Schryver et al., 1986). Mineral composition values observed in ass milk were closer to human milk than other types of milk, except for calcium and phosphorus levels (Belli Blanes, 2001). It is interesting to note in this regard that the average Ca/P ratio in ass milk was 1.48 (±0.12), which is intermediate between the lower values of human milk and the higher values of cow milk (Travia, 1986). Among other chemical characteristics of ass milk, average pH (7.18±0.03), higher than in cow milk, was associated with a low average titrable acidity (1.72 °SH±0.03). These data, consistent with findings on mares’ milk (Pagliarini et al., 1993), could be explained by the lower casein and phosphate contents than in cow milk. Positive results in donkey milk hygiene and mammary health were also observed: both the average somatic cell count and the total bacteria of donkey milk were in fact very low (3.68±0.048 logSCC ml-; 4.46±0.076 logCFU ml-). It is also important to note that total bacterial count significantly (P<0.05) decreased throughout the study (1st year: 4.70±0.13 log CFU ml-; 2nd year: 4.2±0.044 logCFU ml-), as a probable effect of a more accurate milking hygiene. However, the low microbial count has also been related to the high content of lysozyme (Coppola et al., 2002), one of the milk components with interesting biological effects. Results from a more in-depth study on nitrogenous components of ass milk show an average NPN content (0.29±0.01 g 100g- milk) very close to the human milk value (Travia, 1986); average milk casein content (0.87±0.02 g 100g- milk) was intermediate between human and ruminant milk casein levels (Travia, 1986), whilst whey protein content (0.68±0.02 g 100g-

milk) was similar to that observed in human milk. Results obtained by SDS-PAGE showed a pattern similar to what reported in the literature for mare milk (results not shown): a low amount of β-lactoglobulin was noted, the relative percentages on total whey protein of lactoferrin (Mr 75 kDa), serum albumin (Mr 67 kDa), β-lactoglobulin (Mr 19 kDa), lysozyme (Mr 17 kDa) and α-lactalbumin (Mr 12 kDa) being 4.48%, 6.18%, 29.85%, 21.03% and 22.56% respectively. It must be noted that β-lactoglobulin is considered the probable major milk allergen in infants and small children whilst casein is considered the predominant allergen in adults (Carroccio et al., 2000). Results from the study on fatty acid composition of ass milk (Table 3) showed the highest concentration of saturated fatty acids, according to data on mares’ milk (Martuzzi et al., 1998). Among fatty acid compositions, most interest is particularly laid on polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) of both the n-3 and n-6 series, showing an average PUFA n3/PUFA n6 ratio (0.86) consistent with data on mares’ milk (Salimei et al., 1996b).

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Table 1. Chemical composition of donkey milk (g/100g of milk).

Mean SEM Min. Max Total solids 8.84 0.07 8.45 9.3 Fat 0.38 0.04 0.10 1.40 Total protein (N x 6.38) .2 0.02 .25 2.18 Lactose 6.88 0.02 6.03 7.28 Ash 0.39 0.02 0.36 0.44

Table 2. Average mineral composition of donkey milk. Macroelements Mean SEM Min. Max Ca (mgkg- ) 66. 62.8 360 1140 P (mgkg- ) 487.0 29.2 320 650 Ca/P ratio 1.48 0.12 0.93 2.3 K (mgkg-) 49.2 5.6 244 640 Na (mgkg- ) 218.3 26.2 100 268 Mg (mgkg- ) 3.3 4.52 . 48.1 Cloride (mgkg- ) 336. 55.5 140 500

Table 3. Fatty acids classes of donkey milk (mean ± SEM). g/100g of total fatty acids Total saturated 6.5 ± .39 Total monounsaturated 15.82 ± 0.48 Total PUFA n3 7.45 ± 0.58 Total PUFA n6 8.65 ± 0.54 Total polyunsaturated 16.60 ± 1.16

Conclusions

The encouraging results presented in this paper need to be confirmed by more in-depth multidisciplinary research on nutritional, extra nutritional and therapeutic characteristics of ass milk, a natural and alternative hypoallergenic food for infants with intolerance to cow’s milk protein. Exploitation of donkey milk could represent an economically interesting resource regarding donkeys and their natural environment, by contributing to the micro-economy of marginal and hilly areas. It could also have positive effects on the preservation of animal biodiversity.

References

A.S.P.A., 1996. Metodi di analisi del latte delle principali specie di interesse zootecnico, University of Perugia Press.

Belli Blanes, R., 2001. Il latte di asina a confronto con il latte umano, caprino, bovino e le formule commerciali. Proceedings of Convegno “L’asino: attualità e prospettive dell’impiego in campo medico, zootecnico e alimentare”, Mondello.

Bonomi, F., S. Iametti, E. Pagliarini and G. Solaroli, 1994. Thermal sensitivity of mares’ milk proteins. J. Dairy Res. 61: p. 419-422.

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Carroccio, A., F. Cavataio, G. Montaldo, D. D’Amico, L. Alabrese and G. Iacono, 2000. Intolerance to hydrolysed cow’s milk proteins in infants: clinical characteristics and dietary treatment. Clin. Exp. Allergy. 30: p. 1597-1603.

Christie, W.W., 1993. Preparation of ester derivatives of fatty acids for chromatographic analysis. Analysis in lipid methodology, The Oil Press LTD, Dundee.

Coppola, R., E. Salimei, M. Succi, E. Sorrentino, M. Nanni, P. Ranieri, R. Belli Blanes and L. Grazia, 2002. Behaviour of Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain in ass’s milk. Annals Microbiology 52: p. 55-60.

Csapò-Kiss, K., J. Stefler, T.G. Martin, S. Makray and J. Csapò, 1995. Composition of mares’ colostrum and milk. Protein content, aminoacid and content of macro- and micro-elements. Int Dairy J. 5: p. 403-415.

Doureau, M. and S. Boulot, 1989. Recent knowledge on mare production: a review. Livest. Prod. Sci. 22: p. 23-235.

Iacono, G., A. Carroccio, F. Cavataio, G. Montalto, M. Soresi and V. Balsamo, 1992. Use of ass’s milk in multiple food allergy. J. Pediatric Gastroent. Nutr. 14: p. 177-181.

Martuzzi, F., P. Mariani, G. Zanzucchi and A.L. Catalano, 1995, Composizione azotata e minerale e valore energetico del latte di cavalla nel corso dei primi quattro mesi di lattazione. Riv. Soc. Ital. Ippol. : p. 5-23.

Martuzzi, F., A. Summer, A. Catalano, S. Barbacini and P. Mariani, 1998. Il contenuto in acidi grassi polinsaturi del grasso del latte di cavalla prodotto nelle prime settimane di lattazione. Atti Conv SISVet 52: p. 537-538.

Oftedal, O.T. and R. Jenness, 1988. Interspecie variation in milk composition among horses, zebra and asses (Perissodactyla: Equidae). J. Dairy Res. 55: p. 57-66.

Pagliarini, E., G. Solaroli and C. Peri, 1993. Chemical and physical characteristics of mare’s milk. Ital. J. Food Sci. 4: p. 323-332.

Salimei, E., V. Bontempo and V. Dell’Orto, 1996a. Nutritional status of the foals related to the age and to mares’ feeding. Pferdeheilkunde 12: p. 245-248.

Salimei, E., M. Cattaneo, B. Chiofalo and V. Dell’Orto, 1996b. Exploitation of mare’s milk by polyunsaturated fatty acids enrichment. In: Food and health: role of animal products, G. Enne and G.F. Greppi (editors), Biofutur, Elsevier Publisher, p. 223-227.

SAS, 2001. Statistical Analysis System User’s Guide, Cary, NC.Schryver, H.F., O.T. Oftedal, J. Williams, N.F. Cymbaluk, D. Antczak and A. Hintz, 1986. A

comparison of the mineral composition of milk of domestic and captive wild equids. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 85A: p. 233-235.

Solaroli, G., E. Pagliarini and C. Peri, 1993. Composition and nutritional quality of mare’s milk. Ital. J. Food Sci. 1: p. 3-10.

Travia, L., 1986. Significato biologico e nutrizionale del latte nell’alimentazione dell’uomo. Il Latte 9: p. 358-371.

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The origin attribute as a quality factor and as an element conditioning attitudes towards purchasing beef

M.T. Maza, V. Ramírez & E. Manrique

Universidad de Zaragoza, Departamento de Agricultura y Economía Agraria, c/ Miguel Servet 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain

Summary

This study was conducted within the framework of a wider research, whose basic aim was to examine the possibilities of creating a designation of origin mark for beef in a Spanish Autonomous Community - La Rioja. The research has two aims: i) to analyse the importance that consumers place on origin as a quality factor and as a factor differentiating the product; ii) to examine the role of origin as a motivating factor for consumption of meat with differentiated quality and as a requirement for a greater consumption of such meat. The region of production/origin was considered by 60% of the respondents as a very important factor for obtaining quality beef. For consumers of specific quality beef, origin is not particularly important as a motivating factor for purchase. Origin is considered probably more important by consumers when purchasing standard rather than specific quality meat, where other factors are more highly valued.

Keywords: origin, meat beef, consumption.

Introduction

In the agrifood sector, quality is increasingly used not only in its sense of excellence, i.e. “superior quality”, but also refers to a series of specific qualitative characteristics, meaning that the products are able to satisfy different tastes or requirements. The particular qualitative characteristics of agrifood products can be considered as dependent on a multitude of factors, but perhaps the physical location of production and/or the product processing facilities and the methods used to prepare products are the elements of most importance for consumers. Linking quality to a specific origin offers a series of advantages from the point of view of the CAP objectives. On the one hand it has a beneficial effect on local development and the rural world, increasing the value of products, providing greater added value and thus increasing farmers’ income. On the other hand there is a beneficial effect on consumers who, to an increasing extent, value the fact that these products have been prepared with natural techniques that respect cultural and food traditions and which are respectful of animal welfare and the environment, incorporating sustainable development as a quality attribute. This study has two aims: to analyse the importance that consumers place on origin as a quality factor and as a factor differentiating the product. The second objective is to examine the role of origin as a motivating factor for the consumption of meat with differentiated quality and as a requirement for the greater consumption of such meat.

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Methodology

The method used to achieve the stated objectives was market research, which is a way of obtaining information about the market based on the analysis of samples, i.e. the non-exhaustive analysis of consumers in a market. Results are then used to estimate the behaviour or characteristics of the whole market or population. For the purpose of the study, in the last quarter of 1999 and in the first quarter of 2000 a questionnaire was carried out on 25 consumers residing in La Rioja and individuals responsible for purchasing meat for home consumption. With this number of questionnaires and given the hypothesis of non-normality of the characteristics studied in the population and a 95.5% level of confidence in the results, a maximum allowable error of 6.8% was obtained, which can be considered to be within acceptable limits. In order for the sample to be more representative, the “size of population” criterion was taken into account and the questionnaires were assigned proportionally to the percentage of the population residing in each of the strata into which the municipalities were divided. The survey comprises 34 yes/no or semi open-end questions divided into three sections: main questions, filter questions and personal questions. Four of these questions are analysed in this work.

Results and discussion

Quality indicators in standard beef

Origin as a factor in obtaining quality beef

The question featured in Table 1 was posed in order to find out the importance consumers place on origin when purchasing quality beef. It takes into consideration the region of production/origin together with other factors that may be determining or have an influence on purchasing quality meat. In all cases, a majority of respondents felt that the factors were “very important”, with the exception of “Slaughtering/Processing/Packaging” (Table 1). The factors held to be most important were “Animal’s feed” followed by “Storage time and conditions” and “Region of production/origin”. Factors such as “environmentally friendly” or “animal friendly production methods” were considered to be “very important” by just over 50% of the respondents whereas “Breed of animal” was considered as “very important” by only 35.2%. In a similar survey carried out in Navarra and the Basque Country, the three most important factors for beef consumers were: in the case of Navarra, meat produced in this region, additive free meat and information on the traceability of the meat, whilst in the case of the Basque consumers, the lack of additives was the most important factor, followed by the beef being produced close-by (Álvarez et al., 2001). We can therefore conclude that origin was held to be somewhat more important in these surveys than in our survey where respondents only rated it as the third most important factor.

Indication of origin labelling as a quality factor

Another way of assessing the value attached by consumers to the origin of meat is to assess its relative importance amongst a series of other data which appear on the label. The majority of interviewees felt that the different factors expressed in the question were very important with the exception of three: cooking suggestions, the brand, and the producer (Table 2).

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The three most important factors, in descending order, were: best before date, maturing time/date of slaughter and origin of the meat. These results tally with those obtained by Bernués et al. (2001) in Spain, where the most relevant information was related to the freshness of the meat (best before date and maturing time) and the origin. Other works show that information about the origin of the meat and quality symbols are the factors most valued when judging the safety of beef (Briz and De Felipe, 2000).

Specific quality beef

Origin as a motivating factor for purchase

The following questions were put only to consumers of specific quality beef. The aim was to ascertain the importance of origin when purchasing meat of this type and the influence of it being produced in the region itself on increasing purchases. The answers received show that consumers do not think origin is particularly important (Table 3).

Table 1. Importance of factors in obtaining quality beef (%).

FactorsNot

importantQuite

importantVery

importantDon´tknow

Noanswer

Region of production / origin

8.29 24.87 60.10 3.11 3.63

Environmentally friendly production methods

11.92 24.87 51.81 10.36 1.04

Animal friendly production methods

9.85 24.87 55.43 9.85 0

Animal feed 5.18 8.29 86.01 0.52 0 Breed of animal 17.62 30.57 35.23 15.03 1.55 Slaughtering / Processing / Packaging

15.03 38.34 30.57 16.06 0

Store time and conditions 4.14 14.51 75.65 5.70 0 Total = 100 % 10.29 23.76 56.40 8.66 0.89

Table 2. The importance of the information on the label in indicating the quality of the beef (%).

InformationNot

importantQuite

importantVery

importantDon´tknow

Noanswer

Brand 26.43 38.34 19.69 15.03 0.52 Origin of the meat 2.59 29.53 66.32 1.55 0 Nutritional information 9.84 39.90 47.15 3.11 0 Maturing time / slaughter date 3.63 19.17 73.06 3.63 0.52 Best before date 1.55 4.66 91.71 2.07 0 Cooking suggestions 34.20 48.70 12.95 3.63 0.52 Name of cut 18.13 37.82 42.49 1.55 0 Rearing method 9.84 29.53 55.44 5.18 0 Producer 48.19 24.87 17.10 9.84 0 Total 17.16 30.28 47.32 5.07 0.17

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As for factors leading to increased consumption of specific quality beef, production of the meat in the region does not appear to be particularly important for consumers, in contrast to factors such as “More guarantees” or “Lower cost” (Table 4). Our conclusion is that origin is considered important by the consumer, but probably more so when purchasing standard rather than specific quality meat, where other factors relating to organoleptic characteristics, guarantees and price are more highly valued.

References

Álvarez, M.J., S. Álvarez and S. Albardiaz, 2001. Sistemas de calidad en productos alimentarios de origen animal: el caso de “Ternera de Navarra”. IV Congreso Nacional de Economía Agraria, Pamplona.

Bernués, A., A. Olaizola, M.T. Maza, E. Manrique and K. Corcoran, 2001. Etiquetado de carnes rojas: tipo de información y su importancia para el consumidor europeo. IV Congreso Nacional de Economía Agraria, Pamplona.

Briz, J. and I. de Felipe, 2000. Hábitos y percepciones del consumo de carne en España. Eurocarne 88: p. 51-61.

Table 3. Reasons for purchasing designated quality beef. Reasons Percentage Tastes better / we like it 35.29 More guarantees 30.88 To try it .6 It is from a certain region .35 Traditional product .4 Natural product .4 Don´t know 2.94 Others 8.82 Total 100.00

Table 4. Factors increasing sales of designated quality beef. Factors Percentage More guarantees 37.10 Lower cost 33.87 Don´t know 8.06 More information 4.84 Produced in the region 4.84 Availability 4.84 Produced in the country .6 Quality .6 Specification .6 Not fed on animal feeds .6 Total 100.00

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Consumers’ evaluation of traditional Extremaduran cheeses through factor analysis

F. Pulido, F.J. Mesías, A. Rodríguez & M. Escribano

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Extremadura, Ctra. de Cáceres, s/n, 06071 Badajoz Spain

Summary

In this paper, factor analysis is applied in order to obtain information on the positioning of traditional Extremaduran cheeses, comparing them to other cheese types found in the market. The data are taken from a survey of cheese consumers in Extremadura, carried out in 1999. The items of the survey related to the scores given to several attributes of different types of cheese. The Extremaduran cheeses studied have been divided into two groups, depending on the degree of knowledge on the consumer’s side. Potential and limitations of traditional cheeses have been highlighted through their market positioning.

Keywords: cheese, marketing, positioning.

Introduction

Spain has one of the lowest cheese consumption rates of all EU countries, with a national average below 7 kg/person/year, very far from countries like Greece (25 kg) or France (22 kg/person/year) (García, 1998; MAPA, 1998). Nevertheless, in the last 10 years consumption has increased by more than half a kilogram per person per year (Langreo, 1998). This increase concerns sheep and goat cheese consumption, as well as the variety of higher quality -cured and semi-cured cheese. Extremadura (SW Spain) is one of the regions with the largest and more varied cheese supply in Spain. Its wide diversity of climates and landscapes, its inexpensive labour (mainly family labour) and the frequent difficulties regarding farm access, forced its farmers to produce home-made cheese, due to the short duration of the milk (González & Roa, 1999). Cheese production in Extremadura presents also certain comparative advantages, such as the fact that it is based on goat and ewe milk, whereas Northern-Spanish or EU cheese types are mainly manufactured with cow milk. A second advantage is that Extremaduran ewe and goat production systems are farmed extensively in the dehesas (grazed forests) and in mountainous areas with low productivity, but with an irreplaceable environmental role. Both are characteristics valued highly by consumers nowadays. This outlook is overshadowed by the marketing problems experienced by the sector, mainly the lack of knowledge about the marketing process, its components, the consumers’ attitudes towards cheese and their consumption preferences. In this respect, actions aimed at improving the marketing aspects of cheese are essential, for example by means of positioning maps which allow a comparison among competing products with respect to different attributes. In this paper we aim to identify, through factor analysis, the positioning of the main Extremaduran traditional cheeses in comparison with other types of cheese, both national and foreign ones. The data used come from the research project “Extremaduran cheese market: marketing and consumption” of the MAFF’s Agricultural and Foodstuffs R&D Programme.

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Materials and methods

The sample size consisted of 812 consumers, uniformly distributed among the towns and villages of Extremadura (confidence level of 95.5% and a maximum average admissible error margin of 3.5%). The questionnaire consisted essentially of a two-way table, presenting 11 rows with attributes (natural; very artificial; rather expensive; cheap; very good taste; farm cheese; not very good taste; mellow; very strong; occasional consumption; daily consumption) and 13 columns with the following cheese types: La Vera, Ibores, Serena, Acehuche, Tortas del Casar, Hurdes and Quesailla (Extremaduran traditional cheeses); Manchego; Gruyère; Cabrales; Camembert; Queso de Burgos; Bola (the most sold cheese types in the Spanish market). Consumers were asked to give cheeses a score from 0 to 10 for each attribute, depending on whether they agreed or disagreed with the relationship cheese/attribute. With these data, a factor analysis was carried out which produced a positioning map of the different cheese types, with the resulting factors used as axes and the scores given by each respondent used as positioning coordinates. The statistical analysis was carried out using the SPSS V. 11 packet.

Results and discussion

The results obtained through Bartletts test and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measures of sampling adequacy are as follows:1. Bartletts sphericity test: Chi-square: 9185.05; Degree of freedom: 55; Significance: 0. 2. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy: 0.651. From the values of both indicators it can be deduced that the sample is adequate for the factor analysis (Visauta, 1998; SPSS, 1990). The following step was the calculation of the communalities, applying the principal components method; results are detailed in Table . The variance of the values is partly explained by imposing the restriction of taking self values greater than 1 (from 86% for mellow up to just above 45% for not very good taste). These results indicate a relatively high extraction for the majority of the variables studied and hence the model explains an acceptable percentage of the total variance, as shown in Table 2 (in the Table appear only those components with self values greater than 1). On the basis of the above results, 4 factors were selected which explain decreasing percentages of the total variance of the model. The total variance explained is 70.5%, which represents a rather high percentage (Hair et al., 1999). In order to define the factors, the components matrix in Table 3 was used, showing the coefficients of the different factors for each one of the attributes. From the matrix of Table 3, it can be observed that factor 1 has a very high coefficient for the variables “natural” and “farm cheese”, and high, although negative, for “very artificial”,

Table 1. Communalities for cheese attributes. Attribute Initial Extraction Attribute Initial Extraction Natural 1 0.767 Very artificial 1 0.595 Rather expensive 1 0.678 Cheap 1 0.812 Very good taste 1 0.575 Farm cheese 1 0.596 Not very good taste 1 0.452 Very strong 1 0.834Mellow 1 0.859 Daily consumption 1 0.769

Occasionalconsumption 1 0.816

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and therefore it can be defined as “natural-farm cheese”. In the same way, factor 2 can clearly be defined as “occasional-daily consumption”. Factor 3 seems to be related to taste: “mellow” (0.720), “very strong” (-0.557). We shall call it “taste (mellow-strong)”. Finally, factor 4 is clearly price-related, so we shall call it “price”. Based on the above data and using the factors as axes, the original variables were drawn, using the factor loads. In order to proceed with the positioning, we obtained the co-ordinates for each cheese type based on the score given to each factor by each respondent, as shown in the following figures. These scores are represented through the figures that constitute the positioning maps. Given that only the natural-farm cheese factor has a strong significance, whereas the other three explain similar variance percentages (between 10 and 15%), the graphic representations (Figure 1, 2, 3) show the combinations of factors 2, 3 and 4 with factor 1. One of the more outstanding aspects of this analysis is the good definition of the axes as a function of the attributes: strong (+) and mellow (-) form the Y axis, whereas the X axis is constituted by artificial and not very good taste (-) and, on the other hand, farm cheese, good taste and natural. This fact can also be observed with the cheese types: Cabrales and Queso de Burgos nearly coincide with strong and mellow respectively. As regards taste, Extremaduran cheeses - with the exception of Ibores cheese, which is considered a strong cheese - are located either in the middle area or slightly towards the strong cheese area.

Table 2. Total explained variance for cheese types.

Initial self values Component Total Variance % Accumulated %

3.466 3.53 3.53 2 1.709 5.536 47.049 3 .464 3.33 60.362 4 .4 10.131 70.493

Table 3. Components matrix for cheese attributes. Attribute Factor Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Natural 0.788 0.172 0.189 0.284 Very artificial -0.731 -0.172 -0.089 -0.152 Rather expensive 0.572 -0.239 0.056 -0.539 Cheap -0.452 0.284 0.100 0.719 Very good taste 0.691 0.272 0.153 0.011 Farm cheese 0.732 0.087 0.139 0.182 Not very good taste -0.598 -0.256 -0.136 0.104 Mellow -0.325 0.438 0.720 -0.207 Very strong 0.532 -0.427 -0.557 0.242 Occasional consumption 0.127 -0.659 0.560 0.228 Daily consumption 0.068 0.745 -0.451 -0.076

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As regards the natural-farm cheese factor, an important aspect in this graph is that the three non-Spanish cheese types - Bola, Camembert and Gruyère - are the ones most clearly defined as artificial and bad-tasting cheeses, in contrast to Tortas del Casar, Acehuche and Serena which represent, according to respondents, what a farm cheese should be: good-tasting and natural. The middle area is occupied both by Extremaduran cheeses - La Vera, Hurdes - and by cheeses from other regions -Cabrales, Queso de Burgos or Manchego cheese. Figure 2 shows two cheese types clearly perceived as cheeses for daily consumption: Queso de Burgos and Manchego. On the opposite extreme, there are the non-Spanish cheeses and some of the less known Extremaduran cheeses, such as Quesaillas and Queso de Hurdes. The rest are placed in the middle area. These results may indicate that the perception of a cheese as a product for daily or occasional consumption is determined to a great extent by the degree of knowledge of the consumer on the cheese. Thus, qualitywise worse positioned but better known types of cheese are ideally situated for daily consumption. Finally, as regards price, the qualitywise best positioned Extremaduran cheeses are perceived as expensive cheeses, whereas another group, formed by cheeses such as Quesaillas, Queso de Hurdes and Queso de la Vera, would be positioned in the cheap zone. However, this last group probably owes its position to the scarce knowledge of consumers, in the same way as for consumption (daily-occasional). Daily consumption cheeses (Manchego and Queso de Burgos) are perceived as cheap cheeses, a fact that may be used as a guide by those companies of the sector seeking to reposition themselves.

NATURAL-FARM CHEESE

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Figure 1. Position map for natural-farm cheese/taste factors.

107

NATURAL-FARM CHEESE

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Figure 2. Position map for natural-farm cheese/daily-occasional consumption factors. Legend: see Figure 1.

NATURAL-FARM CHEESE

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Figure 3. Position map for natural/farm cheese/price factors. Legend: see Figure 1.

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In short, it can be concluded that the Extremaduran cheeses studied are divided into two groups, depending on the degree of knowledge on the part of the consumer. The two groups include, on the one hand, Quesaillas, Queso de Hurdes and Queso de la Vera, which are less known and consequently placed on the intermediate zone of the axes and, on the other hand, Ibores, Tortas del Casar, Serena and Acehuche cheeses, strongly positioned as natural, farm-cheeses, with a good, strong taste and a high cost and, as a result, better suited for occasional rather than daily consumption. Those cheeses have a strong potential to make the most of, at the same time overcoming the limitations arising from their market positioning.

References

García, F., 1998. Evolución del consumo alimentario. Distribución y Consumo, June-July: p. 43-63.

González, J. and I. Roa, 1999. El sector quesero extremeño: estructura y comercialización. ILE 250: p. 44-48.

Hair, J.F., R.E. Anderson, R.L. Tatham and W.C. Black, 1999. Análisis multivariante. Prentice Hall, Madrid.

Langreo, A., 1998. Industria láctea: cambios recientes y perspectivas. Distribución y consumo. Dec.-Jan.: p. 84-96.

Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación (MAPA), 1998. La alimentación en España 1998. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid.

SPSS Inc., 1990. SPSS Reference Guide. SPSS Inc., Chicago, U.S.A.Visauta, B., 1998. Análisis estadístico con SPSS para Windows. Estadística multivariante.

McGraw-Hill, Madrid.

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Marketing of agricultural products: strengthening of regional and socio‑cultural values in the Netherlands and of bulk production values in Greece

S.J. Oosting1, A.J. Sol2 & N. Kalogeras2,3

1Wageningen University, Animal Production Systems Group, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands 2Netherlands Institute for Co-operative Entrepreneurship, Nyenrode University, The Netherlands Business School, Straatweg 25, 3621 BG Breukelen, The Netherlands 3Wageningen University, Dept. of Social Sciences, Marketing and Consumer Behaviour, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN Wageningen, The Netherlands

Summary

Traditional food products of regional specificity hardly exist in the Netherlands. The economical, political and physical production environment resulted in a homogeneous development of farms and products. Relatively similar intensive production systems are found everywhere, and farm products are delivered to centralised processing industries which export the major part as bulk products. However, international competition and national environmental regulations force part of the farmers to explore innovation pathways differing from continuous intensification and scale increase. One of such new pathways is production of special products with a high added value. Organic farming linked to short chains to market is one example, regional products are another. Since regional products were relatively non-existent, they were either created or reinvented based on traditional recipes. The major consumer group consists of relatively wealthy, urban Europeans who perceive food and recreation as contributing to their self-realisation. Regional products represent values of a wide variety, from regional, farm-related, to processing-related. In turn, regional processes benefit from regional products. Regional products are associated with co-operation, either in the chain or in networks. Moreover, regional products activate essential values for rural development like involvement of farmers, processors, shopkeepers and tourists in the region, transparency of food production and processing to urban people and regional multifunctionality. A complementary development is seen in Greece, where a diversity of regional products with a long tradition of craftsmanship exists, but international marketing potentials are insufficiently exploited. Important values of bulk production could be incorporated here: co-operation at level of producers and processors for economics of scale and centralisation of power, uniformity of quality and product presentation. Potential Greek bulk exports should still encompass regional values. It is hypothesised that for the sustainable development of agricultural activity, bulk production and regional production should be balanced to meet economic and socio-cultural demands.

Keywords: values, regional products, regional development, the Netherlands, Greece.

Regional agricultural products in the Netherlands and Greece

A considerable number of European food products have a geographical origin, which implies strong association between foods and places (Delamont, 1995; Urry, 1995). Region of origin is a contributor to consumer behaviour (see a.o. Khan, 1981; Shephard, 1989), and it can be seen as a metaphor of a complex of factors affecting food preferences, which includes among

110

others environmental, social and psychological factors. Treager et al. (1997) argued that personal (including knowledge and experience), product-related (i.e. product name, appearance, packaging, information on ingredients) and situational factors (place and context of the purchase or consumption) are those who define a “regional food”. They also identified perceived authenticity as a major issue in the acceptability of regional food as truly “regional”. Food products characterised by a long tradition of production, regional specificity and craftsmanship are relatively few in the Netherlands (Van der Meulen, 1998). Names of world-famous cheeses like Gouda and Edam point at regional roots, but the regional specificity of these cheeses was not protected and thus Gouda and Edam cheeses are produced everywhere in the world. Products of animal origin like a.o. sausages, smoked hams and processed milk products such as cheese and yoghurt, were historically made in order to preserve animal products from decay. Variation between farms and regions in processing methods and flavouring during processing must have been the basis of region-specific products and such variation existed in the Netherlands. However, Dutch agricultural production and food processing has a long history of specialisation in a small product range, mainly aimed at export (Bieleman, 1992). Recent generic national agricultural and environmental policy contributed to the homogeneous development of agricultural production and products in the Netherlands. Presently the Netherlands can be characterised as a major exporter of a few bulk products. A contrast to the limited diversity between and within products in the Netherlands is the huge diversity found in Greece. Products like fruit juices, olive oils, wines and feta cheeses are found in many regional varieties, which quite often are only available at regional markets. Such products are here referred to as micro products. According to Baourakis et al. (2002) - despite the high quality standards of Greek micro products - Greek agricultural firms are faced with high fluctuations in demand, low selling prices, and total absence of recognizable brand names. Furthermore, the absence of competitive marketing strategies such as product differentiation, market segmentation, specialization, and diversification prevents increases of national and international demand. Thus, the export of Greek micro products is relatively limited and is confronted with strong international competition in the field of price, identifiability and uniformity.

Dynamics in the Netherlands and Greece

Increasing international competition, stricter environmental regulations and pressure to strengthen landscape, nature, water conservation and recreational functions of the land are at the expense of Dutch bulk food production. It is expected that part of the Dutch farmers will continue intensification and scaling-up, while others are exploring distinct innovation pathways. Apart from those who will abandon farming (which will be the fate of approximately 50 % of the farmers in the decades to come), some farmers will combine farming with nature and landscape schemes, and others will strive for additional valuation of their products in the food chain from producer to consumer (Roep, 2000). An example of the latter is organic farming. Societally well perceived (Oosting & de Boer, 2002), it also contributed positively to the economic sustainability of farmers: the family income of organic dairy farmers was consistently higher than that of conventional dairy farmers for the last decade (Silvis & Van Bruchem, 2001). This could be partly attributed to innovative market approaches of organic farmers: short chains, e.g on-farm sale or in local shops, diversified product assortment and special products, among others regional specific products. Organic products as such represent values like naturalness, authenticity, care for animals and environment, and confidence (Oosting & de Boer, 2002). The presentation of organic products as regional products attributes regional values – sun and wind, nature, landscape or environmental

Figure 1. Values of bulk and micro production (adapted from Roep, 2000; Oosting & De Boer, 2002).

Values bulk production

Low price Physical quality Control - technological - institutional International market

Values micro production Regional values: sun & wind, landscape, nature, environmental protection Farm values: organic, animal welfare, multifunctionality Processing values: craftsmanship, tradition, product presentation Economic values: regional culture and economy oriented, consumer-focussed philosophy

protection – and farm-related values – organic farming, animal welfare or multifunctionality – to processing-related values – craftsmanship, tradition or product presentation (Roep, 2002; Van Ittersum, 2001). Figure 1 shows different sets of values for bulk and micro products. One could summarise the bulk production values as rationalised and economic values and the micro production values as experiential and socio-cultural values. The growth of the Greek market for local products is insufficient to sustain economic development in rural areas. However, Kalogeras and van Dijk (2003) stated that producers should use local activities as the basis for economic development, but focus on the demand of targeted consumers. Through the application of several EC regulations in the 1990s, some financial assistance has been given to organisations and producers’ associations in Greece in order to carry out research concerning the market of their products as well as to acquire a deeper knowledge of the market-oriented requirements. In Greece, several organisations responsible for specific products (like ELAIS for olive-oil) developed their own strategies for the expansion of their international competitiveness or the encasement of the domestic market. Therefore, it seems that the international marketing pathway is possible for a number of agricultural products, and initiatives by farmers and small-size producers’ associations and co-operatives to join into bigger agro-industrial business units are under way. Greek farmers started to be organised in producers’groups and cooperatives in an effort to reach markets. Other objectives were to achieve economies of scale and centralisation of power in marketing specific regional products, to enforce quality control, uniformity and improved identifiability. Such values are part of bulk production (Figure 1) and should be applied to the Greek regional micro products without altering the intrinsic product quality and product specification.

Markets

A recent report published by the OECD (1996) claimed that globally people are increasingly seeking “quality, scarcity and novelty of products” and advocated the development of “niche

2

products” as a strategy for rural development. It is also claimed that a “pure niche market is a market segment: small, narrow and specific”. In the search for these market segments, it has to be considered that, in the relatively wealthy urban society of western Europe, consumer groups can be distinguished for which self-realisation is an important motivator for choices (Maslov, 1954; Frewer et al., 2001). Specific regional products may appeal to this feeling of self-realisation, even more so if purchased on a farm or in a regional shop. Buying regional products is doing something special, distinguishing oneself from the masses. Hence, a market exists. In the Netherlands, this market is fuelled by the increasing recreational function of the countryside. A trend in tourism is to ‘experience a region’. Regional co-operation may offer a wide variety to tourists, from farm lodging to local music, bicycling tracks, adventure sports, to indeed a wide variety of regional products (Van Broekhuizen et al., 1997). Such networking among different suppliers of regionally based activities can be seen in many Dutch areas where rural tourism is developing (e.g. Roep, 2002). The observed increase of the standards of living of the Greek population, continuing urbanization, and changes in consumer culture have resulted in an increase of recreation activities and consumption of regional foodstuff. There is a notable return to nature and attempts are being made to live a healthier and more natural life. Hence, nowadays there are efforts to promote the very distinctive element of regional micro products. One example is the large campaign launched by the Greek Tourism Organisation with the collaboration of the Organisation for Promoting Exports and other producers, to promote Greece and the Greek diet. Further attempts have also been made in co-operation with Mediterranean countries for promoting the idea of the Mediterranean cuisine. Olympic Airways, the national airline, launched a program of typical Greek foods in their flights. Local and regional authorities on Crete promote the Cretan diet. To accomplish the latter, producers have made joint efforts with the confederation of Cretan hotels and tourism enterprises to create their own unique marketing tactics and promote their regional-bulk production. The philosophy of the international marketing strategy of Greek products is focusing on consumer groups in Western Europe that purchase specialty products, relatively expensive, and of good taste, quality and presentation. Many such consumers experienced Greece during a holiday stay, so a tinge of Greece is an important specialty value. Gavruchenco et al. (2003) examined the Greek and Dutch consumers’ perceptions and attitudes regarding organic olive oil and concluded that promotion and disposition seems to be the greatest weakness of the product. Organic olive oil needs a well-organised market and strategy to promote its environmentally friendly aspects. In addition, Baourakis and Apostolakis (1999) argued that the absence of supportive extension services restricts expansion. Kalogeras and van Dijk (2003) stated that agricultural co-operatives might play an important role in any change of farming practices and can play a substantial role in discovering successful markets and effective strategic marketing for regional and/or organic products.

Discussion

A major problem of bulk production in the Netherlands has been the growing friction between agriculture and the largely urban society; food production in the Netherlands was too much focused on economic aspects, which eroded the socio-cultural value. In Greece, micro products produced by small holders play an important socio-cultural role, but the economic potential is insufficient to sustain rural liveability. Hence both countries face sustainability problems. To improve sustainability of food production, both countries seek to develop, amongst others, complementary market-oriented strategies (Table 1). Thus, the Dutch develop products and services with region-

3

related values and the Greek organise the production and marketing of products to compete internationally on price and quality, though still floating on values of Greek culture and history. Regional products trigger local co-operation between producers and within production chains. Moreover, because of their link to rural tourism, they help to make food production and processing more transparent and consequently encourage a greater involvement of citizens in regions and regional processes. Co-operation, broad involvement and transparency are keywords for rural development (Taskforce Waardevolle Landbouw, 2001; Van Dijk & Sol, 2002). In Greece, rural development by strengthening agricultural exports requires co-operation between stakeholders at various levels, which could trigger other innovative processes as well. The high quality attributes of regional and bulk products in Greece might lead to risk-reducing strategies that in the long term might lead to the increase of competitiveness of the Greek small and medium sized agricultural firms. This development will increase the attractiveness of specific micro products and may generate further market-oriented strategies and tactics. The strength of these strategies is the vital role of the local culture in rural economic development. In both cases, the Netherlands and Greece, agricultural production moves in the direction of co-existence of micro and bulk production. The dynamics of developing a complementary market orientation is likely to support rural development in both countries.

Table 1. Agricultural products in the Netherlands and Greece. The Netherlands Greece Dominant agricultural product type

Bulk Micro products

Market orientation Export Local Quality guarantee Rational: regulations,

certification of production and processing, institutionalised control

Confidence: craftsmanship, historically proven quality.

Size and position of operations in chain

Large and centralised, keyword: economics of scale

Relatively small and decentralised, keyword: diversity

Sales argument Price and quality Socio-cultural values Problems Frictions between citizens

and food production, loss of cultural values in food production

Insufficiently equipped for international market, sub-optimal economic value

Solution Develop the complementary micro product market orientation: narrative based on regional nature and culture, associated with regional networks, aimed at consumers that know and experienced the region, organic products

Develop the complementary bulk product market orientation: join forces in chain, branding, based on knowledge and experience with micro products

4

References

Baourakis, G. and I. Apostolakis, 1999. A statistical assessment of consumers’ criteria regarding organic agricultural products: the case of organic olive-oil. Foundations of Computing and Decision Science 2491: p. 22-31.

Baourakis, G., M. Doumpos, N. Kalogeras and C. Zopounidis, 2002. Multicriteria analysis and assessment of financial viability of agribusinesses: the case of marketing co-operatives and juice producing companies. Agribusiness 18: p. 543-558.

Bieleman, J., 1992. Agricultural history of the Netherlands 1500-1950. Geschiedenis van de landbouw in Nederland 1500-1950. Boom, Meppel, The Netherlands. (in Dutch)

Delamont, S., 1995. Appeties and identities: an introduction to the social anthropology of Western Europe, Routledge, London, UK.

Frewer, L.J., E. Risvik and H. Schifferstein, 2001. Food, people and society: a European perspective of consumers’ food choices, Springer, Berlin, Germany.

Gavruchenko, T., G. Baltas, F. Chatzithororidis and S. Hadjidakis, 2003. Comparative marketing strategies for organic olive oil: the case of Greece and Holland. In: The market for organic products in the Mediterranean Region, Nikolaidis, Baourakis, Isikli and Yercan (editors), Cahiers Options Mediterranéennes 61: p. 157-168.

Kalogeras, N. and G. van Dijk, 2003. Regional images and marketing of quality products as part of rural development. In: The market for organic products in the Mediterranean region, Nikolaidis, Baourakis, Isikli and Yercan (editors), Cahiers Options Mediterranéennes 61: p. 168-175.

Khan, M.A.,1981. Evaluation of food selection patterns and preferences. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.

Maslov, A., 1954. Motivation and personality, Harper and Row, New York, USA.OECD, 1996. Agricultural adjustment and diversification: implications for the rural economy.

Working party on agricultural policies and markets. AGR/CA/APM 5.Oosting, S.J. and I.J.M. de Boer, 2002. Sustainability of organic dairy farming in the Netherlands.

In: Organic meat and milk from ruminants, I. Kyriazakis and G. Zervas (editors), Proceedings of a joint conference organised by the Hellenic Society of Animal Production and the British Society of Animal Science, 4-6 October 2001, Athens, Greece, Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 106: p. 101-107.

Roep, D., 2000. Innovative working: traces of competence and incompetence. Vernieuwend werken: sporen van vermogen en onvermogen. PhD-thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. (in Dutch)

Roep, D., 2002. Value of quality and region: the wadden group foundation. In: Living countrysides. Rural development processes in Europe: the state of the art, J.D. van der Ploeg, A. Long and J. Banks (editors), Elsevier, Doetinchem, The Netherlands, p. 88-99.

Shephard, R., 1989. Factors influencing food preference. Handbook of the psychophysiology of human eating, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., London, UK.

Silvis, H.J. and C. van Bruchem, 2001. Economic report for Agriculture. Landbouw-Economisch Bericht. Landbouw-Economisch Instituut (LEI), Den Haag, The Netherlands. (in Dutch)

Taskforce Waardevolle Landbouw, 2001. Towards a valuable agriculture. Naar een waardenvolle landbouw. Wageningen University and Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherlands. (in Dutch)

Treagear, A., A. Moxey and S. Kuzsenof, 1997. Marketing of regional foods: a policy perspective. Paper presented to AES Annual Conference, Edinburgh.

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Urry, J., 1995. Consuming places, Routledge, London, UK. Van Broekhuizen, R., L. Klep, H. Oostindië and J.D. van der Ploeg, 1997. Renewing the

countryside: an atlas with two hundred examples from Dutch rural society, Misset, Doetinchem, The Netherlands.

Van der Meulen, H., 1998. Traditional regional products: gastronomic heritage of the Netherlands. Traditionele streekproducten: gastronomisch erfgoed van Nederland, Elsevier, Doetinchem, The Netherlands. (in Dutch)

Van Dijk, G. and A.J. Sol, 2002. Environmental co-operatives as entrepreneurial instruments for farmers: concepts and experience. In: Environmental co-operation and institutional change. Theories and policies for European Agriculture, K. Hagedorn (editor), Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, p.112-129.

Van Ittersum, K., 2001. The role of region of origin in consumer decision-making and choice. PhD-thesis Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

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Chapter 2: Specificity and technology of elaboration of traditional dairy

and meat products

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9

Traditional sheep and goat milk processing technologies in the Mediterranean Basin: the case of the Jordan sheep cooperatives

P. Couenberg

Animal Production Service, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 1, 00100 Rome, Italy

Summary

Traditional technologies for sheep and goat milk processing in the Mediterranean Basin have evolved over hundred years. There are a number of aspects that have encouraged local people to maintain these traditional technologies despite the rapid development of modernization and mechanization of milk processing. These include: taking advantage of local resources, being adapted to local circumstances, requiring minimum capital and links with local dietary habits. However, the recent trend towards more open market policies has caused, within the national markets of the southern Mediterranean countries, an increasing competition from foreign dairy products and a need to improve the quality standards of traditional and locally processed milk products. This paper illustrates the characteristics, challenges and opportunities of traditional sheep and goat milk processing in the southern part of the Mediterranean Basin by describing traditional cheese processing in Jordan and a support project to the Jordan sheep cooperatives for the improved production of traditional milk products.

Keywords: traditional milk processing, food safety, development, southern Mediterranean.

Introduction

The southern Mediterranean Basin comprises the middle-income countries that form part of the Middle East and North Africa region. The region has a diversity of environments in which arid and semi-arid areas with low and variable rainfall predominate. The more humid areas have a Mediterranean climate, characterized by long, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The Middle East is an important site of early settled agriculture and domestication of sheep and goats (Dixon, 2001). These ruminants were bred to supply meat, milk, hides, wool, hair and fuel. Fermented products made from the milk of cows, sheep, goats, water buffalo and camels originated and continue to be produced traditionally in the Middle East (Gordin, 1980). Traditional processing of sheep and goat milk arises from the need to preserve a valuable but perishable product for longer periods. For example, Jameed forms a major component of the family diet in the rural areas of the Middle East. Jameed is a hard, sun-dried product manufactured mainly from churned buttermilk that can be reconstituted by soaking in water and consumed as a yoghurt drink or used in cooking. Because of its low moisture content and low pH, it can be kept for up to two years without any detectable change (Abu-Lehia, 1988). The majority of traditional milk products are still manufactured on a small scale, using raw milk and no scientific aids or controls. Sour products are generally recognized and valued for their genuineness, individuality and local character, although their quality can be variable. Poor quality normally results in high product losses and is mainly due to a lack of attention to hygiene throughout the various processing stages from milk production to the final products (Ishak, 1985). The case described in this paper shows that with simple improvements in milk collection, processing and

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marketing of traditional products, milk losses can be reduced, thereby increasing productivity and income generation.

The conditions of sheep and goat milk processing in Jordan

The rangelands of Jordan comprise approximately 90 percent of the country’s entire land area. Extensive sheep and goat production is the most common production system, utilising the ability of the animals to survive, reproduce and adapt themselves under adverse conditions. Sheep flocks generally consist of 50 to 100 head, which are family managed. Sheep and goat milk production represents an important and valuable part of the subsistence of these families, providing them with dairy products for consumption and cash income to purchase grains and other foods (Ishak, 1985; FAO, 2001). During the spring and summer, milk production provides additional income for a period of only 4 to 5 months depending on the availability of grass, water and crop residues. The remoteness from urban areas makes it difficult to have a regular market outlet for sheep milk. As a solution, mobile cheese makers follow sheep flocks during the milking season to purchase the milk for negotiable, usually low, prices. They process it mainly into fresh cheese and transport it to the retailers who are their main customers. Small flock owners also process part of the milk manually into traditional products like butter oil (Samneh) and dry cheese (Jameed) to meet family needs, while selling part of their production to retailers (Al-Qararah, 1998). Since the area is very dry, it is impossible to keep these types of premises free of dust and dirt, making it difficult to avoid contamination during processing. There is also a lack of clean water for processing and washing hands and equipment. Such conditions and processing methods have a major impact on the quality and standardization of the product (Ishak, 1985). The standards set by the Jordanian Institute for Standards are not implemented in practice for products processed manually at household level or by mobile cheese makers (Al-Qararah, 1998). Since the 90’s, pastoralists and small farmers have been steadily increasing their sheep and goat numbers to meet the growing consumer demands for livestock products, especially in the urban areas (Table 1). This was also stimulated by government initiatives to promote livestock development by establishing cooperative associations to organize breeders, subsidizing livestock feeds (barley and wheat bran) from 1980 to 1996 and implementing various rangeland development projects to improve grazing capacity. However, most sheep flocks are raised in remote areas where there is a lack of appropriate infrastructure for storage, transportation and processing of increased amounts of sheep milk. The marketing of traditional dairy products is not well organized, particularly when compared with the organized and efficient systems operating in the marketing and distribution of cow milk. Reliable data for local consumption of traditional products from sheep and goat milk are not available, but are

Traditional butter-based cooking oil made from sheep and goat milk.

Table 1. Sheep milk production in Jordan. Year

1989 1990 99 992 993 994 995 996 99 1998 999 2000 Production

(Mt) 24.6 25.2 40.87 40.90 46.60 35.80 35.30 38.48 34.3 3.35 20.49 30.08

Source: FAO-STAT.

2

estimated to be distributed along the following lines: 20 percent deteriorated; 5 percent consumed as fresh milk; 35 percent processed into white cheese; and 20 percent processed as Jameed and Samneh (Al-Qararah, 1998). Around 20 percent of the raw sheep and goat milk is lost as a result of unhygienic practices and poor environmental conditions. It was also reported that up to 30 percent of the local sheep owners do not milk their ewes, owing to the lack of proper equipment and difficult market conditions (FAO, 1999). An FAO project helped to find answers to these constraints.

The project: support to sheep cooperatives in Jordan

In 996, Jordan received support from an FAO-led multi-donor project to assist sheep and goat milk production and collection, and the mechanization and standardization of traditional milk products such as Jameed, Samneh, Djamid2 and Jibneh3. The objective of the project was to improve the marketing of raw milk through the establishment of dairy collection and processing centres and the production of high-quality, competitive traditional dairy products in order to increase the income level of local breeders (FAO, 1999). The project established two cheese processing plants, with a capacity of 3 000 to 4 000 litres a day, and a specialized cheese factory, with a capacity of 500 litres a day, managed and operated by a local women’s group (Bennett, 1999). The cooperative dairy plants erected in Karak, Maa’n and Dier-Alla have about 10, 16 and 4 percent of total sheep and goat national flocks respectively. This was the first time in Jordan or in the Middle East that traditional products of sheep milk were processed mechanically, using relatively high levels of technology, and to a uniform standard (Al-Qararah, 1998; FAO, 1999). The technology proposed aimed at improving the hygienic quality of the dairy products, while keeping the traditional shape, taste and flavour. The project designed and implemented a manual packaging system for traditional products, employing eight women from the nearest village for each cheese cooperative. The packaging for Jameed in particular was considered to be one of its most innovative achievements. Once the appropriate design and specification for the equipment was agreed, a local company was selected to produce it (FAO, 1999). The training element was one of the most important and successful results of the project. A basic assessment was made of the local situation “from the farm to the table” and the type of training tailored to suit these requirements, especially for the women who normally are responsible for milking and the processing of milk. Women sheep farmers were trained in improved milking practices, storage and transportation in order to improve raw milk quality. The positive response of women to take part in these workshops was evident, with over 400 women participating - twice the number of trainees expected. A total of 5 women were selected as dairy plant operators and were trained in plant operation, hygiene and management. The training included operation and maintenance of equipment, laboratory testing and preliminary process testing for traditional milk products (Bennett, 1999; FAO, 1999). One of the key factors for the successful commercialisation of these products was the evaluation of market opportunities. Existing products on the market were evaluated for their production costs, distribution, consumer tastes and preferences. Different production scenarios were explored to determine the best quality regarding taste and consumer preferences. Factors considered were differences in: pasteurisation temperatures; fat contents; levels of enzyme use for Jameed; bacterial types for cheese; levels of salt; types of taste additives; etc. Detailed consumer preference testing also

2 Traditional dried cheese found only in Jordan.3 Traditional Jordanian cheese.

22

led to the development of an operational manual for practical use by operators in the cooperatives. The dairy products developed by the project were found to be of superior microbiological and taste quality. With the development of specialized in-country packaging, it was decided to market the processed products in the high-quality, value-added sector. The cooperatives engaged in producing traditional dairy products are acquiring a positive public image. Market expansion and income growth in Jordan should provide a growing market for these products (Bennett, 1999; Al-Qararah, 1998). The success of this project was attributed to: • the development of appropriate dairy processing equipment using local available materials and

engineering experience; • the focus on traditional products based on consumer preferences; • the standardization of the processing techniques (the amounts of starter culture and rennet added

to milk, standardization of sizes and weight, amount of salt for brining, etc.); • the improvement of hygienic packaging of the products using national available materials and

technology; and • the superior microbiological quality and taste of the resulting products.

Discussion

The project described in this paper illustrates how dairy development in remote rural areas can be stimulated through small-scale milk processing into marketable products with longer shelf lives and higher margins that allow long distance transport and distribution to more prospective buyers. Although this project was successful in many aspects, it is difficult to predict if it will be sustainable in the long term. Assessment of the effects of dairy development projects requires intensive monitoring of technical and economic productivity. Identification of proper evaluation criteria to analyse the long term effects of smallholder dairy development projects is rather difficult and needs base line data at the start and the end of a project on the same farm (De Jong, 1996). In the absence of these data, results of an impact study at small-scale level will tend to be more qualitative than quantitative. In Jordan, prices of local, traditionally produced dairy products had increased between 1980 and 996. Traditional milk products are well accepted by local consumers, in particular by low-income households (Al-Qararah, 1998). However, an important challenge for this sector is the rapid development of highly competitive, global markets that puts pressure on the existing production and marketing systems. Traditional methods are threatened and this will force adjustment and support for the medium-sized and smaller businesses to adapt to these changing conditions, possibly involving a move towards high-value products for niche markets (Dixon, 2001). Nowadays, consumer lifestyles show an increasing tendency in eating out and this could be advantageous. Typical traditional cheeses, hygienically and nicely processed and packaged to satisfy this change in consumer demand, can be presented as pre-cut, ready to eat dishes, salads, etc. The consumer will probably be prepared to pay higher prices appropriate to the added value of these milk products (Dubeuf, 2000). Increasing sheep and goat production with the aim to produce marketable products might negatively affect the supply of good quality food for the rural population, unless the profits are used to buy lower priced food with a similar high nutritive value (Gihad & El-Bedawy, 2000). Nevertheless, it has been observed that the value of pastoralists’ milk is gradually declining. The prestige of beer and soft drinks has largely displaced milk, which has become something of a poor person’s drink. In addition, western economies tend to produce surplus milk resulting in frequent surpluses of dried milk powder, which are either sold for low prices in countries that have a pastoral sector or sent as development assistance. The sporadic and seasonal availability of such a competing product makes it problematic for pastoralists to predict the market value of their own product. National governments usually accept this situation because it partially satisfies urban demand (FAO, 2001).

23

Vertical integration of dairy farming in rural development requires strong commitment of producers to milk quantity and quality, high quality technical, commercial and administrative management and leadership to organize funding, technology and marketing. Further strengthening of farmers’ organizations in remote rural areas is still needed in order to achieve a more sustainable dairy development with small producers.

Conclusions

Improving the quality of raw milk and hygienic standards during processing are important aspects for the development and successful commercialisation of traditional milk products. Experience has shown that standardization of processing methods can be achieved with simple and cheap equipment, preferably by adapting traditional equipment to higher standards. Packaging is also important but depends on consumer preferences. Some consumers feel that a product is fresher when sold unpacked, but given the hygienic standards of many markets in developing countries, this is not the best option. It should not be forgotten that in many areas milk production, processing and marketing is not only an economic activity but also a way of life and the basis of food security. As indicated by Non Governmental Organizations, sustainable agriculture should improve rather than displace the traditional wisdom accumulated over centuries by innumerable farmers around the world (Elswick, 1992) This project can be considered as an example for duplication elsewhere in the region where similar traditional cheese production exists, such as Syria, Egypt and Lebanon, but only after careful consideration of socio-economic and local market conditions.

References

Abu-Lehia, I.H., 1988. The chemical composition of Jameed cheese. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 20: p. 231-239.

Al-Qararah, E.O., 1998. Marketing of dairy products in Jordan. Mission report for the FAO Support to Sheep Cooperative Project.

Bennett, A., 1999. Support to Sheep Cooperatives Project in Jordan. World Animal Review 93. De Jong, R., 1996. Dairy stock development and milk production with smallholders. Doctoral

thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands.Dixon, J., A. Gulliver and D. Gibbon, 2001. Farming systems and poverty: improving farmers’

livelihoods in a changing world. FAO publication.Dubeuf, J.P., 2000. Symposium on development strategies for the sheep and goat dairy sectors.

CIRVAL, Corsica.Elswick, L., 1992. Feeding the planet: building sustainable agriculture. WHY Magazine p. 18-20.FAO, 1999. Terminal statement of the FAO Support to Sheep Cooperative Project.FAO, 2001. Pastoralism in the new millennium. FAO Animal Production and Health 150.Gihad, E.A. and T.M. El-Bedawy, 2000. Contribution of goats to Egyptian small farmer food

and income. International Conference on goats, France.Gordin, S., 1980. Milking animals and fermented milks of the Middle East and their contribution

to man’s welfare. J. Dairy Sci. 63: p. 1031-1038.Ishak, R.R., 1985. Improving small-scale sheep and goat cheese making in the Near East. FAO

Animal Production and Health 54, Small ruminants in the Near East 1: p. 221-238.

24

25

Pasture and cheese diversity in French Northern Alps

S. Buchin1, B. Martin2 & A. Hauwuy3

1Station de Recherches en Technologie et Analyses Laitières, INRA, BP89, 39801 Poligny Cedex, France 2Unité de Recherches sur les Herbivores, INRA, Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France 3GIS Alpes du Nord, SUACI, 11 rue Métropole, 73000 Chambéry, France

Summary

Three trials were conducted on traditional PDO hard cheeses from the Northern Alps, Beaufort and Abondance. The overall objective of these trials was to assess the influence of the nature of pasture grazed by cows on cheese characteristics. The trials were designed to compare cheeses made from milk produced on as different pastures as possible, under real conditions. The major differences found between cheeses were linked to the altitude of pastures, which implies botanical composition but also other various factors. In particular, highland pastures led to higher plasmin activity and more unsaturated fatty acids in milk, with differences found mainly in the texture of cheeses, and to a lesser extent in flavour. The highland pastures varied in terms of botanical composition, with different effects on cheeses. The presence of Renonculaceae in pastures was suspected to increase plasmin concentration in milk, which could influence the intensity of proteolysis in cheeses, as well as bitterness and texture characteristics. A higher occurrence of terpenes in cheeses, related to a lower occurence of Gramineae in pastures, was associated with less protein-derived volatile compounds and a milder flavour, presumably because of a microbial inhibition by terpenes. The diversity of the sensory characteristics of Beaufort and Abondance is related to the diversity of pastures.

Keywords: cheese, pasture, diversity, sensory characteristics, botanical composition.

Introduction

The French Northern Alps are a region where several traditional cheeses are produced, some of which have the Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO). This is the case for Beaufort and Abondance cheeses, a hard cooked and a hard semi-cooked cheese respectively. In these types of production, where milk is not at all or little modified before processing, milk composition may affect cheese characteristics. This composition is subject to variations because of the variations in production conditions, especially the cows’ feed. The relationship between cows’ feeding and cheese characteristics has been demonstrated in previous works on other varieties of cheeses (Martin & Coulon, 1995; Verdier et al., 1995; Verdier-Metz et al., 2000). In the French Northern Alps, where grass is the main source of cow feeding, the nature of pasture can have a significant effect on cheese quality. The diversity of pastures in this region is ensured in particular by the use of highland pastures in the summer, as well as by an extensive management of these pastures.

26

Producers are currently faced with two antagonistic questions: the limitation of external supplies, in order to enhance the link between the products and their area of production, and the existence of breeding and strong land pressure, which tends towards an intensification of land management. In order to modify their specifications, managers in the cheese production chain need scietific knowledge on the relationships between pasture composition and cheese sensory characteristics. We present here the synthesis of three trials that were conducted by INRA in collaboration with GIS Alpes du Nord, on Beaufort and Abondance, two traditional PDO hard cheeses of the French Northern Alps (Buchin et al., 1999; Martin et al., 2001; Bugaud et al., 2002). The overall objective of both trials was to assess the influence of the nature of pasture grazed by cows on the cheese’s characteristics. The trials were conducted in real conditions by farm cheesemakers, with control of the cattle breeding and the cheesemaking process. The pastures chosen to be grazed by cows were as different as possible in terms of soil, climate conditions and botanical composition.

Materials and methods

Trial , on Beaufort, was conducted by one farm cheesemaker on 3 highland pastures differing in altitude. Trial 2, on Abondance, was conducted by one farm cheesemaker on pastures of the same altitude with different exposure to the sun: one oriented southwards, the other northwards, with two grazing periods on the south side, at a 2 week-intervall, at the beginning and at the end of the experimentation. Trial 3, on Abondance, was conducted by 3 farm cheesemakers on 2 lowland and 3 highland pastures for the first, on 2 highland pastures for the second, and on 3 lowland pastures for the third. All pastures differed in botanical composition in relation to their geographical conditions and agricultural practices. Further information is given in Table . The botanical composition of each pasture, the characteristics of herds and the technological parameters for the manufacture of cheeses have been determined. Physico-chemical and biochemical analyses (gross composition, fatty acid composition, volatile composition, plasmin activity) were performed on milk samples (trials 2 and 3) and cheeses (all trials), while rheological analyses (trial 3) and sensory profiles of texture and flavour were performed on cheeses by a trained panel (all trials).

Table 1. Experimental design of the three trials. Trial 2 3 Cheese variety Beaufort Abondance Abondance Number of samples 9 9 26 Types of pasture 3 highland pastures

(1,800 – 2,500 m) 3 highland pastures

(1,500 m) 5 highland pastures (1,550 – ,850 m) + 5 lowland pastures

(850 – ,100 m) Number of cheesemakers

3

Period 25 June - 25 August 5 June - 6 July 15 May - 5 September Weight of cheeses 40 kg 9 kg 9 kg Milk processing raw, whole milk raw, whole milk raw, whole milk Temperature of heating in vat

55°C 48°C 4 - 48°C

Time of ripening 9 months 5 months 6 months

2

The relationships between all these data were described for each trial by means of principal components analysis (PCA) on texture and flavour attributes; cheese (all trials) or botanical (trial 3) compositional data were also added without participating to the calculation of axes. Experimental and analytical conditions are detailed in Martin et al. (2001), Buchin et al. (1999), and Bugaud et al. (2000, 2001a, b, c).

Results and discussion

Differences between lowland and highland cheeses (trial 3)

In trial 3, where different altitudes were compared, the most significant differences between cheeses were observed between lowland and highland pastures (Figure 1). Firstly, the texture of highland cheeses was less cohesive and elastic than that of lowland cheeses. This was related, on the one hand, to a higher level of proteolysis in the cheeses and a higher activity of plasmin (proteolytic enzyme) in the milk, leading to a weaker matrix structure, and, on the other hand, to the higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids in milk, resulting to a more fluid fat. Secondly, the highland cheeses had more intense fruity, milky, animal and toasted flavour notes than lowland cheeses, in relation to higher levels of proteolysis and volatile fatty acids. Lowland pastures differed from highland pastures in higher percentages of gramineae and legumes for the former, and in higher amounts and a broader diversity of dicotyledones for the latter. Nevertheless, if botanical composition can be involved, many other parameters can bring about differences between highland and lowland cheeses, including the phenological stage of grass, temperature, oxygen pressure, energy expenditure by animals, etc.

Differences between highland cheeses

In the 3 trials, highland pastures had very different botanical compositions in relation to the geographical/climatic parameters. In addition, differences have been observed between cheeses according to the pastures. In trial 3 (Figure 1), pastures rich in dicotyledones owing to a dry environment or high elevation, led to cheeses with a more fruity and toasted flavour, whereas pastures rich in dicotyledones due to moist environment or non consumed plants led to cheeses with more bitter and animal flavour and more melting texture. Nevertheless, it is difficult to attribute these differences to the botanical composition of pastures. In trial 2 (Figure 2b), the type of pasture affected principally the texture of the cheeses, in relation to the extent of proteolysis and the activity of the proteolytic enzymes of milk (plasmin and plasminogen). These differences were attributed to the presence of toxic plants such as Renonculaceae in the north facing pasture, suspected to increase the permeability of mammary gland membrane (Buchin et al., 1999). The result was a less firm, less granular and stickier cheese texture. Moreover, the higher proteolysis of these cheeses was maybe the cause of higher bitterness. Apart from bitterness, the differences in flavour were slight between cheeses, but they were in accordance with the differences of volatile compound profiles, and seemed to be related as much to the exposure of the pasture as to the period of grazing. In trial 1 (Figure 2a), cheeses from zone 1 (2,200 m) were very different from the cheeses from the other 2 zones (2,050 and 2,500 m): whatever the flavour attribute, they had lower scores, as well as lower quantities of volatile compounds, which stem from protein breakdown (sulphur compounds, branched aldehydes, alcohols and esters, benzaldehyde, phenol).

128

Figure 1. Trial 3: Representation by PCA of texture and flavour characteristics of cheeses in relation to the chemical composition of cheeses and botanical composition of pastures.Normal style: texture and flavour characteristics of cheeses.Italics: chemical composition of cheeses.Bold-italics in box: botanical composition of pastures.VFA: volatile fatty acids. Plant exhaustive description in Bugaud et al. (2000).

Figure 2. Texture and flavour characteristics of cheeses in relation to the chemical composition of cheeses and characteristics of pastures.Normal style: texture and flavour characteristics of cheeses.Italics: composition of cheeses.Bold-italics: pasture characteristics, dimmed forms: position of the cheeses of a given zone(a) trial 1: Oxx : odour, Axx : aroma, T1-3 : terpenes.(b) trial 2.Plant exhaustive description in Martin et al. (2001) (a) and Buchin et al. (1999) (b).

128

Figure 1. Trial 3: Representation by PCA of texture and avour characteristics of cheeses in relation to the chemical composition of cheeses and botanical composition of pastures.Normal style: texture and avour characteristics of cheeses.Italics: chemical composition of cheeses.Bold-italics in box: botanical composition of pastures.VFA: volatile fatty acids. Plant exhaustive description in Bugaud et al. (2000).

elastic

cohesive

melting

sandy

fruityflavour

intensity

pungent

hazelnut

bitter

cooked cabbage

fresh cream

fresh milk

cooked milk

butyric acidpropionic acid

animal

breadcrust

carex

legumes

gramineae

renonculaceae

rosaceae

altitude

dicot. dry environntdicot. high elevation

dicot. moistenvironnt

deformable

peptidesunsaturatedfatty acids

terpenes

VFA

Axis 1:37%

Axis 2: 18%

elastic

cohesive

melting

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fruityflavour

intensity

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fresh cream

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cooked milk

butyric acidpropionic acid

animal

breadcrust

carex

legumes

gramineae

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altitude

dicot. dry environntdicot. high elevation

dicot. moistenvironnt

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peptidesunsaturatedfatty acids

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VFA

elastic

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melting

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intensity

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cooked cabbage

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cooked milk

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dicot. dry environntdicot. high elevation

dicot. moistenvironnt

deformable

peptidesunsaturatedfatty acids

terpenes

VFA

Axis 1:37%

Axis 2: 18%

Figure 2. Texture and avour characteristics of cheeses in relation to the chemical composition of cheeses and characteristics of pastures.Normal style: texture and avour characteristics of cheeses.Italics: composition of cheeses.Bold-italics: pasture characteristics, dimmed forms: position of the cheeses of a given zone(a) trial 1: Oxx : odour, Axx : aroma, T1-3 : terpenes.(b) trial 2.Plant exhaustive description in Martin et al. (2001) (a) and Buchin et al. (1999) (b).

OintensitystickyOanimal

AdiversifiedAintensity

Ahazelnut

Aanimal

acid

Aspicy

salty

pungent

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largepeptides

benzenederivatives

octenes

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-derivedcompounds

T1T3

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cheeses zone 12200m dry environnt

no fertilizationcheeseszone 32500m high

elevationno

fertilization

cheeses zone 22050m

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cheesesnorthwards

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cheesessouthwards (2)dry environnt

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wards (1)

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Axis 2: 16%Axis 2: 24%

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T1T3

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cheeses zone 12200m dry environnt

no fertilizationcheeseszone 32500m high

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moistenvironnt

cheesessouthwards (2)dry environnt

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wards (1)

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cheeses zone 12200m dry environnt

no fertilizationcheeseszone 32500m high

elevationno

fertilization

cheeses zone 22050m

moist environntfertilization

cheesesnorthwards

moistenvironnt

cheesessouthwards (2)dry environnt

cheesessouth-

wards (1)

salty

bitter

aldehydes

sourburnt

toffee

intensitysweat

ferm. veg.toasted

acid milkexotic fruit

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(a) (b)

Axis 2: 16%Axis 2: 24%

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128

Figure 1. Trial 3: Representation by PCA of texture and avour characteristics of cheeses in relation to the chemical composition of cheeses and botanical composition of pastures.Normal style: texture and avour characteristics of cheeses.Italics: chemical composition of cheeses.Bold-italics in box: botanical composition of pastures.VFA: volatile fatty acids. Plant exhaustive description in Bugaud et al. (2000).

elastic

cohesive

melting

sandy

fruityflavour

intensity

pungent

hazelnut

bitter

cooked cabbage

fresh cream

fresh milk

cooked milk

butyric acidpropionic acid

animal

breadcrust

carex

legumes

gramineae

renonculaceae

rosaceae

altitude

dicot. dry environntdicot. high elevation

dicot. moistenvironnt

deformable

peptidesunsaturatedfatty acids

terpenes

VFA

Axis 1:37%

Axis 2: 18%

elastic

cohesive

melting

sandy

fruityflavour

intensity

pungent

hazelnut

bitter

cooked cabbage

fresh cream

fresh milk

cooked milk

butyric acidpropionic acid

animal

breadcrust

carex

legumes

gramineae

renonculaceae

rosaceae

altitude

dicot. dry environntdicot. high elevation

dicot. moistenvironnt

deformable

peptidesunsaturatedfatty acids

terpenes

VFA

elastic

cohesive

melting

sandy

fruityflavour

intensity

pungent

hazelnut

bitter

cooked cabbage

fresh cream

fresh milk

cooked milk

butyric acidpropionic acid

animal

breadcrust

carex

legumes

gramineae

renonculaceae

rosaceae

altitude

dicot. dry environntdicot. high elevation

dicot. moistenvironnt

deformable

peptidesunsaturatedfatty acids

terpenes

VFA

Axis 1:37%

Axis 2: 18%

Figure 2. Texture and avour characteristics of cheeses in relation to the chemical composition of cheeses and characteristics of pastures.Normal style: texture and avour characteristics of cheeses.Italics: composition of cheeses.Bold-italics: pasture characteristics, dimmed forms: position of the cheeses of a given zone(a) trial 1: Oxx : odour, Axx : aroma, T1-3 : terpenes.(b) trial 2.Plant exhaustive description in Martin et al. (2001) (a) and Buchin et al. (1999) (b).

OintensitystickyOanimal

AdiversifiedAintensity

Ahazelnut

Aanimal

acid

Aspicy

salty

pungent

small peptides

largepeptides

benzenederivatives

octenes

terpenes

proteinbreakdown

-derivedcompounds

T1T3

T2

cheeses zone 12200m dry environnt

no fertilizationcheeseszone 32500m high

elevationno

fertilization

cheeses zone 22050m

moist environntfertilization

cheesesnorthwards

moistenvironnt

cheesessouthwards (2)dry environnt

cheesessouth-

wards (1)

salty

bitter

aldehydes

sourburnt

toffee

intensitysweat

ferm. veg.toasted

acid milkexotic fruit

granularfirm

melting

sticky

esters

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(a) (b)

Axis 2: 16%Axis 2: 24%

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OintensitystickyOanimal

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Ahazelnut

Aanimal

acid

Aspicy

salty

pungent

small peptides

largepeptides

benzenederivatives

octenes

terpenes

proteinbreakdown

-derivedcompounds

T1T3

T2

cheeses zone 12200m dry environnt

no fertilizationcheeseszone 32500m high

elevationno

fertilization

cheeses zone 22050m

moist environntfertilization

cheesesnorthwards

moistenvironnt

cheesessouthwards (2)dry environnt

cheesessouth-

wards (1)

salty

bitter

aldehydes

sourburnt

toffee

intensitysweat

ferm. veg.toasted

acid milkexotic fruit

granularfirm

melting

sticky

esters

terpenes

xylenes

peptides

(a) (b)

OintensitystickyOanimal

AdiversifiedAintensity

Ahazelnut

Aanimal

acid

Aspicy

salty

pungent

small peptides

largepeptides

benzenederivatives

octenes

terpenes

proteinbreakdown

-derivedcompounds

T1T3

T2

cheeses zone 12200m dry environnt

no fertilizationcheeseszone 32500m high

elevationno

fertilization

cheeses zone 22050m

moist environntfertilization

cheesesnorthwards

moistenvironnt

cheesessouthwards (2)dry environnt

cheesessouth-

wards (1)

salty

bitter

aldehydes

sourburnt

toffee

intensitysweat

ferm. veg.toasted

acid milkexotic fruit

granularfirm

melting

sticky

esters

terpenes

xylenes

peptides

(a) (b)

Axis 2: 16%Axis 2: 24%

Axis 1:56%

Axis 1:55%

29

These compounds are widely described in the literature as major compounds for cheese flavour (Mc Sweeney & Sousa, 2000). The pasture of zone 1 was rich in an aromatic plant, Thymus, which may explain the higher amounts of terpenes in the associated cheeses. In trials 2 and 3, the amounts of terpenes in cheeses were also inversely related to the amounts of volatile compounds issued from protein breakdown and to the flavour intensity of cheeses. A hypothesis has been suggested of a possible inhibition of microbial activity by the terpenes in cheeses, because of the well-known anti-microbial activity of these compounds (Hulin et al., 1998).

Conclusion

The relationships between cheeses and types of pastures are reflected in the composition of cheeses, as well as in their texture and flavour characteristics. It is not possible to identify with certainty the factors relating to the pasture that could be involved in the observed differences. They are certainly numerous, although botanical composition is likely to play a role (presence of Renonculaceae, or terpene-rich plants). It is nevertheless noteworthy that the diversity of cheese characteristics is related to the diversity of pasture characteristics. As a matter of fact, the maintenance of some diversity in the pastures is an important element to be considered by the producers in their reflection about the specificity of land management, in order to avoid a standardization of the sensory characteristics of cheeses.

References

Buchin, S., B. Martin, D. Dupont, A. Bornard and C. Achilleos, 1999. Influence of the composition of alpine highland pasture on the chemical, rheological and sensory properties of cheese. J. Dairy Res. 66: p. 579-588.

Bugaud, C., A. Bornard, A. Hauwuy, B. Martin, J.C. Salmon, L. Tessier and S. Buchin, 2000. Relation entre la composition botanique de végétations de montagne et leur composition en composés volatils. Fourrages 162: p. 141-155.

Bugaud, C., S. Buchin, J.B. Coulon, A. Hauwuy and D. Dupont, 2001a. Influence of the nature of alpine pastures on plasmin activity, fatty acid and volatile compound composition of milk. Lait 81: p. 401-414.

Bugaud, C., S. Buchin, Y. Noël, L. Tessier, S. Pochet, B. Martin and J.F. Chamba, 2001b. Relationships between Abondance cheese texture, its composition and that of milk produced by cows grazing different types of pastures. Lait 81: p. 593-607.

Bugaud, C., S. Buchin, J.B. Coulon and A. Hauwuy, 2001c. Relationships between flavour and chemical composition of Abondance cheese derived from different types of pastures. Lait 81: p. 5-3.

Bugaud, C., S. Buchin, A. Hauwuy and J.B. Coulon, 2002. Texture et flaveur du fromage selon la nature du pâturage : cas du fromage d’Abondance. INRA Productions Animales 15: p. 31-36.

Hulin, V., A.G. Mathot, P. Mafart and L. Dufossé, 1998. Les propriétés antimicrobiennes des huiles essentielles et composés d’arômes. Sci. Alim. 18: p. 563-582.

Martin, B., S. Buchin and A. Hauwuy, 2001. Effet de la nature botanique des pâturages sur les caractéristiques sensorielles du fromage de Beaufort. 3rd International Meeting: Mountain cheeses and their traceability, 31 August 2001, Potenza, Italy, p. 228-235.

Martin, B. and J.B. Coulon, 1995. Facteurs de production du lait et caractéristiques des fromages. II. Influence des caractéristiques des laits de troupeaux et des pratiques fromagères sur les caractéristiques du Reblochon de Savoie fermier. Lait 75: p. 133-149.

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Mc Sweeney, P.L.H. and M.J. Sousa, 2000. Biochemical pathways for the production of flavour compounds in cheeses during ripening: a review. Lait 80: p. 293-324.

Verdier, I., J.B. Coulon, P. Pradel and J.L. Berdagué, 1995. Effect of forage type and cow breed on the characteristics of matured Saint-Nectaire cheeses. Lait 5: p. 523-533.

Verdier-Metz, I., J.B. Coulon, P. Pradel, C. Viallon, H. Albouy and J.L. Berdagué, 2000. Effect of the botanical composition of hay and casein genetic variants on the chemical and sensory characteristics of ripened Saint-Nectaire type cheeses. Lait 80: p. 361-370.

3

Effect of production systems on the sensory characteristics of Cantal cheeses: a plant‑scale study

C. Agabriel1, B. Martin2, C. Sibra1 & J.-C. Bonnefoy2

1Elevage et Production des Ruminants, ENITA, 63370 Lempdes, France 2Unité de Recherches sur les Herbivores, INRA, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France

Summary

A study was conducted to verify whether milk produced by different methods in several dairy farms would lead to distinctive cheeses made in the same Cantal dairy plant. Milk from two groups of farms that differ mainly in their degree of intensification of dairy cow management and forage area was processed into cheese in 4 periods of three consecutive days each, in 1999 and 2000. Major physiochemical differences were noted in ripened cheeses according to the cheese-making period, especially between cheeses made in the winter and in the summer. The cheese-making period and ripening time (6, 13 and 23 weeks) accounted for the best part of the variance noted in all the sensory characteristics of cheeses, whereas the production system had a far lesser effect. With regard to smell and aroma, spring and winter cheeses differed from autumn and summer ones. With the course of time, cheeses became softer, melted more and tasted sharper and saltier. The stronger characteristics were enhanced whereas milder flavours lost power, a trend that was more marked in winter cheeses. The differences between the two production systems were more noticeable in cheeses made in the winter and spring, the most significant differences being observed after 3 weeks of ripening.

Keywords: production systems, Cantal cheese, sensory characteristics, ripening time, season.

Introduction

The characteristics of ripened cheeses depend both on the cheese-making technology and on the physiochemical and bacterial composition of milk. The latter is partly linked to production conditions, animal feeding in particular. In the case of certain cheeses with a status of Protected Designation of Origin, for which milk modifications are restricted or even forbidden, the production conditions may have a very considerable impact on the characteristics of cheeses. Early studies involved the respective influences of the animals’ physiological or genetic characteristics (breed and/or lactoprotein genetic variants) (Verdier-Metz et al., 1998; Coulon et al., 1998) and of their feeding on the sensory quality of ripened cheeses. Original results have been obtained experimentally on the effect of forage preservation methods (Verdier-Metz et al., 1998) and of the botanical composition of dry or grazed forages (Bugaud et al., 2001). However, few studies had been conducted on bulk milk (Toso & Stephanon, 2001), especially within a homogeneous soil and climate area where farmers’ strategies regarding the evolution of milk production differ. The aim of this study was therefore to determine whether bulk milk from several farms, identified as following relatively similar and specific production conditions, would lead to the production of cheeses with specific characteristics different from those of cheeses produced according to other production conditions, on plant scale.

32

Materials and methods

Farm description

Farms were located in a homogeneous soil and climate area with a mean elevation of 1,060 m (Cantal, France) and their milk was delivered to the same dairy plant. The breeds used were Montbéliarde (58%) or Holstein (42%). Two distinctive farm groups (A and B) were identified by preliminary surveys (Table 1). Group A included farms with small, low-producing herds, half of which calved in the winter. The grazing area was small, low stocked, and utilised in a rather extensive manner. Winter rations were based on hay and the cows fed almost exclusively on grass during the grazing period on pasture. Concentrate supplementation was minimal throughout the year. Group B farms had the opposite characteristics: larger, higher-producing herds with calvings distributed over the year for more than half of the herd. Average-sized forage areas included temporary meadows more intensively used, with a higher stocking rate. Winter rations were predominantly based on fermented forage (wrapped haylage) and the cows were given preserved forage for half of the grazing season on average, supplemented throughout the year by a larger proportion of concentrate feeds.

Milk collection, cheese‑making and analysis

In four periods of three consecutive days (summer and autumn 1999, winter and spring 2000), the milk produced over 24 hours was collected and processed separately in each group of farms. During these 24 cheese-making experiments, 5,100 to 7,350 litres of semi-skimmed raw milk (to obtain comparable fat/protein ratios in both vats, i.e., 1.13 in the summer and 1.05 to 1.08 otherwise) were processed by the same cheesemaker. Lactic starters and surface fungal flora were added to the milk, which was left to rennet at a temperature of 30.8 to 32.2 °C. The curd was cut into grains of 6 mm mean diameter, after 4 to 14 min of firming. The curd was then transferred into a pre-pressing tank where most of the lactoserum was discarded. The curd was pressed and cut into 4-5 kg lumps and overturned nine times until a 52% mean dry matter was obtained. The cake was then left to mature for 2.5 h in a room at approximately 18 °C. These lumps were turned

Table 1. Characteristics of the two farm groups in 1998. Farm groups (n) A (26) B (11) Herds and areas Number of dairy cows 25 43 Milk yield (l/VL/year) 3,36 5,398 Main forage area (ha) 49 6 Stocking rate of main forage area (Livestock Unit/ha) 0.8 .4 Dairy cows' feeding Forage given in winter (number of farms)

Hay based 25 0 ½ hay +½ haylage/silage 3 Haylage/silage 0 8

Duration of summer supplementation (d) 22 102 Concentrate given in winter; summer (kg/VL/d) 3.3; 2. 5.2; 3.8 Calving periods (number of herds)

Winter (February-March-April) 3 Distributed or summer or autumn 3 10

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over three hours later to balance cooling. The cake was ground and dry salted 20 h after rennet addition. The cheeses were moulded after 2 hours of maturation in salt and were compressed for 24 h, during which they were overturned 5 times. Three cheeses from each vat were identified and left to ripen, one for six weeks, another for 13 weeks and the third one for 23 weeks. Chemical and sensory analyses were performed at the end of each ripening period. The sensory characteristics of the cheeses were assessed by a panel composed of 2 members trained to assess the intensity of each of the 69 sensory descriptors of Cantal cheese commonly used by the “Comité Interprofessionnel des Fromages du Cantal” (7, 8, 27, 27 descriptors for texture, taste, odour and aroma respectively), scored on a structured scale from 0 to 7. Data were processed by analysis of variance (SAS software) by incorporating the period, ripening time, farm group and the two-to-two interactions between the three factors into the model. The assessor effect was also introduced into the model for the sensory data.

Results

Physiochemical characteristics of ripened cheeses

Marked physiochemical differences were noted according to ripening time, entailing higher pH, dry matter and chloride contents (Table 2). Summer cheeses differed from those made in the winter in that they had higher pH, humidity, fat in dry matter and proteolysis, but lower lipolysis and dry matter content. Cheeses made in the autumn or spring were characterised by low pH, lipolysis, fat in dry ratio and DM content. No significant difference was noted between the two production systems. However, the cheeses made in B farms exhibited slightly higher pH, lipolysis and proteolysis.

Sensory characteristics of ripened cheeses

Overall, the cheese-making period and ripening time accounted for the best part of the variance recorded in all sensory analysis results. The production system effect was much lower. The texture of summer cheeses was the softest and the least firm one (Table 2). The most bitter and persistent taste was that of spring cheeses, whereas the taste of summer and, above all, autumn cheeses was generally less developed. With regard to smell and aroma, spring and winter cheeses were globally stronger in taste: intense, fermented cream, stable. Autumn cheeses had the weakest butter taste, whereas winter cheeses had the strongest hazelnut and vanilla flavours. With the course of time, cheeses became less firm, more melting and softer, while their taste became more persistent and salty (Table 2), particularly in winter cheeses. Smell and aroma intensity and “stronger” flavours (fermented cream, alliaceous, stable, cheese mite and spicy) were enhanced, whereas softer flavours (butter, fresh cream, hazelnut and vanilla) were reduced. This phenomenon was more pronounced in cheeses made in the spring and even more in the winter, when the range of change between 3 and 23 weeks of ripening was particularly wide. Considering the impact of the production system, twelve sensory descriptors differed significantly, although differences never exceeded 0.5 points. Cheeses made in group A farms were on average more elastic and slightly less salty, less bitter and less sharp (Table 2). They were also characterised by globally milder smells and aromas, such as butter smell and fermented cream aromas in particular. Hazelnut aroma also tended to be stronger. Differences between cheeses produced according to the two systems were smaller in the summer and autumn cheesemaking and greater in cheeses made during the other two periods. In the cheeses made in the winter and spring, differences occurred at six weeks and were most significant

34

after 3 weeks of ripening. They practically disappeared at 23 weeks, when a very wide variability between cheeses was recorded, regardless of the production system.

Discussion

In this study, the sensory characteristics of cheeses varied mainly according to ripening time and season of production. The effect of ripening time was already well known (Chamba et al., 1994). Texture evolution and time-related fading of the mild flavours and smells to the benefit of stronger features were consistent with the time-related increases in pH, lipolytic and proteolytic indices (Grappin et al., 1985). These changes are linked to sugar, protein and fat catabolism, being all

Table 2. Effects of production systems, cheese making periods and ripening time on the characteristics of ripened cheeses.

Production systems

Cheese making periods Ripening time

A B Summer Autumn Winter Spring 6 w 3 w 23 w SD Physiochemical characteristics

pH 5.34 5.3 5.46b 5.30a 5.32a 5.34a 5.24a 5.29b 5.53c 0.07 Dry matter (%) 60.0 60.1 59.3a 60.0a 60.9b 59.9a 59.5 60.5 0.84 Fat/dry 5.5 51.0 52.6b 50.5a 5.a 51.0a 5.5 51.0 0.94

Texture Elastic 5.3b 5.a 4.8a 5.0a 5.4b 5.5b 5.2b 5.5c 4.8a 0.9 Firm 3.3 3.3 2.9a 3.4c 3.6d 3.2b 3.6c 3.2b 3.0a 0.9 Melting 4.5 4.5 4.6b 4.5a 4.3a 4.b 3.9a 4.6b 5.c 0.9 Soft 4. 4.6 4.8c 4.6ab 4.5a 4.bc 3.9a 4.8b 5.3c 0.9

Tastes Salty 2.4a 2.6b 2.4ab 2.3a 2.6bc 2.c 2.2a 2.5b 2.8c 0.9 Bitter 0.7a 0.8b 0.6a 0.4a 0.6a .5b 0.6a 0.6a 1.0b . Sharp .a .3b .ab .a .3bc .4c 0.8a .2b .c . Persistance 3.5 3.5 3.2a 3.a 3.8b 3.9b 3.0a 3.4b 4.c 0.9

Odours Odour intensity 3.5a 3.b 3.a 3.3b 4.d 3.9c 3.3a 3.b 3.9c 0.8 Butter .5a 2.0b .9b 1.8b .ab .5a 2.0b .6a .5a .4 Fermented cream

.3 .5 0.9a .a .b 1.8b 0.8a .3b 2.0c .4

Alliaceous 0.5 0.5 0.4a 0.3a 0.7b 0.4a 0.4a 0.4a 0.7b 0.9 Hazelnut 0.5 0.6 0.5a 0.4a 0.8b 0.5a 0.8c 0.6b 0.3a 1.0 Vanilla 0.9 0.9 0.9a 0.9a .b 0.8a .2c 0.9b 0.6a . Stable 0.8 0.9 0.4a 0.6a .3c 1.0b 0.2a 0.8b .4c .

Aromas Aroma intensity 3.5a 3.6b 3.2a 3.4a 3.8b 3.9b 3.0a 3.5b 4.2c 0.8 Butter .2 .3 .2ab 1.0a .4b .3b .4b .2ab .a .3 Fermented cream .3a .6b .2a .2a .b .6b 0.9a .3b 2.0c .3 Hazelnut 0.5 0.3 0.3a 0.4a 0.9b 0.3a 0.6b 0.4b 0.1a 0.9 Stable 0.8 0.8 0.6a 0.6ab .2c 0.8b 0.3a 0.7b .4c . Cheese mite 0.5 0.5 0.4a 0.6b 0.5ab 0.6b 0.2a 0.4b 0.9c 0.9 Spicy 0.5 0.6 0.7b 0.2a 0.6b 0.7b 0.4a 0.4a 0.9b 0.9 Standard Deviation. a,b,c within the same row, values with different letters are statistically different.

35

the more important as ripening time is longer (Fox et al., 1999). The effect of the cheese-making period, almost as marked, was more surprising. It was partially explained by the type of grass fed to cattle (pasture or preserved) and by the changes in the cows’ physiological condition (Coulon et al., 1998). However, that was not just a seasonal effect stricto sensu: the differences observed were also probably linked to the seasonal changes in the chemical and microbiological characteristics of milk, to the cheese plant environmental conditions and to certain technological parameters that may have evolved from one cheese-making season to another. Thus, the less firm texture of summer cheeses could be linked both to their lower dry matter content and higher fat content (as linked to the fat to protein ratio being standardised as 1.13 vs 1.05 - 1.08 during the other periods), as well as to higher urea concentration in milk (Martin et al., 1997). It is certainly partially explained also by the type of forage fed to cattle (pastured or preserved grass) (Verdier-Metz et al., 2000) and by the changes in the cows’ physiological condition (Coulon et al., 1998). The faster changes observed during ripening of winter and, to a lesser extent, spring cheeses, confirmed the empirical knowledge according to which cheeses made in the summer are more adapted to longer ripening, unlike winter cheeses which must be marketed faster, before the early occurrence of strong and unpleasant sensory features. Such evolution was not due to the ripening conditions, which were identical during the various periods. Lactation stage or somatic cell count cannot be blamed in this study insofar as their seasonal fluctuations were minimal. Fast evolution during ripening of winter cheeses could, on the other hand, be linked to slower acidification during winter cheese-making. Compared with the effects of the cheese-making period and ripening time on the sensory characteristics of cheeses, the effect of the production system was much weaker. Such a low influence of production factors in relation to that of technological factors had already been noted in other situations (Verdier-Metz et al., 2002). The globally stronger and less elastic character of cheese originating from B farms was consistent with the trends of their chemical composition: slightly higher pH and proteolysis and lipolisis levels on average (Fox et al., 1999). Those differences could not be due to the cheese-making technology because the acidification and drainage kinetics were strictly identical in both groups. Those differences reflected milk characteristics indeed and, beyond that, the production conditions in the two groups of dairy farms. Winter is the season when husbandry practices, feeding in particular, differ mostly between the groups of farms. The varied composition of winter diets (proportions of dried or fermented forage) probably played a determinant role and was reflected in sharper sensory differences between cheeses from the two groups (Verdier-Metz et al., 1998). The interaction noted between ripening time and production systems constitutes a novel result insofar as ripening time has rarely been taken into consideration in that kind of studies. In younger cheeses, the absence of any production system effect is probably linked to the high predominance of the buttery, fresh cream or vanilla features deriving directly from the starters used and to the limited development of other sensory characteristics. In contrast, the sensory characteristics of older cheeses became too remote at 23 weeks of ripening for mean differences to have any statistical significance.

Conclusion

This study has shown that on the scale of mixed milk, and even within relatively close production systems (grass-based), compared with other production areas, significant differences can be found in the sensory characteristics of cheeses. Those differences are mainly associated with the season, hence in part with the type of grass fed to cattle (pasture or preserved), and also with diet composition in the winter. Differences between systems are season-related and the results underline the interactions that exist between the characteristics of raw material and the technological conditions of the cheese-making process, as well as the cheese ripening time.

36

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted in the “Pôle fromager A.O.C. Massif Central” and was funded by FNADT. The authors are very grateful to the “Comité Interprofessionnel des Fromages du Cantal”, to the members of the Valuejols dairy cooperative and to all of their staff.

References

Bugaud, C., S. Buchin, A. Hauwuy and J.B. Coulon, 2001. Relationships between flavour and chemical composition of Abondance cheese derived from different types of pastures. Lait 81: p. 5-3.

Chamba, J.F., A. Delacroix-Buchet, J.L. Berdagué and J.F. Clément, 1994. Une approche globale de la caractérisation des fromages: l’exemple du fromage de Beaufort. Sci. Aliments 14: p.581-590.

Coulon, J.B., I. Verdier, P. Pradel and M. Almena, 1998. Effect of lactation stage on the cheesemaking properties of milk and the quality of Saint-Nectaire type cheese. J. Dairy Res. 65: p. 295-305.

Fox, P.F., J. Law, P.L.H. McSweeney and J. Wallace, 1999. Biochemistry of cheese ripening in cheese: chemistry, physics and microbiology. I. General aspects, P.F. Fox (editor), 2nd Edition, p. 389-438.

Grappin, R., T.C. Rank and N.F. Olson, 1985. Primary proteolysis of proteins during ripening. A review. J. Dairy Sci. 68: p. 531-540.

Martin, B., J.B. Coulon, J.F. Chamba and C. Bugaud, 1997. Effect of milk urea on characteristics of matured Reblochon cheeses. Lait 77: p. 505-514.

Toso, B. and B. Stephanon, 2001. Effect of ration composition on sensory properties of matured Montasio cheese. Scienza e Tecnica Latterio Casearia 52: p. 257-268.

Verdier-Metz, I., J.B. Coulon, P. Pradel, C. Viallon and J.L. Berdagué, 1998. Effect of forage conservation (hay or silage) and cow breed on the coagulation properties of milks and on the characteristics of ripened cheeses. J. Dairy Res. 65: p. 9-21.

Verdier-Metz, I., J.B. Coulon, C. Viallon and P. Pradel, 2000. Effet de la conservation du fourrage sur les caractéristiques physico-chimiques et sensorielles des fromages. Renc. Rech. Rum. 7: p. 318.

Verdier-Metz, I., B. Martin, P. Pradel and J.B. Coulon, 2002. Effet conjoint de la race et de la nature du fourrage sur les caractéristiques des fromages: interaction avec la technologie mise en œuvre. Renc. Rech. Rum. 9: p. 355-358.

3

Preparation and ripening of a traditional dry‑sausage from the nero Siciliano pig

C. Diaferia1, A. D’Amico2, G. Madonia2, E. Manganelli1, S. Margiotta2, V. Pruiti3, I. Valenti2 & M. Villardita3

1Experimental Station for the Food Preserving Industry, Viale Tanara 31/A, 43100 Parma, Italy 2Experimental Livestock Institute, Via Roccazzo 85, 90136 Palermo, Italy 3Technical Assistance of Sicily Region, Italy

Summary

It is possible to preserve the uniqueness of a typical product by identifying and quantifying those properties that best describe the characteristics of the product. An investigation was carried out on the influence of different recipes and ripening techniques on the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensorial characteristics of a traditional dry-sausage produced from a local rustic pig breed in the area of Nebrodi (Sicily) and seasoned in traditional rooms for 70 and 95 days in local establishments. The ham and the shoulder were the main parts utilised for the recipes. The sensorial parameters were influenced: a) by the different typology of the sausages, b) by the different ripening conditions.

Keywords: salami, ripening, autochthonous genetic type.

Introduction

The link between breeds and typical products many represent an important means of increasing the economic value and farming sustainability of disappearing local breeds and their products (Gandini & Giacomelli, 1997). The uniqueness of a typical product can be preserved by identifying and quantifying those chemical, microbiological and sensorial properties that best describe the characteristics of the product (Baldini et al., 2000; Dellaglio et al., 1996). A limited number of papers deal with the link between the breed and the quality of the product (Diaferia et al., 2000; Zullo et al., 2000). The carcass characteristics of the Nero Siciliano pig and the physico-chemical uniqueness of its meat have been reported by Franci et al. (2001). This work is an investigation into the influence of different recipes and different ripening techniques on the physico-chemical, microbiological and sensorial characteristics of a traditional dry-sausage produced from a local rustic breed in the area of Nebrodi.

Materials and methods

Salami preparation and ripening

Six different recipes were prepared by small local producers located in different areas of the Nebrodi mountains, using shoulder, raw ham, backfat, belly, throat fat, loin and neck of a local rustic pig. Other ingredients added were: salt, pepper, nitrates and nitrite. The sugar used was lower than 10 g/kg, except for producer who did not use sugar.

138

The mixtures were then stuffed in natural casing made of pig small intestine, and ripened in traditional rooms for 70 days; subsequently, the sausages were placed in the same room and ripened until the 95th day.

Analytical sampling

Three sausages from each producer at 0, 70 and 95 days were used for chemical, microbiological and sensorial analysis.

Chemical analysis

Proximate chemical composition was determined in accordance with the AOAC methods. Water activity was determined using a Novasina model EEJA-3 meter, and pH with a HI 9024 pH-meter (Hanna instruments).

Microbiological analysis

The analysis were performed as follows:Total microbial count: Tryptone soya agar (Oxoid) at 30°C for 72 hours.Enterobacteria: Violet red bile glucose agar (Oxoid) at 37°C for 24 hours. Micrococci: Mannitol salt agar (Oxoid) at 30°C for 72 hours.Enterococci: Bile aesculin agar at 37°C for 24 hours; the typical colonies were tested with Group D antiserum of Streptococcal Grouping Kit (Oxoid).Lactic acid bacteria: MRS agar at 30°C for 72 hours.

Thermohygrometric registrations

Temperature and relative humidity were determined by the portable instrument Ryan Mentor II, which carries out and stores temperature and humidity measurements over a period of time at regular intervals.

Sensory analysis

A ten-member panel was used to evaluate traditional dry-cured sausages as to the following characteristics: ease of casing removal, fat amount, lean meat colour, greasiness, cohesiveness, intensity of ripening, acidity, saltiness, rancidity, firmness and overall acceptability. Panellists were chosen on the basis of previous experience in consuming traditional sausages. All these criteria were scored from 0 to 5 (0=very light, 5=very intense). Data were reported as mean ± St. dev.; comparison between means was performed by one-way ANOVA of Statgraphics for Windows; the least significant differences interval was used for comparison of the means, while significance was accepted at 0.05 probability.

Results and discussion

The mixtures of the different producers varied greatly; raw ham and shoulder were the principal components of the recipes used (Table 1). The quantity of ham and shoulder varied from 63% (Producer 2) to 89% (Producer 6). Producers 2 and 3 used all pork cuts. The fat utilised was belly and back fat, while Producers 2 and 3 used throat fat too.

39

The initial salt (NaCl) content varied from 28 g/kg to 33 g/kg, pepper from 2 g/kg to 4 g/kg. The chemical and microbiological characteristics are reported in Figures -6. The water/d.m. content (g/g) ranged from 1.22 to 1.89 in fresh sausages and from 0.33 to 0.74 after 70 days and 95 days respectively. The initial fat/d.m. content varied from 0.34 to 0.60 in the fresh sausages and from 0.36 to 0.53 in the final products (70 and 95 days respectively). The UNI Standards set the limits for Milano and Felino Salami for some ratios affecting salami composition: fat/protein (Felino 1.50, Milano 2.00) and water/protein (Felino 2.00, Milano 2.30). The ratio values ranged between 0.65 - 1.30 (f/p) and 0.88 - 1.90 (w/p) for all the producers. The aw variation was directly connected to the composition of the sausages and to the thermo-hygrometric conditions of the air, related also to the months of ripening (Table 2). All the samples presented a decrease in aw: the variation was from 0.97-0.96 (initial mixtures) to 0.81-0.90 (final product). The maximum temperature recorded was higher for Producer 3 (February), a fact that could explain the different sensorial characteristics of sausages produced by P3. The pH variation was different: producers 2, 3, 4 and 6 presented similar final pH-values (5.62 - 5.84), while producers 1 and 5 presented higher (6.14 at 70 days and 6.65 at 95 days) and lower (5.30 and 5.38) pH-values respectively.

Table 1. Recipes of different producers.

Recipes (%) Producer

Producer

2 Producer

3 Producer

4 Producer

5 Producer

6 Ham 42.07 38.39 47.58 45.45 48.48 53.81 Shoulder 3.33 24.84 28.18 2.2 24.24 35.87 Loin - - 2.26 2.2 4.55 - - - - Neck - - 5.65 5.45 4.55 6.06 - - Throat fat - - 5.65 5.45 - - - - - - Belly 4.52 9.03 8.18 9.09 2.2 10.31 Back fat 12.08 6.78 3.03 9.09 9.09 - -

Figure 1. Chemical analyses of raw mixture.

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

1,2

1,4

1,6

1,8

2

g /g

dm

water/dm fat/dm salt/dm

Producer3Producer2Producer1 Producer5 Producer6Producer4

140

Figure 2. Microbiological analyses of raw mixture.

Table 2. Ripening conditions of sausages. Temperature (°C) Relative humidity (%) Months Min Max Min Max Producer February .6 5.6 n.d. n.d. March 7.8 3.5 n.d. n.d. April 2.5 4.6 n.d. n.d. Producer 2 February 10.5 . 43 86 March 9.4 5. 52 82 April 2. 4. 70 5 Producer 3 February 10.4 9.6 5 4 March 10.9 4. 53 3 April 2.6 .6 44 63 Producer 4 February 2. 5. 45 80 March 2.5 5.6 4 4 April 3.3 4.3 55 84 Producer 5 February 14.8 .6 55 88 March 5. .5 62 78 April 4.3 18.0 65 9 Producer 6 February 10.4 6.5 4 87 March 9.9 15.8 45 80 April 4.3 6.4 56 70

n.d. = not determined.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Producer1 Producer2 Producer3 Producer4 Producer5 Producer6

log

ufc/

g

LAB Micrococcaceae Enterobacteria Enterococci

The mixtures showed low levels of enterobacteria (102 - 103 cfu/g). Enterococci ranged from 30 to 102 cfu/g. Lactic acid bacteria (105 - 10 cfu/g) and micrococci (104 - 106 cfu/g), typical microorganisms of sausages, showed a higher initial concentration than those of analogous typical productions (Diaferia et al., 2000). During the ripening period, lactic acid bacteria increased; after 70 days the count was 108 cfu/g. During the ripening, micrococci remained at the same level as in the beginning; a weak increase was recorded at 90 days of ripening (105 - 10 cfu/g) for the samples

4

of Producers 1 and 6. Enterobacteria showed a decrease at the end of the ripening period (Coppola et al., 1995). The sensorial evaluations after 70 days of ripening (Table 3) showed that lean meat colour, cohesiveness, firmness, ripening odour intensity and overall acceptability of the dry-sausages produced by P3 were significantly different from those of the other dry-sausages. The dry-sausages of P1 and P4 had the lowest and the highest amount of fat respectively. Cohesiveness was good for all the dry-sausages, except for the P3 product. The dry-sausages of P2 and P4 showed the highest ripening odour intensity. All sausages had a weak acidity. The lowest overall acceptability concerned P3 dry-sausages, while the best score was assigned to P2 and P4 dry-sausages. The sensorial characteristics of dry-sausages after 95 days of ripening (Table 4) were not significantly different (P<0.05) from those of dry-sausages after 70 days of ripening. This study can be considered as a preliminary approach to the knowledge of the problems involved in the production of sausages in the area of Nebrodi. There were differences among the

Figure 3. Chemical analyses at 70 days.

Figure 4. Microbiological analyses at 70 days.

0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

Producer1 Producer2 Producer3 Producer4 Producer5 Producer6

g /g

dm

water/dm fat/dm salt/dm

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Producer1 Producer2 Producer3 Producer4 Producer5 Producer6

log

ufc/

g

LAB Micrococcaceae Enterobacteria Enterococci

42

Tabl

e 3.

Sen

sori

al e

valu

atio

n (m

eans

± st

. dev

.) of

saus

ages

at 9

5 da

ys.

P.

P.

2 P.

3 P.

4 P.

5 P.

6 Ea

sine

ss o

f cas

ing

rem

oval

3.

64±

.2cd

4.

00±0

.79

3.6

±1.0

3ab

4.26

±0.9

7bd

4.53

±0.9

4c 4.

4±0

.62

Fat a

mou

nt

2.88

±0.6

0acde

3.

65±0

.79cf

3.

56±0

.93ab

4.

59±0

.87bd

fg

3.29

±1.1

0 3.

62±0

.74eg

G

reas

ines

s 3.

2±0

.93cd

e 4.

23±0

.83ac

f 3.

53±0

.87ab

4.

53±0

.72be

gh

3.82

±0.8

8dg

3.59

±0.9

4fh

Lean

mea

t col

our

4.59

±1.0

a 4.

56±0

.9b

3.05

±1.0

abcd

e 4.

35±0

.d

4.35

±0.9

9c 4.

09±1

.0e

Coh

esiv

enes

s 4.

18±1

.07af

g 4.

06±1

.0b

2.06

±0.8

3abcd

e 3.

4±0

.2dg

3.

44±

.cf

3.

62±0

.82e

Firm

enes

s 3.

44±0

.93af

gh

4.00

±0.7

9bfil

.23

±0.6

6abcd

e 3.

94±0

.75ch

mo

2.29

±0.5

9dgim

n 3.

44±0

.61el

n R

ipen

ing

odou

r int

ensi

ty

3.88

±.

a 4.

2±

.bf

2.

00±

.22ab

cde

4.09

±1.0

3dg

3.35

±0.8

6cfg

3.9

±1.0

2e A

cidi

ty

0.76

±0.9

7a 0.

71±0

.77bc

1.

88±

.45ab

.

35±

.65c

.35

±.3

6 .

62±1

.40

Salti

ness

2.

±0

.69ab

2.

6±0

.97cd

3.

23±1

.03

3.4

±0.8

7ac

3.23

±0.8

9 3.

53±0

.72bd

R

anci

dity

0.

53±1

.18

0.23

±0.5

6 0.

59±0

.87

0.71

±.2

6 0.

82±

.24

0.47

±0.8

7 O

vera

ll ac

cept

abili

ty

3.9

±1.0

7a 4.

4±0

.59bf

g 2.

4±0

.79ab

cde

4.2

±0.7

7dhi

3.2

±1.1

0cfh

3.29

±0.7

5egi

a,b,

c…M

eans

with

sam

e le

tters

are

sign

ifica

ntly

diff

eren

t at P

<0.0

5.

Tabl

e 4.

Sen

sori

al e

valu

atio

n (m

eans

± st

. dev

.) of

sau

sage

s at 9

5 da

ys.

P.

P.

2 P.

3 P.

4 P.

5 P.

6 Ea

sine

ss o

f cas

ing

rem

oval

3.

45±1

.0bc

3.

70±0

.79g

4.20

±.3

2a 4.

0±0

.87h

5.30

±0.5

4abgh

i 4.

40±0

.97fi

Fat a

mou

nt

2.85

±0.8

2ade

3.5

±0.7

1df

3.95

±0.7

6abc

3.0

±0.6

eg

3.00

±0.8

2bfg

3.20

±0.7

9c G

reas

ines

s 3.

90±0

.99

4.0±

0.78

3.

55±

.26

4.0

±0.9

9 3.

60±

.35

3.85

±0.8

8 Le

an m

eat c

olou

r 4.

5±0

.54a

4.25

±0.

9b 3.

30±1

.06ab

cde

4.30

±0.9

5 4.

45±0

.50

5.0

±0.5

8 C

ohes

iven

ess

4.50

±0.8

5af

3.55

±.2

bf

.9±

0.99

abcd

e 4.

40±0

.1.1

7d 4.

00±0

.6c

4.0

±0.7

4e Fi

rmen

ess

3.60

±0.8

4af

3.25

±0.7

2b 1.

80±0

.59ab

cde

3.45

±0.8

3cg

2.70

±0.8

2dfg

3.20

±0.7

5e R

ipen

ing

odou

r int

ensi

ty

4.20

±0.

9b 4.

30±0

.54c

2.40

±0.8

4a 4.

40±1

.07e

3.65

±1.0

d 4.

5±1

.0f

Aci

dity

0.

76±0

.97a

0.71

±0.7

7bc

1.88

±.4

5ab

.35

±.6

5c .

35±

.36

.62

±1.4

0 Sa

ltine

ss

3.50

±0.5

3b 2.

90±0

.74

3.45

±0.8

9a 2.

5±0

.72ab

3.

10±0

.77

3.40

±0.7

0 R

anci

dity

0.

25±0

.42

0.65

±1.0

0.

80±0

.92

0.40

±0.5

2 0.

55±0

.60

0.50

±0.7

1 O

vera

ll ac

cept

abili

ty

3.85

±0.7

5af

4.8±

0.6bf

ghi

2.40

±0.4

6abcd

e 4.

00±0

.53dh

l 3.

45±1

.0cg

3.

30±0

.67ei

l a,

b,c…

Mea

ns w

ith e

qual

lette

rs a

re s

igni

fican

tly d

iffer

ent a

t P<0

.05.

43

Figure 5. Microbiological analyses at 95 days.

Figure 6. Chemical analyses at 95 days.

0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

Producer1 Producer2 Producer3 Producer4 Producer5 Producer6

g /g

dm

water/dm fat/dm salt/dm

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Producer1 Producer2 Producer3 Producer4 Producer5 Producer6

log

ufc/

g

LAB Micrococcaceae Enterobacteria Enterococci

assayed samples, determined by the different recipes and technologies. The microbiological analysis showed that lactic acid bacteria constituted the predominant microflora. The results emphasized the validity of these local products and indicated that the different typology of sausages influenced their sensorial parameters.

44

References

Baldini, P., E. Cantoni, E. Colla, C. Diaferia, L. Gabba, E. Spotti, R. Marchelli, A. Dossena, E. Virgili, S. Sforza, P. Tenca, A. Mangia, R. Jordano, M.C. Lopez, L. Medina, S. Coudurier, S. Oddou and G. Soligant, 2000. Dry sausages ripening: influence of thermohygrometric conditions on microbiological, chemical and physico-chemical characteristics. Food Research International 33: p. 161-170.

Coppola, R., E. Marconi, F. Rossi and F. Dell’aglio, 1995. Artisanal production of Naples-type salami: chemical and microbiological aspects. Ital. J. Food Sci : p. 5-62.

Dellaglio, S., E. Casiraghi and C. Pompei, 1996. Chemical, physical and sensory attributes for the characterization of an Italian dry-cured sausage. Meat Science 44: p. 1248-1252.

Diaferia, C., L. La Pietra, M. Longo, V. Magliano and G. Pirone, 2000. Napoli-type salami processing from various, indigenous genetics line of pig. III Chemical-physical and microbiological characteristics. Options Méditerranéennes A41: p. 241-244.

Franci, O., G. Gandini, G. Madonia, C. Pugliese, V. Chiofalo, R. Bozzi, A. Acciaioli, G. Campodoni and F. Pizzi, 2001. Performance of Italian local breeds. In: Pig genetic resources of Italy, L. Olliver, F. Labroue, P. Glodek, G. Gandini and J.V. Delgado (editors), Wageningen Pers, EAAP Publication 104: p. 67-76.

Gandini, G. and P. Giacomelli, 1997. What economic value for local livestock breeds? 48th Annual Meeting of EAAP.

Zullo, A., C. Diaferia, G. Genovino, M. Palazzo and D. Matassino, 2000. Production of Napoli salami from some swine autochthonous genetic types. II Sensory evaluation. Options Méditerranéennes A41: p. 237-240.

45

Influence of altitude, forage quality and grazing-related effects on milk yield and milk quality of cows kept in the eastern Swiss Alps

F. Leiber, R.H. Razminowicz, S.J. Duleba, M. Kreuzer & H.-R. Wettstein

Institute of Animal Science, Animal Nutrition, ETH Zurich, LFW B58.2, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland

Summary

The effects of altitude, alpine forage quality and alpine pasture conditions on milk yield and composition, as well as on plasmin activity and rennet coagulation properties, were distinguished in two experiments with a total of 36 cows. One experiment was carried out indoors with standardized hay diets, the other experiment investigated real pasture conditions. All investigated components of alpine sojourn resulted in metabolic stress, and impaired milk protein and cheese making properties. Forage quality and altitude per se had a partially additive influence. Milk fat content was increased by altitude sojourn only in one of the experiments. Plasmin and plasminogen-derived activity were reduced by alpine grazing.

Keywords: alpine pasture, milk composition, metabolic stress, cheese-making properties.

Introduction

A high biodiversity in grasslands requires an optimal grazing intensity and cutting regime, and biodiversity declines when stocking density in the ecosystem is too high or too low (Milne, 1996). A frequency of four cuts per year instead of only two to three cuts was found to maintain the ratio of herbs and legumes in a subalpine landscape (Gruber et al., 1999). Milk production on high altitude alpine grasslands is a more ecological and efficient way of utilizing feed resources than suckler beef production (Estermann et al., 2001). In the Swiss alps, the traditional way of utilizing the cow’s milk on high altitude sites consists in the production of hard cheeses with regional specification, which are known as high quality products in many European countries. Recent economic changes and other reasons led to a reduction of the number of dairy cows sent to alpine pastures in the summer. Reasons may include effects of alpine sojourn on milk protein content, plasmin activity and rheological properties of milk (Zemp et al., 1989; Berry et al., 2001; Bugaud et al., 2001), which could also lead to reduced cheese yield. Differentiated knowledge of the effects of an alpine sojourn that really affect these traits may help to develop measures for the farmers and thus to maintain dairy production at these altitudes in order to preserve the landscape in a desired way. The aim of the study was to distinguish between alpine and lowland grazing sites in terms of effects of altitude (with oxygen pressure as the main factor), forage quality and grazing-associated factors, including climatic and topographic influences, on metabolism and milk quality of dairy cows.

Materials and methods

In the years 2001 (Y1) and 2002 (Y2) two experiments were performed at two sites each, the ETH-research stations Chamau (S1; 400 m a.s.l.) and Weissenstein (S2; 2,000 m a.s.l.). In Y1, six dairy cows at S and six cows at S2 were fed ad libitum with hay that originated from the first

46

cut of year 2000 in S1 and S2 respectively. Both hay types were offered in a change-over design at both research stations. A third group (six cows at S1; control) was fed with a silage ration ad libitum and concentrate according to milk yield. The cows were kept in barns for the whole summer. In Y2, six plus six cows were kept on pasture and in barns with a grass only diet. These cows were kept at S1 during the first growth of vegetation and then transported to S2 and again pastured or fed indoors with the first growth. Other six cows stayed as controls at S1 during the whole summer, fed with the same silage-concentrate ration as in Y. In both experiments milk was collected daily in sampling weeks which always followed two to three weeks of adaptation to new locations and/or forage types. Blood plasma samples were taken twice in these sampling weeks and analyzed for metabolites using commercial photometric and radioimmuno assay kits. Milk was analyzed using infrared technique for contents of fat, protein, lactose and urea and using a lattodinamografo® for rheological properties. The experimental set-ups allowed to isolate the effects of altitude (comparing cows of Y1 fed simultaneously with identical hay types at S1 and S2), forage quality (comparing hay types at the same site in Y1) and additional grazing-associated factors (steep area, harsh climate; comparing alpine vs. lowland grazing in Y2). Furthermore, for Y2, data correction on the control cows was needed to exclude the influence of lactation when comparing lowland and alpine data. Calculation of LS Means and statistical evaluation were done using the Procedure Mixed of SAS®.

Results and discussion

In Y1, NEL intake of the control group was 130 MJ/day, and PDI intake was 1.9 kg/day (calculated according to RAP, 1999). The lowland hay-fed cows ingested on average only 76% of NEL and 78% of PDI compared to the control group. The alpine hay diet provided only 65% (NEL) and 62% (PDI) of the control diet. In Y2, NEL and PDI supply was similar for the control diet and the lowland grass diet, but NEL intake decreased by half when cows were brought to the alpine location. PDI content of the alpine forage was lower than in the lowlands by 28%. Milk yield decreased significantly (P<0.001) by about 5 kg/d when the alpine hay was compared to the lowland hay, but there was no difference between the altitudes. In Y2, the alpine sojourn also caused a significant (P<0.001) depression of 5 kg milk/d. As shown in Figure , blood plasma metabolites indicate a clear energy deficit for all alpine influences. While plasma glucose levels in “low altitude”, “lowland hay” and “lowland pasture” treatments were similar to those in the control, glucose levels of the “alpine” treatments were lower by about 10%. The opposite was found for b-hydroxibutyrate and non-esterified fatty acids (not shown in Figure l). These traits, which indicate mobilization of body fat, were affected more clearly in Y2 than in Y. Hays et al. (1978) showed that altitude per se causes an impaired energy balance of cattle. Plasma and milk urea contents showed no clear differences between groups in Y, when hay was fed, but in Y2 urea contents in blood and milk increased massively (P<0.001) when the cows were moved to the alpine pastures. Milk fat content was not altered by the treatments in Y1, but increased with the alpine sojourn of the cows in Y2 (Figure 1). Milk protein content was reduced by all alp-related factors in both years. This, the energy content of the forage (as shown also by Hauwuy et al., 1993) and the altitude per se (as indicated by Bianca & Puhan, 1974) affected milk protein content negatively. The interaction of both factors was shown to cause the greatest effect (Figure 1), which demonstrates that alpine sojourn comprises a set of factors acting synergistically. This was associated with lower curd firmness and a longer coagulation time. Part of this effect may have resulted from the lower protein content, which is known to be particularly decisive for curd firmness (Berry et al., 2001). The potential proteolytic activity of the milk is at least partially determined by plasmin and the plasminogen-derived activity. Plasmin activity was only impaired by the alpine sojourn in

4

Fat contents of milk

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e20.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

Protein contents of milk

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e20.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

β-Hydroxibutyrate in Plasma

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e2

0.91.21.51.82.12.4

Glucose in Plasma

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e20.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

Curd firmness after renneting

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e20.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

Plasminogen derived activity in milk

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e20.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

ba

ba

b

ab

a

b

a

b ba

a

b ab

a

b

a

B

A

BA

BA

b a

BAB

A

BA

Milk urea content

a1 a2 b1b2 c1 c2 d1d2 e1 e20.40.60.81.01.21.41.6

Plasmin activity in milk

a1a2 b1b2 c1c2 d1d2 e1 e20.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

B

A

B

A

Figure 1. Effects of various treatments on metabolic traits, milk composition and cheese-making properties.

Y1: high (a1) vs. low (a2) altitude; alpine hay (b1) vs. lowland hay (b2); alpine hay fed at high altitude (c1) vs. lowland hay fed at low altitude (c2). Y2: alp indoor (d1) vs. alp pasture (d2); lowland indoor (e1) vs. lowland pasture (e2). All effects are expressed in relation to the respective means of the control cows in the respective year (1.0, indicated by the solid line). Different superscripts indicate significant differences between treatment pairs. Superscripts in capital letters reflect significant differences between the overall alpine vs. lowland treatments in Y2.

Y2, while plasminogen-derived activity was negatively affected by all alpine compared with the lowland treatments across both years (Figure 1). This is contrary to the results of Bugaud et al. (2001). However, as suggested by Buchin et al. (1999), plasmin could be influenced by botanical composition, which may differ among various alpine pastures.

Conclusion

Alpine sojourn impairs milk protein content and milk properties relevant to cheese-making. The combination of altitude and alpine hay causes larger differences in all traits than the respective factors alone. This indicates at least a partial additivity of the effects of altitude and forage quality. In Y2, the

148

alp vs. lowland comparison showed more clear effects than the indoor vs. pasture comparison. This suggests that the influence of forage quality and altitude was greater than the influence of physical activity, which is rather demanding when grazing at high altitude conditions. As a consequence, an improvement of feed quality would most effectively contribute to an improved milk composition and yield at high altitude sojourn. The data, which indicate the energetic status of the animals, provide reasons to suggest that this improvement is more important in terms of metabolizable energy than for protein supply with feed. As shown by Berry et al. (2001), the supplementation with concentrate on alpine pastures was relatively ineffective because of the large reduction in forage intake. Consequently, improvements have to come from the pasture itself.

References

Berry, N.R., T. Büeler, P.L. Jewell, F. Sutter and M. Kreuzer, 2001. The effect of supplementary feeding on composition and renneting properties of milk from cows rotationally grazing at high altitude. Milchwissenschaft 56: p. 123-126.

Bianca, W. and Z. Puhan, 1974. Untersuchungen über den Einfluss der Luftverdünnung auf einige physiologische Grössen von Kühen sowie auf die Menge und Beschaffenheit der Milch. Schweiz. Landwirtschaftl. Forsch. 13: p. 463-489.

Buchin, S., B. Martin, D. Dupont, A. Bornard and C. Achilleos, 1999. Influence of the composition of alpine highland pasture on the chemical and sensory properties of cheese. J. Dairy Res. 66: p. 579-588.

Bugaud, C., S. Buchin, J.B. Coulon, A. Hauwuy and D. Dupont, 2001. Influence of the nature of alpine pastures on plasmin activity, fatty acid and volatile compound composition of milk. Lait 81: p. 401-414.

Estermann, B.L., H.R. Wettstein, F. Sutter and M. Kreuzer, 2001. Nutrient and energy conversion of grass-fed dairy and suckler beef cattle kept indoors and on high altitude pasture. Anim. Res. 50: p. 477-493.

Gruber, L., A. Steinwidder, B. Stefanon, B. Steiner and R. Steinwender, 1999. Influence of grassland management in alpine regions and concentrate level on N excretion and milk yield of dairy cows. Livest. Prod. Sci. 61: p. 155-170.

Hauwuy, A., J.B. Coulon and J. Paradis, 1993. Effet de la nature du foin des alpes du nord sur le performance de vaches laitieres. Annales de Zootechnie 42: p. 289-298.

Hays, F.L., W. Bianca and F. Näf, 1978. Effects of exercise on young and adult cattle at low and high altitude. International Journal of Biometeorology 22: p. 147-158.

Milne, J.A., 1996. Environmental effects of low intensity systems of animal production in the hills and uplands of the UK. Anim. Sci. 63: p. 363-371.

RAP (Station federale de recherches en production animále), 1999. Fütterungsempfehlungen und Nährwerttabellen für Wiederkäuer. 4th edn. Zollikofen, Switzerland: Landwirtschaftliche Lehrmittelzentrale.

Zemp, M., H. Leuenberger, N. Künzi and J.W. Blum, 1989. Influence of high altitude grazing on productive and physiological traits of dairy cows. I. Influence on milk production and body weight. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 106: p. 278-288.

49

Milk composition and cheesemaking properties of the milk obtained from some Italian bovine genetic types

D. Matassino1-2, C.M.A. Barone1, P. Colatruglio1, D. Fornataro2, M. Occidente2 & A. Zullo1

1Università di Napoli Federico II, DISCIZIA Department, Via Università 133, 80055 Portici (Napoli), Italy 2Consorzio per la Sperimentazione, Divulgazione e Applicazione di Biotecniche Innovative (ConSDABI), Azienda Casaldianni, 80020 Circello (BN), Italy

Summary

Chemical composition and lactodynamometric characteristics were studied in milk obtained from some Italian bovine genetic types. ‘Caciocavallo’ cheese yields were determined at 48 hours and 30, 60, 90, 180 and 360 days of maturation. Marchigiana milk shows a higher protein and lactose percentage than the other genetic types. Agerolese milk tends to have a better coagulation aptitude in comparison to Burlina. Caciocavallo yield was about 9% for Burlina, Agerolese and Reggiana, reaching values of .2-.5% in the other genetic types. Burlina, Agerolese and Reggiana had a higher loss during ripening at 30, 60, 90 and 180 days in comparison with the other genetic types that have the highest weight loss at 360 days of maturation. This research highlights the importance of genetic type for obtaining diversified products.

Keywords: bovine milk, chemical composition, ‘caciocavallo’ cheese yield.

Introduction

Milk quality may be partly defined by the milk’s chemical properties, as well as by its cheese-making aptitude. Milk quality is known to depend on the effect of various factors such as species, genetic type, lactation phase and feeding (Coulon et al., 1997; Matassino, 1997). All such factors may have a considerable influence on the quality of dairy products. Consequently, it is necessary to have specific quality markers in order to increase the value of production ‘typicalities’ of a certain area. The aim of this research is to show the influence of genetic type, milking time (morning or evening) and time after calving on the chemical composition and lactodynamometric characteristics of milk, as well as on cheese yield in the production of ‘caciocavallo’ cheese.

Materials and methods

The research was carried out on milk of the Agerolese, Burlina, Bianca Val Padana and Varzese-Ottonese bovine autochthonous genetic types (AGT), as well as Marchigiana, Piemontese and Reggiana breeds, reared in the same environmental conditions. Milk collection was done during monthly milk recordings, and chemical composition (fat, protein and lactose) was evaluated by the Milkoscan 134 A/B analyser. The acidity of each sample was expressed in pH. Lactodynamometric characteristics were measured according to the ASPA (1995) method, although we prefer to use the definition of enzymatic phase (T), instead of clotting time (r), because it is more explicatory of rennet action (Matassino, 1986). Moreover, 829 ‘caciocavallo’ cheeses were obtained from individual milk under the same technological conditions and their weight was registered at different periods: on

150

Tabl

e 1.

Mea

n va

lue

and

vari

atio

n co

effic

ient

(cv

, %) o

f som

e pa

ram

eter

s an

d si

gnifi

canc

e of

com

pari

sons

1 bet

wee

n th

e ge

netic

type

s.

Che

mic

al a

nd la

ctod

ynam

omet

ric c

hara

cter

istic

s Pr

otei

n, %

La

ctos

e, %

T,

min

K

20, m

in

a30,

cm

G

enet

ic ty

pe2

Mea

n cv

, %

Mea

n cv

, %

Mea

n cv

, %

Mea

n cv

, %

Mea

n cv

, %

Age

role

se

3.18

abc

9 4.

93ac

8

12.0

8a 34

2.

6ac

65

33

.3ac

d 29

B

urlin

a 3.

20be

8

4.82

bce

4 2

.2b

6

6.49

bd

43

.

5bg

44

BV

P 3.

23ce

9

4.88

cde

6

.53ac

28

2.

14c

50

33.7

4cdf

34

Mar

chig

iana

3.

81d

5 5.

6df

2

6.

2de

6

2.6

c 53

37

.85d

18

VO

3.

45e

10

4.74

e

.6

3bd

41

2.58

c 48

19

.65eg

5

Pi

emon

tese

3.

44e

15

5.04

bcf

5 13

.03ac

e 28

3.

27c

60

28.8

9af

2

Reg

gian

a 3.

38ae

10

5.

18f

4 15

.82ed

25

5.

07d

32

20.8

4g 3

C

acio

cava

llo c

hees

e yi

eld(

CC

Y) a

nd ri

peni

ng lo

ss, %

CC

Y3

30d

90d

180d

360d

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

A

gero

lese

9.

02a

25.3

4a 21

30

.02ad

16

32

.05ac

14

40

.61ab

c 6

B

urlin

a 9.

55b

20

28.0

5b 23

32

.88b

18

37.3

2b 5

39

.9bd

e 2

BV

P 7.

23c

4

.5

5cde

29

2.6

6c 16

28

.29cd

44

.9bc

10

M

arch

igia

na

7.28

c 10

17

.81de

20

22

.67c

16

28.3

7d 3

42

.2cd

2

V

O

7.45

c 11

15

.80e

35

22.1

0c 26

25

.66de

12

42

.07cd

3

Pi

emon

tese

.

52c

21

20.7

1f 6

21.9

0c 5

24.0

6e 5

34.8

4ae

2 R

eggi

ana

8.93

ad

18

26.8

7bg

3

33.2

bd

28

34.2

0f 24

32

.86ed

20

D

iffer

ent l

ette

rs in

dica

te si

gnifi

cant

diff

eren

ces f

or P

<0.0

5.2 B

VP

= B

ianc

a V

al P

adan

a; V

O =

Var

zese

-Otto

nese

. 3 C

CY

= ca

cioc

aval

lo w

eigh

t at p

repa

ratio

n/m

ilk w

eigh

t rat

io.

5

preparation and after 48 hours and 30, 60, 90, 180 and 360 days. Data were elaborated using a model of variance analysis where genetic type (GT), milking time (morning and evening) and time after calving (5-105, 106-193, 194-280 d) were considered as fixed factors. The means were estimated by obtaining a weighted value for all the factors considered individually and interactively (on average) (Searle, 1971). The significance of the differences between the means was evaluated by Student’s t test.

Results and discussion

The results (Table 1) on chemical composition show that Marchigiana milk has a higher percentage of protein and lactose in comparison to other genetic types (P<0.01-0.001); for this reason, this breed has a firmer curd (a30). On the contrary, milk obtained from Burlina shows the lowest aptitude to coagulation due to longer enzymatic phase (T), higher curd firming time (K20) and lower curd firmness (P<0.05-0.001). No differences on fat percentage were observed among GTs. Milk obtained from Varzese-Ottonese shows the highest pH value (6.84), while BVP the lowest (6.65; P<0.001). The results of this research confirm the observations reported by Matassino et al. (1999): Agerolese milk tends to have a better coagulation aptitude in comparison to Burlina. Cheese yield is higher in the latter AGT (9.6%), followed by Agerolese (9%) and Reggiana (8.9%); in the other genetic types the yield was about .2-.5%. Further information, mainly in relation to milk polymorphism, are needed to assess why the best milk composition and milk coagulability observed in Marchigiana do not coincide with the best cheese yield. Caciocavallo cheese supplied by Agerolese, Burlina and Reggiana has a higher loss during ripening at 30, 60, 90 and 180 days in comparison with the other genetic types that have the highest weight loss at 360 days of maturation. Fat percentage is higher in the evening milking than in the morning milking (5.04 vs 3.36 %; P<0.001); the same trend is obsrved for pH (6.76 vs. 6.; P<0.05). Time after calving influences lactose percentage, which increases during the post partum period (from 4.78 to 4.84 to 5.28 %; P<0.001), while no influence on fat and protein percentage was observed. In conclusion, the results obtained highlight the significant influence of genetic type on milk composition and cheesemaking properties of the milk.

References

ASPA, 1995. Associazione Scientifica di Produzione Animale. Metodi di analisi del latte delle principali specie di interesse zootecnico. Università di Perugia.

Coulon, J.B., A. Hauwuy, B. Martin and J.F. Chamba, 1997. Pratiques d’élevage, production laitière et caractéristiques des fromages dans les Alpes du Nord. Prod. Anim. 10: p. 195.

Matassino, D., 1986. Il contributo della selezione per una produzione commerciale nell’allevamento del bovino da latte. Atti Conv. AIA, XLI Fiera Int. Bovino da latte, 18 September 1986, Cremona.

Matassino, D., 1997. Biodiversità e allevamento animale. Zoot. Nutr. Anim. 23: p. 13.Matassino, D., C.M.A. Barone, G. Caiola, V. Carfagna, P. Colatruglio, G. Potena, G. Scimonetti,

A. Vitullo and A. Zullo, 1999. Primi risultati sulla valutazione dell’attitudine alla coagulazione presamica di latte bovino prodotto da tipi genetici autoctoni. I. Resa alla caseificazione. Caseus IV 4: p. 82.

Matassino, D., A. Perna, M.C. Larocca, D. Gargano, M. Palazzo and E. Gambacorta, 1997. Preliminary findings on the milk protein polymorphism in dairy cows of Agerolese autochthonous genetic type. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Mediterranean animal germplasm and future human challenges, EAAP Publication 85: p. 309.

Searle, S.R., 1971. Linear models. John Wiley & Sons, New York, London, Sidney, Toronto.

52

53

Colour characteristics of ‘Caciocavallo’ cheese obtained from some Italian bovine genetic types

P. Colatruglio1, C.M.A. Barone1, V. Carfagna2, G. Gigante3, M. Occidente3, A. Zullo1 & D. Matassino1,3

Università di Napoli Federico II, DISCIZIA Department, Via Università 133, 80055 Portici (Napoli), Italy 2Ex ASFD, Corpo forestale dello stato, Torre di Feudozzo, Via Sangro 45, 67031 Castel di Sangro, L’Aquila, Italy 3Consorzio per la Sperimentazione, Divulgazione e Applicazione di Biotecniche Innovative (ConSDABI), Azienda Casaldianni, 80020 Circello (BN), Italy

Summary

Colour parameters were studied in ‘caciocavallo’ cheese obtained from Agerolese, Burlina, Bianca Val Padana, Marchigiana, Varzese-Ottonese, Piemontese and Reggiana genetic types at 30, 60, 90, 180 and 360 days of maturation. Agerolese ‘caciocavallo’ showed higher lightness (L*) and redness (a*) values than that of Varzese-Ottonese. Reggiana ‘caciocavallo’ is characterized by a higher yellowness (b*) in comparison to the Varzese-Ottonese and Piemontese ones. With an increase in the maturation period, the reflectance percentage and lightness decreased, while the redness and yellowness increased. The opposite trend was observed in Piemontese ‘caciocavallo’ from 30 to 60 days of maturation.

Keywords: bovine, ‘caciocavallo’ cheese, colour.

Introduction

‘Caciocavallo’ cheese is made in some Italian regions from cow milk of several genetic types (GTs). Italy is rich in animal biodiversity and the qualitative specificity of milk derived from each GT offers ‘caciocavallo’ cheese the differences required to obtain a “traditional typified” product. Moreover, the maturation age and natural microflora, established during this period, enhance the value of these products. The use of autochthonous genetic types (AGTs) should be considered in order to obtain products that i) linked to the land of production, could be guaranteed by PDO, PGI or TSG labels and contribute to the preservation and promotion of the countryside, ii) thanks to the presence of some molecules with particular ‘nutritional’ and ‘extranutritional’ properties, could contribute to solving nutritional problems. This ongoing research started in 1998 (Matassino et al., 1999) on the qualitative characterisation of cheese obtained from Italian bovine AGTs. In this paper we report results about the influence of genetic type and maturation period on colorimetric characteristics of ‘caciocavallo’ cheese.

Materials and methods

The study was carried out on ‘caciocavallo’ cheese obtained from individually processed milk from Agerolese, Burlina, Bianca val Padana and Varzese-Ottonese AGT cows and from Marchigiana, Piemontese and Reggiana breeds, reared in the same environmental conditions.

54

Tabl

e 1.

Mea

n va

lue

and

vari

atio

n co

effic

ient

(cv,

%) o

f som

e co

lour

par

amet

ers

and

sign

ifica

nce

of c

ompa

riso

ns1 b

etw

een

gene

tic ty

pes a

nd m

atur

atio

n da

ys.

C

olou

r par

amet

ers

L*

a*

b*

ch

rom

a hu

e Fa

ctor

M

ean

cv,%

M

ean

cv,%

M

ean

cv,%

M

ean

cv,%

M

ean

cv,%

G

enet

ic ty

pe2

A

gero

lese

82

.44a

5 2.

49ab

46

6

.66ad

6

16

.86ad

6

81

.78ab

4

Bur

lina

80.7

6b 4

2.42

bf

55

17.6

0b 2

.9bc

3

82

.40bd

4

BV

P 78

.25c

6 .

96cd

4

.29bc

18

.42cd

18

83

.67c

4 M

arch

igia

na

80.0

0bd

2.

03d

38

16.8

2bcd

6

6.9

6d 6

83

.20cd

3

VO

.43ce

9

.29

e 68

3

.6ef

6

3

.5ef

6

84

.94e

4 Pi

emon

tese

78

.54ce

5

2.08

df

78

4.4

f 2

14

.60f

28

82.2

4adf

5 R

eggi

ana

.4

3e

2.4

af

38

18.7

3g 9

18

.91g

9

82.6

0df

3 M

atur

atio

n da

ys

30

83

.00a

5 .

92a

29

4.9

5ab

9

15.0

8ab

9

82.7

1ab

2 60

83

.01a

4 2.

06ab

3

15

.50b

9

5.6

4b 9

82

.38b

2 90

80

.98b

4 2.

08ab

45

16

.48c

5

6.6

3c 5

82

.97bc

3

180

.3

3c 4

2.30

b 62

.32d

.5

3d

83

.15ac

5

360

72.0

0d

2.

ab

6

18.0

1d 2

18

.18d

2

83.6

6c 4

1 Diff

eren

t let

ters

indi

cate

sig

nific

ant d

iffer

ence

s fo

r P<0

.05.

2 B

VP

= B

ianc

a V

al P

adan

a; V

O =

Var

zese

-Otto

nese

.

55

All cheeses were produced by the same cheesemaker and aging was carried out in the same environmental conditions. Colour characteristics [spectrophotometric curve, lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*)] were detected by the Hitachi U-3000 spectrophotometer, equipped with integrating sphere, using A light source (2856 °K). Hue angle and chroma were calculated according to Warriss (2000). Measurements were taken on 278 ‘caciocavallo’ cheeses at different maturation periods (30, 60, 90, 180 and 360 days). Four replicates were done for every cheese. Data were analysed using a model of variance where genetic types, maturation age and their interaction were considered as fixed factors. Mean values were estimated using a procedure (Searle, 1971) in order to obtain a weighted value for all factors considered individually and interactively (on average). The significance of difference among mean values was tested by Student’s t test.

Results and discussion

Colour characteristics of ‘caciocavallo’ cheese changed significantly according to genetic type, maturation age and interaction between the above factors. Table shows that, on average, Agerolese gives a ‘lighter’ ‘caciocavallo’ cheese, i.e. with the highest value of reflectance at all the considered wavelengths, higher lightness and redness in comparison with the other genetic types (P<0.001). On the contrary, Varzese-Ottonese milk, gave ‘caciocavallo’ with the lowest reflectance percentages, lightness and redness, i.e. a less ‘light’ cheese. ‘Caciocavallo’ cheese obtained from Reggiana cows shows a higher value of b* and chroma (P<0.001). Since beta-carotene and related compounds are responsible for the yellow colour of dairy products (Buchin et al., 1999; Coulon & Priolo, 2002), these pigments could be more present in Reggiana milk, although all GTs received the same feeding. Previously, Matassino et al. (1999) had observed no significant differences between the Agerolese and the Burlina genetic type in the colour of ‘scamorza’ and ‘treccia’ cheese. The variability of a* value is high (29-78%) because the values can be both negative (expressing the colour that tends to green) and positive (red). From 30 to 360 days of maturation, lightness decreased and yellowness increased (P<0.001); redness increased only from 30 to 180 days (P<0.01). A genetic type x maturation period interaction was observed: in almost all genetic types, lightness decreased from 30 to 60 days, except for Piemontese where it increased. Our results show that through the conservation and use of these genetic types it will be possible to obtain diversified products with particular colour characteristics.

References

Buchin, S., M. Martin, D. Dupont, A. Bornard and C. Achilleos, 1999. Influence of the composition of Alpine highland pasture on the chemical, rheological and sensory properties of cheese. J. Dairy Res. 66: p. 579.

Coulon, J.B. and A. Priolo, 2002. La qualité sensorielle des produits laitiers et de la viande dépend des fourrages consommés par les animaux. Prod. Anim. 15: p. 333.

Matassino, D., C.M.A. Barone, M. De Renzis, G. Caiola, V. Carfagna, P. Colatruglio, G. Potena, E. Radici and A. Zullo, 1999. Primi risultati sulla valutazione dell’attitudine alla coagulazione presamica di latte bovino prodotto da tipi genetici autoctoni. III. Caratteristiche colorimetriche del formaggio. Italus Hortus 6: p. 5.

Searle, S.R., 1971. Linear models. John Wiley & Sons, New York, London, Sidney, Toronto.Warriss, P.D., 2000. Meat science: an introductory text. CABI Publishing.

56

5

Rheological characteristics of ‘Caciocavallo’ cheese obtained from some Italian bovine breeds and genetic types

A. Zullo1, C.M.A. Barone1, P. Colatruglio1, M. Occidente2, G. Potena3, C.E. Rossetti2 & D. Matassino1,2

1Università di Napoli Federico II, DISCIZIA Department, Via Università 133, 80055 Portici (Napoli), Italy 2Consorzio per la Sperimentazione, Divulgazione e Applicazione di Biotecniche Innovative (ConSDABI), Azienda Casaldianni, 80020 Circello (BN), Italy 3Ex ASFD, Corpo forestale dello stato, Torre di Feudozzo, Via Sangro 45, 67031 Castel di Sangro, L’Aquila, Italy

Summary

Rheological parameters were studied in ‘caciocavallo’ cheese, obtained from the Agerolese, Burlina, Bianca Val Padana, Marchigiana, Varzese-Ottonese, Piemontese and Reggiana bovine genetic types, at 30, 60, 90 and 180 days of maturation. Marchigiana ‘caciocavallo’ was characterized by higher hardness and springiness than the other genetic types, hence requiring more chewing effort. As the maturation period increased from 30 to 180 days, hardness and chewiness increased because of higher firmness. The results suggest that it is possible to produce ‘caciocavallo’ with diversified rheological traits depending on breed, genetic type and maturation period.

Keywords: bovine, ‘caciocavallo’ cheese, rheological characteristics.

Introduction

Every dairy product has a texture that defines the product type and level of quality (Foegeding et al., 2003). Quality traits of ‘caciocavallo’ vary according to both the milk used, mainly from autochthonous genetic types (AGT) such as Podolica and Marchigiana, and the preparation techniques, which vary according to the production area (Gobbetti et al., 2002; Quinto et al., 2003). The importance of the productive use of these ATGs was reported by Colatruglio et al. (2005). The aim of the present study is to investigate the influence of genetic type and maturation period on rheological traits of ‘caciocavallo’ obtained from some Italian bovine genetic types.

Materials and methods

The research was carried out on ‘caciocavallo’ obtained from individual milk of Agerolese, Burlina, Bianca Val Padana and Varzese-Ottonese bovine ATGs, as well as Marchigiana, Piemontese and Reggiana breeds, reared in the same environmental conditions. All cheeses were produced by the same dairyman and aging was carried out in the same environmental conditions. A 13 mm thick slice of ‘caciocavallo’ was cut lenghtwise, and four cylinders (40 mm diameter, 13 mm height) were cored from each slice. The evaluation of rheological properties was carried out at room temperature on 197 caciocavallo cheeses at different maturation periods (30, 60, 90 and 180 days). A texturometer (Zenken) was used, that is, a modification of the Denture

158

Tabl

e 1.

Mea

n va

lue

and

vari

atio

n co

effic

ient

(cv

, %

) of

som

e rh

eolo

gica

l pa

ram

eter

s an

d si

gnifi

canc

e of

com

pari

sons

1 bet

wee

n th

e ge

netic

type

s and

mat

urat

ion

days

.

R

heol

ogic

al p

aram

eter

s

Har

dnes

s C

ohes

iven

ess

Sprin

gine

ss

Adh

esiv

enes

s C

hew

ines

s

kg/c

m2

%

TU3

%

mm

%

TU

(3)

%

TU (3

) %

Fa

ctor

M

ean

c.v.

M

ean

c.v.

Mea

n c.

v.

Mea

n c.

v.

Mea

n c.

v.

Gen

etic

type

2

Age

role

se

3.85

a 41

0.

538ab

f 4

3

.9ag

12

10

1.7ad

46

2,

943ae

52

B

urlin

a 2.

9b

59

0.55

2bdf

2

3.5

4bf

9 10

0.6bd

35

2,

083bf

63

B

VP

3.38

e 50

0.

570ed

11

14

.07cg

9

5.

c 38

2,

832ce

66

M

arch

igia

na6.

66d

26

0.55

5df

14

14.8

8de

10

86.7

d 43

5,

39d

32

VO

3.

83ac

e 29

0.

599ec

8

14.6

1ce

9 10

7.5cd

34

3,

381e

33

Piem

onte

se

3.39

abce

67

0.

540f

4

2.9

9f 8

91.0

d 4

2,

44ac

f5

Reg

gian

a 3.

5bc

e 49

0.

545f

12

13.8

6bg

9 10

2.2d

43

2,45

f 60

M

atur

atio

n da

ys

30

2.

80a

36

0.55

7ab

9 13

.88

9 10

4.6a

34

2,2

3a 46

60

3.

82b

54

0.56

7b 13

13

.93

9 10

2.3ab

42

3,

095b

68

90

4.45

c 52

0.

537c

15

13.9

0 12

93

.4b

46

3,38

2b 6

18

0 4.

38c

45

0.56

7b 11

14

.20

10

102.

8b 44

3,

6b

52

Diff

eren

t let

ters

indi

cate

sign

ifica

nt d

iffer

ence

for P

<0.0

5.2 B

VP

=Bia

nca

Val

Pad

ana;

VO

=V

arze

se-O

ttone

se.

3 TU =

Tex

turo

met

er U

nit.

59

tenderometer, equipped with a plunger of 9 mm diameter. Genetic type, maturation period and their interaction were considered fixed factors in the analysis of variance. The significance of the differences between the means was evaluated by Student’s t test.

Results and discussion

Rheological traits of ‘caciocavallo’ significantly varied according to genetic type, maturation period, and their interaction. From Table 1 it may be inferred that, on average, Marchigiana gives the hardest ‘caciocavallo’, which requires the most chewing effort (P<0.001). Higher value of protein in Marchigiana milk (Matassino et al., 2005) could be responsible for these rheological traits. It is known that low fat cheeses, due to the dominating role of milk proteins, become hard and rubbery (Romeih et al., 2002). Burlina ‘Caciocavallo’ has the lowest hardness and chewiness values, also in comparison to Agerolese, although Matassino et al. (1999) detected no different rheological traits on ‘scamorza’ and ‘treccia’ cheese obtained from milk of the two AGTs. The high coefficient of variation for almost all parameters could be due to the difficulty to standardise the cheesemaking technique. This confirms the role of the manufacturer’s ability to determine the rheological traits of cheeses. The progressive increase observed in hardness and chewiness from 30 to 180 days of maturation (Table1), indicates higher firmness, mainly due to moisture decrease. Conversely, other researchers observed a continuous decrease in all TPA (Texture Profile Analysis) parameters during the storage of cheeses due to on-going proteolysis (Romeih et al., 2002). Protein degradation could probably be late in Caciocavallo, which is a pasta-filata cheese, hence the high temperature of production determines the formation of paracasein fibres with relatively high tensile strength that imparts stringiness to the cheese (Gobbetti et al., 2002). Genetic type x maturation period interaction seems to result from the fact that in some genetic types (Agerolese, Burlina and Piemontese) the value of rheological parameters increases from 30 to 60 days, decreases at 90 days and then increases at 180 days. In Marchigiana and Reggiana breeds a progressive increase was observed from 30 to 180 days of maturation. The results suggest that it is possible to produce ‘caciocavallo’ with diversified rheological traits depending on genetic type and maturation period. Therefore, the harmonic integration of breeds and genetic types in their rearing area, in addition to their intrinsic genetic traits, results in unique, unrepeatable products (Matassino, 1997, 2000).

References

Colatruglio, P., C.M.A. Barone, V. Carfagna, G. Gigante, M. Occidente, A. Zullo and D. Matassino, 2005. Colour characteristics of ‘Caciocavallo’ cheese obtained from some Italian bovine genetic types. In: Livestock farming systems: product quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability, R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 118: p. 153-155.

Foegeding, E.A., J. Brown, M.A. Drake and C.R. Daubert, 2003. Sensory and mechanical aspects of cheese texture. Int. Dairy J. 13: p. 585.

Gobbetti, M., M. Morea, F. Baruzzi, M.R. Borbo, A. Matarante, T. Considine, R. Di Cagno, T. Ghinee and P.F. Fox, 2002. Microbiological, compositional, biochemical and textural characterisation of Caciocavallo Pugliese cheese during ripening. Int. Dairy J. 12: p. 511.

Matassino, D., 1997. Biodiversità e allevamento animale. Zoot. Nutr. Anim. 23: p. s13. Matassino, D., 2000. Recupero del genoma di razze in via d’estinzione e sviluppo eco-compatibile.

L’Allevatore 56: p. 7.

160

Matassino, D., C.M.A. Barone, G. Caiola, V. Carfagna, P. Colatruglio, G. Potena, M. Terracciano and A. Zullo, 1999. Primi risultati sulla valutazione dell’attitudine alla coagulazione presamica di latte bovino prodotto da tipi genetici autoctoni. II. Caratteristiche reologiche del formaggio. Caseus IV 4: p. 84.

Matassino, D., C.M.A. Barone, P. Colatruglio, D. Fornataro, M. Occidente and A. Zullo, 2005. Milk composition and cheesemaking properties of the milk obtained from some Italian bovine genetic types. In: Livestock farming systems: product quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability, R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 118: p. 149-151.

Quinto, M., A. Sevi, R. Di Caterina, M. Albenzio, A. Muscio and T. Rotunno, 2003. Quality of milk and caciocavallo cheese from farms rearing Podolica and Italian Friesian cows. Italian J. Food Sci. 15: p. 485.

Romeih, E.A., A. Michaelidou, C.G. Biliaderis and G.K. Zerûridis, 2002. Low-fat white-brined cheese made from bovine milk and two commercial fat mimetics, chemical, physical and

6

Colour of dry cured hams obtained from autochthonous genetic types of pigs

D. Matassino1,2, C.M.A. Barone1, P. Colatruglio1, M. Occidente2 & A. Zullo1

1Università di Napoli Federico II, DISCIZIA Department, Via Università 133, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy 2Consorzio per la Sperimentazione, Divulgazione e Applicazione di Biotecniche Innovative, ConSDABI, Azienda Casaldianni, 80020 Circello (BN), Italy

Summary

Colour parameters of Biceps Femoris (BF), Semitendinosus (St) and Semimembranosus (Sm) muscles and fat were measured in dry cured hams of Calabrese, Casertana, Cinta senese and Siciliano autochthonous genetic types. During the maturation period, the reflectance percentage and lightness decreased, while the yellow index increased. Reflectance percentage was higher in ham obtained from Casertana, especially in the 660-780 nm range, in comparison to that obtained from Siciliano, Cinta senese and Calabrese. Casertana ham had a higher lightness (L*) and also a lower red index (a*) than Cinta Senese. Calabrese and Casertana ham had a reflectance percentage of 360 to 600 nm, higher than Siciliano ham.

Keywords: pig, dry cured hams, colour.

Introduction

Colour is the most important aspect taken into consideration by the consumer for the selection of good dry cured ham. The normal colour of dry cured meat depends on three factors: the concentration of pigment in the tissue, the degree of nitrosated pigment conversion and the condition of proteins in the meat (Bañòn et al., 1999). Moreover, colour characteristics of dry cured ham change with genetic type (Monin et al., 1996), as well as thickness and colour of fat cover. Spectroscopic studies recently ruled out the possibility of nitrosylated ferrous complex of myoglobin being the major pigment in mature Parma ham and the initial oxymyoglobin is slowly transformed into a red stable heme complex (Moller et al., 2003).

Materials and methods

The study was carried out on 69 pigs, 38 castrated males and 31 entire females, belonging to four autochthonous genetic types (AGTs): Calabrese (CL), Casertana (CT), Cinta senese (CS) and Siciliano (SC). Pigs were raised at the experimental centre and sent to the commercial abattoir about 50 km away. After slaughter at 170 kg live weight, 69 hams obtained from the right side were matured in a plant in the province of Parma (according to Parma’s ham technology: salt as the only additive; electronically controlled temperature and humidity of the plant), whereas 69 hams obtained from the left side were matured in a plant in the province of Benevento (following the Italian method: salt as the only additive; temperature and humidity regulated by an old expert). At the end of aging, on average after 750±94 days, hams were boned and samples were collected from Biceps Femoris (BF), Semitendinosus (St) and Semimembranosus (Sm) muscles,

62

as well as from fat, in order to determine the following colour parameters: reflectance spectrum, lightness, red and yellow indexes, chroma and hue, using A, B, C and D65 illuminants. Statistical analysis was performed using a model of covariance analysis, where AGT (αi), gender (βj), plant (γk) and muscle (δl) factors were considered as fixed and the covariate was represented by the maturation period.

Results and discussion

Covariance analysis showed that all the considered factors significantly affected the reflectance percentage at any wavelength considered, as well as the lightness measured using the four illuminants. Furthermore, the effect of ‘AGT x sex’ interaction (P<0.001) indicates that the castrated male was superior to the female in all AGTs, except for Siciliano. When the maturation period increased, the reflectance percentage and lightness decreased (P<0.05), the yellow index increased (P<0.001), whereas the red index showed no significant changes. The reflectance percentage was higher in ham obtained from Casertana, especially in the 660-780 nm range, in comparison to that obtained from Siciliano (P<0.001), Cinta senese (P<0.01) and Calabrese (P<0.05); consequently, Casertana ham showed a higher lightness (L*), hence it was defined as ‘lighter’ (Table 1). Moreover, CT gave ham with a lower red index (a*) than CS (P<0.05). These results underline the necessity to further investigate on differences among autochthonous genetic types, and in particular on Casertana. Ham matured at the Benevento plant showed higher values of yellow index (P<0.05) and hue (P<0.001) compared with that matured in Parma. The plant effect could be explained by the action of bacteria, which in the Parma ham are represented principally by staphylococci that generated red myoglobin derivatives from metmyoglobin (Morita et al., 1996). BF muscle had a higher lightness and reflectance percentage as well as a higher yellow index (P<0.001) than the other muscles. This is in agreement with results of Perez-Alvarez et al. (1999), who evidenced that Sm muscle had the lowest value for all colour parameters, while the BF muscle showed the highest values, as well as with the results of Chizzolini et al. (1996) who observed that Sm was heavily dehydrated due to exposed position and differed in colour from both BF and St. The analysis of the fat showed that there were no colour differences between males and females, or between the two plants; conversely, the fat of Calabrese and Casertana ham showed a higher reflectance percentage from 360 to 600 nm (P<0.01) in comparison to Siciliano. The high variability (c.v., %) registered in almost all colorimetric traits of fat is due to a large individual variation within the examined population, which was not subjected to selection for pork quality but only for visible genetic profile (ear length, coat colour). In conclusion, this research demonstrated that differences exist among AGTs as regards ham and fat colour, suggesting the importance of the ‘genetic type’ factor for obtaining diversified, ‘typified’ products, as dry cured ham.

63

Tabl

e 1.

Mea

n va

lue

and

vari

atio

n co

effic

ient

(cv

, %

) of

som

e co

lour

par

amet

ers

and

sign

ifica

nce

of

com

pari

sons

(1) b

etw

een

the

leve

ls o

f fac

tors

.

C

olou

r par

amet

ers

L*

a*

b*

ch

rom

a hu

e Fa

ctor

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

M

ean

cv, %

Pa

ram

eter

det

ecte

d on

the

mus

cle

of d

ry c

ured

ham

G

enet

ic ty

pe

C

alab

rese

39

.35a

10

13.9

9a 20

9.

34

25

16.9

6 15

33

.80ab

26C

aser

tana

40

.00a

10

12.3

1ab

40

8.66

23

15

.41ab

26

35.6

9ab30

Cin

ta S

enes

e 38

.50a

10

14.1

7a 18

8.

88

21

16.8

4a 5

32

.69a

23

Sici

liano

36

.83b

10

12.8

0b 18

9.

16

24

15.8

9b 4

35

.5b

24

Gen

der

Cas

trate

d m

ale

39.3

4a 11

13

.04

19

8.81

21

15

.96

14

34.1

9 24

En

tire

fem

ale

38.0

1b 10

13

.60

21

9.22

27

16

.59

17

34.7

6 28

Pl

ant o

f dry

cur

ed

Pa

rma

38.0

7 9

13.5

7 17

8.

47a

22

6.

5 3

3

.66a

23

Ben

even

to

39.2

7 11

13

.06

23

9.55

b 25

16

.40

18

37.3

0b 29

M

uscl

e

BF

4.

9a 9

13.7

8 16

9.

26

23

16.7

8 13

33

.88

24

St

38.2

2b 10

12

.93

22

9.02

27

16

.00

16

34.9

2 28

SM

36

.61c

10

13.2

4 22

8.

75

20

16.0

5 17

34

.63

24

Para

met

er d

etec

ted

on th

e fa

t of d

ry c

ured

ham

G

enet

ic ty

pe

C

alab

rese

66

.49

9 3.

90a

54

5.2

ab53

6.

3a

45

62.6

8 85

C

aser

tana

72

.47

8 4.

64ab

54

5.

9ab

.65

ab

5

.32

23

Cin

ta S

enes

e 65

.38

7 4.

45ab

4

4.

52a

39

6.5

a 45

53

.58

52

Sici

liano

63

.60

12

5.67

b 4

6.

3b

38

8.67

b 37

50

.22

31

Gen

der

Cas

trate

d m

ale

67.7

7 10

4.

54

61

5.52

48

7.

36

46

57.6

7 71

En

tire

fem

ale

66.2

0 11

4.

79

49

5.55

36

7.

45

36

51.2

3 32

Pl

ant o

f dry

cur

ed

Pa

rma

65.8

2 11

5.

21

50

5.29

41

7.

48

40

47.2

7 34

B

enev

ento

68

.15

9 4.

12

64

5.77

46

7.

33

43

61.6

3 75

a,

b.c D

iffer

ent l

ette

rs in

dica

te si

gnifi

cant

diff

eren

ce fo

r P<0

.05.

64

References

Bañòn, S., J.M. Cayela, M.V. Granados and M.D. Garrido, 1999. Pre-cure freezing affects proteolysis in dry cured hams. Meat Sci. 51: p. 11.

Chizzolini, R., E. Novelli, G. Campanili, G. Dazzi, G. Madarena, E. Zanardi, M.T. Pacchioli and A. Rossi, 996. Lean colour of green and matured Parma hams: comparative evaluation and technological relevance of sensory and objective data. Meat Sci. 44: p. 159-172.

Moller, J.K.S., C.E. Adamsen and L.H. Skibsted, 2003. Spectral characterisation of red pigment in Italian-type dry-cured ham. Incresing lipophilicity during processing and maturation. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 216: p. 290-296.

Monin, G., R. Virgili, M. Cornet, G. Gandemer and F. Grasso, 1996. Composition chimique et caractéristiques physiques de 6 types de jambons d’Europe latina. Prod. Anim. 11: p. 219-230.

Morita, H., J. Nin, R. Sakata and Y. Nagata, 1996. Red pigment of parma ham and bacterial influence on its formation. J. Food Sci. 61: p. 1021-1023.

Perez-Alvarez, J.A., M.E. Sayas, J. Fernandez, M.A. Gago, M.J. Pagan and V. Aranda, 1999. Chemical and color characteristics of Spanish dry-cured ham at the end of the aging process. J. Muscle Foods 10: p. 195-201.

65

Preliminary results on some “typified traditional” products obtained from Casertana, a pig autochthonous genetic type

C.M.A. Barone1, N. Castellano2, P. Colatruglio1, M. Occidente2, A. Zullo1 & D. Matassino1,2

1Università di Napoli Federico II, Dipartimento Scienze zootecniche e Ispezione degli alimenti, Via Università 133, 80055 Portici (Napoli), Italy 2Consorzio per la Sperimentazione, Divulgazione e Applicazione di Biotecniche Innovative (ConSDABI), Azienda Casaldianni, 80020 Circello (BN), Italy

Summary

Weight loss was monitored from preparation to maturation on the following typified traditional products: ‘capocollo del Sannio’, ‘fiocco del Sannio’, ‘salame Napoli’, ‘salsiccia del Sannio’, ‘soppressata del Sannio’, obtained from 12 pigs belonging to the ‘Casertana’ genetic type. Furthermore, some quality traits of the last three products (sausages) were also determined. ‘Salsiccia del Sannio’ showed the highest weight loss during the first 15 days of the maturation process, whereas ‘soppressata del Sannio’ showed a decrease in weight especially in the following 15 days. Weight loss was more gradual and lower for ‘capocollo del Sannio’ and ‘fiocco del Sannio’. ‘Soppressata del Sannio’ had higher values of hardness, cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness, whereas salsiccia had the lowest values.

Keywords: casertana, salami, rheology, weight loss.

Introduction

Salami production is an ancient way for preserving and using meat. In the past, the production and distribution of such products was linked to the land, strictly related to the geographical area. The presence in Italy of various pig genetic types suitable for this production has played an equally important role in the diversification and characterisation of salami. The decrease and/or extinction of many genetic types as well as the abandonment of agriculture have caused the disappearance of traditional products. Through the productive use of autochthonous germplasm and the recovery of local traditions, it is possible to achieve an integral and integrated recovery of the present agro-ecosystem, giving a new impulse to the local economy and sustainable development, consistent with an optimal use of autochthonous resources (Matassino, 2001). In this brief paper we report the results of weight loss monitored on some “typified traditional” products, dry fermented sausages and cured ham obtained from the Casertana pig autochthonous genetic type, from the preparation to the end of maturation (sausages). Data concerning some qualitative traits are also reported.

Materials and methods

The study was carried out on the following “typified traditional” products: ‘capocollo del Sannio’, ‘fiocco del Sannio’, ‘salame Napoli’, ‘salsiccia del Sannio’, ‘soppressata del Sannio’, obtained from 12 pigs belonging to the ‘Casertana’ genetic type. Fiocco del Sannio, obtained from pork leg, includes aspects of dry cured ham (salting step) and fermented salami (packaging in sacks and

66

seasoning) as well as capocollo del Sannio, obtained from collar boneless. Salsiccia del Sannio, soppressata del Sannio and salame Napoli are sausages, made of coarsely minced lean pork mixed with fat cut into small pieces. Each product, obtained from the individual manufacturing of the subject, was periodically (daily or weekly) monitored for weight loss. Furthermore, at the end of seasoning the rheological characteristics (hardness, cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness) of ‘salsiccia del Sannio’, ‘salame Napoli’ and ‘soppressata del Sannio’ were determined by Texturometer (Matassino et al., 1974), while colorimetric traits (L*,a*,b*, chroma and hue with illuminant A) were measured by a spectrophotometer (U3000, Hitachi).

Results

In the first 15 days of the maturation period, ‘salsiccia del Sannio’ showed the greater loss percentage (37.8%), followed by ‘soppressata del Sannio’ (31.6%) and ‘salame Napoli’ (27.5%) (Table 1). In the following 15 days, ‘soppressata del Sannio’ decreased its weight by a further %, whereas the other two products decreased their weight by around 4%. The higher proportion of fat present in ‘salame Napoli’, due to some cuts used for its preparation (belly and “tracchie”), is probably responsible for the slower drying of this product in comparison with the other two. Similar weight losses were reported by Diaferia (1992) for salame ‘Napoli’. Weight loss was more gradual and lower for ‘capocollo del Sannio’ and for ‘fiocco del Sannio’. Indeed, while the former showed a 11% reduction in weight in the first two weeks from preparation and salting, and a 19-20% loss after a month, ‘fiocco del Sannio’ showed a weight loss equal to about 2% of the starting weight after a month. As regards some qualitative traits (Table 2), ‘salsiccia del Sannio’ shows a lower redness value and higher yellowness and hue values than the other two products. The reflectance spectrum showed that salame Napoli is more red, probably due to a higher level of pigment, while salsiccia is globally darker. The different composition of the three salami is also responsible for higher values of hardness, cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness in ‘soppressata del Sannio’ and lower values of these traits in ‘salsiccia del Sannio’. Globally speaking, taking into account that no additives or preservatives were used and that all products presented a good red colour, probably due to natural microflora which is decisive in this type of products (Coppola et al., 2000), these preliminary results demonstrate that quality products can be obtained from the Casertana AGT pig.

Tracchie are small, meaty pieces that have been cut from pork spare ribs according to the Neapolitan method.

Table 1. Percentage weight loss of some “typified traditional” products.

Period, d 0-10 10-5 5-30 30-40

Product Mean c.v. % Mean c.v. % Mean c.v. % Mean c.v. % Soppressata del Sannio

24.9 6. 16.8 2 10.5 28

Salame Napoli

20.7 25 6.8 26 3.5 9 9.

Salsiccia del Sannio

37.8 4.4 5

Value refers to 0-5d.

6

References

Coppola, S., G. Mauriello, M. Aponte, G. Moschetti and F. Villani, 2000. Microbial succession during ripening of Naples-type salami, a southern Italian fermented sausage. Meat Sci. 56: p. 32.

Diaferia, C., 1992. Ricerca sulle caratteristiche chimiche, chimico-fisiche e microbiologiche del salame “Napoli” prodotto nella zona di Mugnano del Cardinale (Avellino). CCIA Avellino.

Matassino, D., 2001. Biodiversità e territorio. Giornata di Studio su “Zootecnia sostenibile. Presunzione o consapevolezza!” I georgofili - Quaderni, II: p. 11.

Matassino, D., E. Cosentino and A. Bordi, 1974. Quantizzazione di alcuni aspetti qualitativi della carne bovina con l’impiego della tecnica tessurometrica. IX Simp. Int. Zootecnia, Milano.

Table 2. Rheological characteristics of some products.

Product Salame Napoli Salsiccia del Sannio Soppressata del Sannio

Characteristic Mean c.v.,% Mean c.v.,% Mean c.v.,% Hardness, kg 2.58 33 1.67 40 2.98 37 Cohesiveness, TU1 0.51 14 0.46 14 0.57 9 Springiness, mm 13.39 8 13.38 10 14.11 6 Adhesiveness, TU 25.39 64 31.24 60 29.39 55 Chewiness, TU 1,784 38 1,047 45 2,454 42 L* 38.19 12 34.77 11 37.59 8 a* 8.62 33 7.88 44 6.40 29 b* 7.61 25 11.14 23 9.24 23 Chroma 11.62 25 12.97 26 12.21 23 Hue 42.00 23 61.39 14 50.00 15

1TU= Texturometric Unit.

Table 2. Rheological characteristics of some products.

168

69

Sensory properties of Italian Istrian milk lamb meat

R. Valusso, L.A. Volpell1, M. Morgante & E. Piasentier

Dipartimento di Scienze della Produzione Animale, Università di Udine, Via S. Mauro 2, 33010 Pagnacco (Udine), Italy

Summary

The Istrian Milk (Istriana or Carsolina) or Istrian Pramenka is an endangered sheep breed of the Pramenka group, spread over the Adriatic Karst region of three bordering countries: Italy, Slovenia and Croatia. Its preservation is important in the context of the conservation of genetic variation and for the protection and restoration of dry grasslands and small wood patches, which for thousands of years have represented the classical landscape of North-Adriatic uplands, characterised by a high ecological value. Transhumance, the traditional form of husbandry, has now been substituted by permanent and semi-permanent herds, thus allowing diet supplementation with some forage and concentrates. The typical products are milk for cheese-making and lamb meat provided by young animals starting from 5-6 weeks of age, weighing 2 to 25 kg. In order to provide objective information on the quality of Istrian lamb meat, three different groups of ten animals each were compared, differing as to rearing practice and feeding intensity (milk, milk and forages, milk and concentrates). A taste panel was conducted on samples of l. dorsi cooked in a oven at 120°C for 20 min, in order to determine the sensory profile of lamb meat. In five replicas, eight trained assessors evaluated three samples per session for 4 attributes, using linear scorecards. Multivariate analysis pointed out a good discrimination in the three theses by the taste panel, mainly due to texture parameters.

Keywords: lamb, Italian Istrian milk breed, meat, sensory analysis.

Introduction

The Istrian Milk or Istrian Pramenka (Mason, 1996), called in Italy Istriana or Carsolina, is an endangered breed of sheep of the Pramenka group, raised in the North-Adriatic Karst region of three bordering countries: Italy, Slovenia and Croatia. In Slovenia and Croatia, the Istrian population amounts to about 630 and 1,000 heads respectively (Sinkovic, 1999). In Italian Karst, Istrian stock as well as sheep husbandry as a whole declined dramatically after the 2nd World War. In 1997, the Animal Production Service of the Friuli Venezia Giulia Region initiated a preservation action; as a result, about 300 heads are currently listed in the “National official register of autochthonous and rare sheep and goat breeds” (Anonymous, 2001). The Istrian Pramenka is a medium sized ovine; the shaggy and open-flock fleece is typically whitish with black or dark-brown spots and patches. Transhumance, the traditional form of husbandry, has now been substituted by permanent and semi-permanent herds, thus allowing diet supplementation with some forage and concentrates. The typical products are milk for cheese-making and lamb meat provided by young animals starting from 5-6 weeks of age, weighing 2 to 25 kg. At present the sheep is also raised exclusively for meat production, by extensive rearing.

170

The preservation of Istrian milk sheep is important in the context of the conservation of genetic variation. Moreover, it is essential for the protection and restoration of dry grasslands and small wood patches, which for thousands of years represented the classical landscape of North-Adriatic uplands, characterised by a high ecological value (Kompan et al., 1995). These landscapes derived from long term low-intensity agricultural and pastoral practices, which are now endangered by shrub encroachment and deforestation caused by the abandonment of agriculture and the decline of animal husbandry. Multipurpose farms, which integrate traditional animal husbandry with sustainable management of landscape and natural resources, have found in typification and differentiation an effective way for adding value to livestock products and improving their competitiveness: the Istrian Milk lamb has been included in the reference list of typical regional food products approved by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture. The aim of the research is to provide objective information on the quality of Istrian lamb meat and a scientific insight into its variation. Therefore the variability of sensory properties was assessed in relation to the feeding system, which is known to be a factor affecting variability of meat quality in other breeds (Geay et al., 2001; Priolo et al., 2001).

Materials and methods

Lambs

The quality of Istrian lamb meat was evaluated using carcasses of male lambs 6 to 4 weeks old, belonging to three groups. The lambs in the first two groups, born in the beginning of winter in a flock reared only on forage, were fed either exclusively on mother’s milk (milk-milk, MM) or on mother’s milk plus progressive amounts of natural hay of the Carso region (milk and forage, MF). The lambs of the third group were fed mother’s milk and in the beginning of spring received a daily supplement of 100 g/ per head of concentrates at 20% of crude protein (milk and concentrate, MC). The age at slaughter was 6 to 10 weeks for MM e MC groups, and 10 to 14 weeks for MF. All carcasses, classified according to the EU standards (ECC Regulation no. 2137/92 and no. 461/93), belonged to the light lamb type as they weighed d” 13 kg. In particular, all MM carcasses fell into the weight category A (d” 7 kg), while MF and MC carcasses were heavier and fell into B (7.1-10 kg) and C (10.1-13 kg) categories.

Sample preparation

Longissimus dorsi, chosen as sample muscle, was dissected one day after slaughter, vacuum-packed and aged in refrigerator (+5°C) for seven days before freezing. Before sensory analysis, samples were allowed to thaw in a refrigerator (+5°C) for 24 h. Cubic samples, 3 cm-side, were prepared and cooked in a pre-heated oven at 120°C for 20 minutes, the time necessary to reach a temperature of 75°C at the heart of the sample. Samples were then wrapped in aluminium foil, identified with a three-number code, and served hot to the assessors.

Sensory analysis

Sensory analysis was performed in a laboratory (UNI-ISO n°8589) by eight trained assessors to determine sensory profile (ISO-DIS 13299.2). For each treatment, ten samples were tested in five sessions (replicates). Assessors’ responses were recorded on scorecards with 100 mm linear anchored scales (Lawless & Heymann, 1999).

After a preliminary phase of selection and validation (Meilgaard et al., 1991), 14 descriptors were chosen to represent texture and flavour characteristics: broth odour, sweet odour (whey), milk odour, sheep odour, liver odour, primary juiciness (first three bites), sour taste, juiciness persistency, metallic/bloody taste, mouth coating, flavour persistency, hardness (evaluated between molars), chewiness and fibrousness (Civille & Lyon, 1996). Data were analysed by Senstools v. 3.1.4. General Procrustes Analysis (GPA) was performed choosing these options: translation around means, isotropic scaling, rescaling of variance =100, analysis restricted to 10 dimensions, rotation according to Gower (1975).

Results and conclusions

The Spider Plot (Figure 1), reporting overall means of scores for each attribute/thesis, represents sensory fingerprints of the three types of lamb meat for the considered descriptors. There was clear differentiation of the lamb types for several sensory attributes assessed by the taste panel (Table 1). It must be underlined that the values for most attributes were judged as of low or moderate intensity, as a consequence of meat typology: young lamb. ANOVA showed that the lambs reared on milk and forage produced more characterised meat as to some parameters: hardness (evaluated between molars), chewiness and fibrousness, consistently higher; and, with a lower level of significance, sheep odour and flavour persistency. Moreover, sour taste was found at a higher level in MM vs MC, and metallic/bloody taste was higher in MM than in the other two groups. General Procrustes Analysis (Figure 2) showed the good treatment discrimination obtained by the taste panel with the chosen descriptors. In this case, descriptors like milk odour (that helps to better characterise MM) and primary juiciness (lower in MF compared to the others) also got more relevance. The percentage of variation explained by the first dimension was 75.61, the second was 20.18.

-2.90 2.90

-2.90

2.90

Broth O.

Milk O. Sheep O.

P.Juiciness

Sour

Juiciness P.

Metallic/Bloody

Flavour P.

Hardness Chewiness

Fibrousness

MF

MC

MM

Sweet O.

Figure 1. Spiderplot objects over attributes.

2

Broth O.

Sheep O.

Juiciness Pers.

Flavour persistency MM MC MF

Sweet O.

Milk O.

Liver O.

Primary Juiciness

Sour

Met/Bloody

Mouth coating

Hardness

Chewiness

Fibrousness

Table 1. ANOVA pairwise significance by attribute.

Contrast Sheep odour

Sour taste

Met./bloody taste

Flavour persist. Hardness Chewiness Fibrousness

MM vs. MC * * MM vs. MF * * *** *** ** MC vs. MF * ** ** ** *

* P< 0.05; ** P<0.01; *** P< 0.001.

The Istrian lamb types derived from diverse feeding systems differed in meat texture and flavour profile, thus enabling the choice of sensory keys to suit local preferences. The knowledge of sensory characteristics is essential for qualifying and valuing niche ovine productions like those considered in this paper, thus supporting the preservation of biodiversity and valorising environmental benefits of traditional farming systems.

Acknowledgments

Research supported by Departmental funds (year 2000).

References

Anonymous, 2001. Speciale registri anagrafici. L’allevatore di ovini e caprini., 18: p. 1-9.Civille, G.V. and B.G. Lyon, 1996. Aroma and flavor lexicon for sensory evaluation: terms, definitions,

references and examples. ASTM (DS66), Committee E-18.EEC Regulation no. 2137/92 and no. 461/93.Geay, Y., D. Bauchart, J.F. Hocquette and J. Culioli, 2001. Effect of nutritional factors on biochemical,

structural and metabolic characteristics of muscle in ruminants, consequences on dietetic value and sensorial qualities of meat. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 41: p. 1–26.

Gower, J.C., 1975. Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Psychometrika 40: p. 33-51.

Figure 2. General Procrustes Analysis: dimension 1 versus 2.

3

ISO-DIS 13299.2. Sensory analysis. Methodology. General guidance for establishing a sensory profile.

Kompan, D., M. Pogacnik and M. Kotar, 995. Use of autochthonous dairy sheep breeds for the cultivation of abandoned Karst meadows. Sodobno-Kmetijstvo 28: p. 230-234.

Lawless, H.T. and H. Heymann, 999. Sensory evaluation of food, Principles and practices, Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, Maryland.

Mason, I. L., 1996. A world dictionary of livestock breeds, types and varieties, 4th ed, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

Meilgaard, M., G.V. Civille and B. Thomas Carr, 1991. Sensory evaluation techniques, 2nd ed, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 354 pp.

Priolo, A., D. Micol and J. Agabriel, 2001. Effect of grass feeding systems on ruminant meat colour and flavour. Anim. Res. 50: p.185-200.

Senstools v. 3.1.4, 1994-2002. OP&P Product Research, BV. Utrecht, The Netherlands.Sinkovic, K., 1999. Selection measures for sheep in Croatia in 1998. Stocarstvo 53: p. 383-388.UNI-ISO n°8589. Sensory analysis. General guidance for the design of test rooms.

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Chapter 3: Local breeds, traditional livestock farming systems and niche‑

based development strategies

6

Small is beautiful… but how to remain small? A case‑study about the Basque swine system and its related market chain

J. Arrayet1, B. Montel2 & J. Lossouarn2

1La Filière Porc Basque, 64330 Les Aldudes, France 2INA Paris Grignon, UMR SADAPT, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris cedex 05, France

Summary

In the French Basque Country, a particular swine production system uses a local pig breed called“Porc Basque”. Pig production in this area is a secondary activity, taking place in very small family farms, generally associated with sheep for milk production as a primary activity. Twenty years ago, the breed was classified as endangered, with only 43 sows existing. Since then, a local development has taken place and now the total number of sows is more than 300. A very small but effective market chain has been created, positioning high-quality traditional products in specialty markets with high prices, such as salt cured ham (min. 12 months old) or shoulder. This development has had a very positive local impact. In order to strengthen it, a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) is now under study. A PDO appears to be a potentially good tool for managing sustainable local development and the link between the members of the chain.

Keywords: local breed, pig meat, quality, market chain, sustainability.

Introduction

In the Pyrenees Mountains, and more specifically in the French Basque Country, the local society is renown throughout France for its cultural and political identity, language, dance, music, gastronomy and traditions. The Basque Country is a rural region whose economy is predominantly based on tourism and agriculture, mainly livestock production. The average values for useable and total farm area are 2 and ha respectively. The primary livestock activity is sheep for milk production, while the secondary activity is mainly cow-calf herd farming; the breeds used are Manech and Blonde d’Aquitaine respectively. Milk is used in processing the traditional cheese“Ossau-Iraty”, which benefits from a protected designation of origin (PDO) (in French, Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée). Calves from the cow-calf operations are generally sold to Italian feedlots. However, these activities alone are not sufficient to maintain the socio-economic viability of the region. The small family farms are not capable of competing in the global market where prices are kept at minimum levels. Farmers, conscious of the fragility of their farming systems and local life, are constantly in search of ways to guarantee the sustainability of their farms, culture and society. Thus, local actors try to develop local traditional agricultural products, which can benefit from the strong identity of the Basque Country to position themselves in specialty markets and guarantee prices. There are several local examples: “Ossau-Iraty” cheese,“Irouleguy” wine,“Piment d’Espelette” pepper, “Cerises d’Itxassou” cherries, etc. More recently, another production is rapidly becoming a new alternative to diversification on these small family farms: pork products processed from a local breed of pig: “the Porc Pie Noir du Pays Basque”, or “Porc Basque” (Basque pig). The purpose of this paper is to describe this

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development and to discuss its particular characteristics, with a view to helping define the conditions for its sustainability.

Past and present: an overview

In 1981, ITP (Institut Technique du Porc) conducted a population census in France for the local pig breeds. It found the population of Porc Basque to consist of only 43 sows, kept by 10 different families. The breed was classed as endangered, and a conservation plan was developed in 1982 by ITP and INRA. In 1987, all remaining representatives of this breed were grouped in the Aldudes valley, in the French Basque Country. A pork meat processor, Pierre Oteiza along with 15 farmers initiated this action. In 1990, the farmers created an association (Le Porc basque en vallée des Aldudes) with the objectives of developing the local economy, creating a market for the traditionally processed pork products and saving the breed. Due to the small population, the management of inbreeding was one of the main concerns in the early 1990s. In order to better manage the genetics of the breed, the farmers association in 1995 established a farm to control the breeding and selection of sows and boars. The objectives were to follow a breeding scheme that minimized the coefficient of inbreeding and conserved genetic diversity. In no circumstances were reproducers chosen according to their reproduction performances. The farmers followed the same guidelines to conserve genetic diversity. An identification protocol was computerized, insuring the traceability of animals, and in 1997 Porc Basque was the first local breed to obtain a herd book approved by the French Ministry of Agriculture. Since the beginning of 2002, this specialized farm has been replaced by a rotational mating scheme, designed to preserve the 39 families identified in the breed. The objectives are to maintain at least 3 sows per family, and represent each family in at least 3 different farms. These guidelines are to insure that a family is not lost if ever a disease attacks a farm and requires the slaughter of the entire herd (PRDS, pseudo-rabies, etc). In the beginning of 2003, the association includes 52 farmers. There are 6 farrowing farms, 14 farrow-to-finish farms, and 32 finishing farms, all working with pure bred systems. The total number of sows is 321. The number of sows per farm range from 2 to 50. Farrowing can be managed indoors or outdoors. Artificial insemination is not used, and every farrowing farm has at least 1 boar, and may possess up to 5 or more. In the largest herds, the batch farrowing management system is used. Reproductive results according to national data for 2000 are as follows: 1.5 litters per sow per year, average litter size: 7.8 piglets born alive and 5.6 piglets weaned (Lenoir et al., 2002). In the specialized farm mentioned above, the same average results were 8.3 born alive and 6.2 weaned (Labroue et al., 2000b). Following the specification list established by the association, market hogs are slaughtered at a minimum age of 12 months, of which a minimum of 8 months involves fattening as free range pigs; at slaughter, a carcass weight of at least 100 kg is required. The maximum size of a fattening-to-finish batch is 50 heads, and the maximum stocking density is 50 heads per ha. These hogs can be found in various types of parks: pastures, mountain slopes, woodlands... Each parcel is equipped with a simple shed to lodge and protect against adverse climates, a large concrete slab to use for feed distribution, and often a corral to contain hogs when weighed, dewormed, vaccinated, or loaded for slaughter. In these fattening parcels, hogs graze and eat mast as available and are also fed a compound feed daily. The average consumption of compound feed per pig, from 30 kg to slaughter, is 650 kg. Growth performances and carcass traits of the breed are shown in Table 1 (Labroue et al., 2000a), according to the results of ITP and INRA with 4 French local breeds. Carcasses are very fat: back fat thickness ranges between 4 and 5 cm. However, the market has developed; the number of hogs slaughtered has increased in the past 3 years (in 2000-820 heads, in 2001-1,300, and in 2002-2,000), while carcass weight has remained stable at 4 kg on average.

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Hogs are slaughtered at the same abattoir, in St Jean Pied de Port. Some farmers process their carcasses, but the majority are purchased, processed and commercialized by one pork meat processor: Pierre Oteiza, located in the Aldudes valley. Traditional pork products are produced: salt-cured hams, shoulders, dry loins, dry sausages, pork pies etc, of which hams are the most renown. These products are sold at national fairs (the agricultural show in Paris), directly to high-class restaurants or gourmet specialty stores, at local markets, or by mail order; they are never sold in supermarkets, which drop prices at minimum levels. The total curing process for ham is 2 months minimum, ageing included. A collective ham-curing unit was built in the Aldudes valley in 2000 and enlarged in 2003. It combines the latest salt curing techniques and traditional savoir-faire to guarantee high quality products. It is established in the form of a cooperative of 5 craftsmen, including Pierre Oteiza, who is also the main stockholder among them. The climate of the valley, with Foehn type wind, appears to be very favourable to drying and ageing. The creation of this new ham-curing unit is an important achievement to guarantee product quality. More recently, the operators decided to embark on an official acknowledgement of quality. To support this project appropriately, a new association was created in 2001 (Association de développement de la filière du Porc Basque). It groups together all economic operators interested, in order to achieve the development goals defined. In the same year, they decided to put together a dossier to obtain a PDO for the Porc Basque.

Table 1. Growth performances, carcass traits and fat characteristics (from Labroue et al., 2000a).

Live weight category at slaughter

~ 100 kg ~ 150 kg ADG / 30-90 kg (g) 560 n.a. ADG / 100-150 kg (g) 316 n.a. ADG / 30-150 kg (g) 443 n.a. Feed efficiency (kg/kg) 3.93 n.a. Weight at slaughter (kg) 105 154 Dressing percentage (%) 72.9 73.2 Dorsal fat thickness (mm) 41 48 Ham and loin (%) 52 53 Loin / backfat .6 .53 Lipids in backfat (%) 83 n.a. Intra muscular lipids (%) 3.9 n.a. Unsaturation coefficient .22 n.a. Saturated fatty acids (%) 43.1 n.a. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids (%) 45.2 n.a. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids (%) 11.7 n.a.

n.a.: non available.

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Small, but growing: a few questions

At this point, it is appropriate to describe some characteristics of the Porc Basque system and its related market chain, and to point out a few questions facing the professional leaders. Pig farming in this area is part of a complex livestock farming system. It is well adapted as a secondary activity, able to use land of poor value, and requires minimal labour. Manual labour in finishing farms is estimated to be 2 hours per pig from 30 kg to slaughter, or approximately 20 min day for a 40 pigs batch. Pig farming is a complementary activity with sheep milk production. Due to high prices (2.90 Euros/kg carcass), the gross margin, available for paying labour and social insurance, is approximately 77 Euros/pig. Therefore, 60 hogs provide approximately one-third of an acceptable agricultural income. Support for this production system by professional organizations, cooperatives or the Chamber of agriculture does not exist, but nonetheless new candidates emerge continuously. Furthermore, the policy of local cooperatives that promote larger conventional pig units, encourages small farmers to convert into Porc Basque. However, a significant increase in Porc Basque production must be coupled with an equivalent demand, to maintain prices and profitability. Today, the Basque breed is considered safeguarded, but the use of certain genetic families known for minimal performances remains controversial. Is it necessary to maintain them in farm herds, or is it acceptable to preserve them in a cryobank? Even though such pig production systems benefit societies, they may cause environmental damages. In fattening parks, one can notice that part of or sometimes the whole grazed area is severely damaged, the ground being exposed to run-off, and thus to erosion. This may also cause organic pollution from pig excrements run-off from parcels located near streams. The abattoir at St Jean Pied de Port provides good slaughtering conditions. Hogs arrive on the night before slaughter. They are bled after electronarcosis, lying, and blood is recovered with a trocar; this method is suitable for ensuring ham quality of heavy hogs. This abattoir was modernized in 996, with a 1,000-ton capacity per year, and its current production is 1,800 tons; hogs represent 90% of the tonnage, of which the Porc Basque contributes approximately 230 tons. In 2003, the slaughtering capacity has increased to 2,600 tons. Currently, P. Oteiza purchases approximately 2,000 Porc Basque carcasses per year, an amount that does not meet the demand for salt-cured hams. Total ham production by his operation is about 12,000 hams (4,000 from Porc Basque, 5,000 from heavy weight industrial raised hogs, and 3,000 from standard hogs for Bayonne hams). His goal is to purchase 3,000 Porc Basque carcasses to meet the ham and shoulder demand. However, due to the fatness of these carcasses, meat from leaner hogs is needed. Granted that demand exceeds supply and farmers are willing to increase production, the dependence on one pork processor, P. Oteiza, is extremely risky. The actors are willing to increase production, but remain at 2,000 carcasses per year for P. Oteiza until they can market 600 carcasses elsewhere. At present there is a project to build a collective farm processing unit (to process veal, lamb and pork). The current development of the Porc Basque and its related market chain have a very positive territorial impact. It facilitates the settlement of young farmers, provides many direct and indirect jobs (about 35 persons in pork processing in the Aldudes valley, in addition to jobs at the slaughterhouse, transport, etc) and contributes strongly to maintain public services: schools, post-offices, etc. In relation to this development, one can mention several problems yet to be solved. The professional operators are not exclusively involved in this market chain: farmers have multiple productions; feed suppliers are not specialized; the abattoir, the ham-curing unit, as well as P. Oteiza, need other types of hogs for their businesses. The consistency of supply and demand along the market chain and the compliance with the specification list appear to be critical for the global management of the system. However, under these conditions, the temptation for new operators to bypass the association and

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ignore the specification list is probable. Such strategies would be very destabilizing and professional leaders have a crucial part to play for the maintenance of a strong and effective discipline.

Future: growth under the regulation of a protected designation of origin?

This section will discuss whether the problems mentioned above are likely to be solved by the acknowledgement of a PDO for the Porc Basque production, and whether this goal is sufficient to guarantee a sustainable development of the Porc Basque system. The PDO acknowledgement in France is granted by a national body called INAO (Institut National des Appellations d’Origine). The awarding of a PDO occurs after fulfilling all the requirements, which demands persistent efforts. The initial dossier put through the PDO procedure includes cured ham and fresh meat; the other processed products will be eventually considered later. According to the EEC regulation N° 2081/92 (EEC, 1992), the names used for the PDO must in no way be similar to the breed used. A link between geographical origin (inherent, natural and human factors), production and processing practices as well as authenticity, must be proved, so as to insure that these traditional authentic products cannot be replicated elsewhere. Here, two specific questions come up. First, administrative jurisdiction for a PDO (French and Spanish) that incorporates two different countries, yet one society with the same cultural identity, producing the same products. Second, will this production and processing system be able to prove the link between specific product quality and geographical environment, and if so, how will this be technically achieved? The first point is under study by INAO and EEC. The second one, i.e. the dilemma between territory expression and product quality, requires a scientific approach. Several research works are presently carried out to identify the specificities of production and product quality: effects of various range conditions, variability of carcass traits and fat characteristics, sensory analysis of fresh meat, factors and conditions applied during the processing of curing ham. It was previously shown that fresh meat originating from 4 local breeds, Porc Basque included, was preferred over the control breed (Large White) by a consumer taste panel (Labroue et al., 2000a). But it is generally considered that the relationship between quality of cured products and technical operations is a very difficult issue (Edwards & Casabianca, 1997). So, there is a need for research works related to production techniques on the one hand, and process on the other hand, in order to identify the key points for the product’s specificity (Letablier & Nicolas, 1994; Scheffer & Roncin, 2000). In addition to the PDO project, the professional leaders are faced with other dilemmas that can have a real impact on the sustainability of their system. They will be required to manage environmental factors. The mapping of sensitive areas may be needed in order to allocate environmentally suitable parks for free-range rearing. However, this is not independent from the choice to be made about feeding supplies and the kind of eligible areas (grassland, woodland). They also might need to consider decreasing stocking density to minimize adverse environmental impacts. The Porc Basque professionals need to consider public perception when reviewing their production techniques. Currently, traditional hog rings are put into the snout in order to avoid damage to parks by digging. However, animal welfare regulations reject this practice. Such points will need to be integrated into the specification list for the PDO; in fact they are components of the sustainability of the system.

Conclusion

It seems clear that the PDO will be an efficient tool to manage and control the development of the Porc Basque market chain. Acting as a mechanism of territorial governance (Perrier-Cornet &

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Sylvander, 2000), it will help to introduce more organization and planning needed by an increasingly important chain, without compromising the prior strong identity; it will thus motivate other pork butchers, and promote more collective effectiveness. Valuing human-specific assets (Barjolle & Chappuis, 2000), it will constitute a very good support to the image of the products, and will also facilitate their marketing. In today’s market environment, small local traditional productions need to qualify themselves as authentic products of quality. The specificities of fresh meat and processed products, as well as the traditional production conditions correspond to certain niche markets, where the customers are willing to pay. In short, this case study shows the ability of a small typical system and its related market chain to contribute effectively to sustainability. However, their success will probably need and induce a moderate growth. And last but not least, development in this case clearly highlights the crucial role of a professional leader.

References

Barjolle, D. and J.M. Chappuis, 2000. Coordination des acteurs dans deux filières AOC. Une approche par la théorie des coûts de transaction. Economie Rurale 258: p. 90-100.

Edwards, S.A. and F. Casabianca, 1997. Perception and reality of product quality from outdoor pig systems in Northern and Southern Europe. In: Livestock farming systems, more than food production, Wageningen Pers, EAAP Publication 89: p. 145-156.

EEC, 1992. Council regulation N° 2081/92 of 14 July 1992 on the protection of geographical indications and designations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Communities, 24/7/92, L 208/1-L208/7.

Labroue, F., S. Goumy, J. Gruand, J. Mourot, V. Neelz and C. Legault, 2000a. Comparaison au Large White de quatre races locales porcines françaises pour les performances de croissance, de carcasse et de qualité de viande. Journ. Rech. Porc. en France 32: p. 403-411.

Labroue, F., P. Guillouet, H. Marsac, C. Boisseau, M. Luquet, A. Arrayet, F. Martinat-Botté and M. Terqui, 2000b. Etude des performances de reproduction de 5 races locales porcines françaises. Journ. Rech. Porc. en France 32: p. 413-418.

Lenoir, H., M. Luquet and M.J. Mercat, 2002. Effectifs et performances de reproduction des 5 races locales françaises. Techni Porc 25: p. 25-30.

Letablier, M.T. and F. Nicolas, 1994. Genèse de la “typicité”. Science des aliments 14: p. 541-556.Perrier-Cornet, P. and B. Sylvander, 2000. Firmes, coordinations et territorialité. Une lecture économique

de la diversité des filières d’appellation d’origine. Economie Rurale 258: p. 79-88.Scheffer, S. and F. Roncin, 2000. Qualification des produits et des terroirs dans la reconnaissance en

AOC. Economie Rurale 258: p. 54-68.

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Traditional use of goat and goat products in the Guadeloupean society

G. Alexandre1, S. Asselin de Beauville1, E. Shitalou2 & M.-F. Zébus3

1INRA, Unité de Recherches Zootechniques; Duclos, 97170 Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe 2Etablissement Départemental de l’Elevage, Destrellan 97122, Baie-Mahault, Guadeloupe 3INRA, Unité Agropédoclimatique de la Zone Caraïbe, 97170 Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe

Summary

Guadeloupe, a French island located in the Caribbean, belongs to the European Union and is characterised by a multiethnic population. The region thus exhibits a rich and diverse culture. Goats are reared mainly for meat production. Systems of production are based on the exploitation of natural resources, mainly under grazing systems, and the valorisation of the native Creole goat. Goat rearing is considered as a significant source of food and income for many families. The different products of the subsector are hereby described and their cultural implications are underlined: entire bucks for animal sacrifices in the “Indian culture”; meat cooked according to an Indian recipe (“colombo” national meal) appreciated by all the communities; skins used to make traditional drums used in the local, very famous traditional music (internationally known). In 2000, the amount of imported meat was 300 T of carcass, while 400 T were produced locally. From the latter, only 10 % was officially registered while 55 % was used in Indian ceremonies. Opportunities and constraints for local development are analysed. Opportunities rely upon the high demand for goat meat, the different roles played by the diverse products with a strong cultural link (religion, music, gastronomy) and the animal’s potential contribution to the development of tourism. On the other hand, the animals and local resources are well adapted and productive. Main constraints that have been determined were the existence of a great number of small production units disseminated all over the country and the fact that these cannot be organised in the classic way of development. The challenge now is to take into account the current informal sector which is the predominant one and which has been neglected in the past.

Keywords: goat meat, goat skin, local culture, local development, Caribbean.

Introduction

Guadeloupe is a French island located in the Caribbean (422,000 inhabitants for 1,780 km2). It shares similar historic and cultural traits with this region while it belongs to the European Union. It is characterised by a multiethnic population. People coming mostly from Africa (slavery period), but also from India (committed labourers after slave emancipation) and from Europe (colonial or recent settlement), have built a very rich and diverse culture that influences the goat industry to a certain degree. Goats are reared mainly for meat production. Besides, goat rearing is significant as a source of food and income for many families. Due to the wide range of owners rearing goats by their house, the number of goats is not well known (from 35,000 to 60,000 heads according to the method of determination). The gap between a very high demand and a dramatically insufficient local supply leads to a very high price for fresh goat meat (10 to 15 Euros /kg). During the nineties, production decreased by 22%, while importation increased by 28% (Asselin de Beauville, 2002). In contrast to the period before the 90’s, there seems to

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be a severe crisis in the organised subsector (the goat breeders’ union does not exist any more). On the contrary, the dynamism of the traditional sector (neglected in the past and receiving no technical support) is noteworthy (Asselin de Beauville, 2002). The development of rearing in these French overseas departments must respect the European Union regulations taking into account the growing concern about food security, environmental issues and animal health (and welfare). The objectives of this paper are to determine the importance and role of goats and goat industry products in the Guadeloupean society and to analyse the opportunities and constraints for local development in this new context.

The goat industry

A survey was conducted (Gau et al., 2000) on a sample of farms representative of the diversity of the population of breeders and spread out in the whole country (3% of the total number of goat flocks). The farmers were classified into 5 classes according to their practices and their level of specialisation in goat breeding (Table 1). Production systems are largely based on the pastoral pattern of rearing that is dependent on the natural resources (Alexandre et al., 1991). Many breeders (half of type 2 and types 3 & 5) use occasionally crop residues and fodders cut and carried to the farm. All marginal lands (field borders, roadsides and waste from around the farm) are exploited by the small farmers (types 3 & 5) according to the traditional tethering system. This has been described as well adapted to small farm conditions (low investment) and productive (Alexandre et al., 1991). Very few intensive systems of production are based upon improved pasture (37 % of breeders surveyed:

Table 1. Goat breeders’ classification (% breeders) in Guadeloupe (from Gau et al., 2000). Breeding Type % Main features 1) Specialised and

formally organ-ised breeders

18 10 to 15 ha mainly devoted to animal production; agricul-tural training; technological package: pasture management, supplementation, reproduction monitoring, planned mating, herd health status monitoring.

2) Diversified with technical skill

9 50 % of the area devoted to goats; + sugar cane and cattle production; agricultural training; standard methods of herd monitoring.

3) Traditional: • diversified farm • specialised unit

22 Traditional management (tethered animals; local medicines) • 2 to 3 ha mainly devoted to sugar cane and cattle produc-

tion; long time settled farm; no agricultural training; • more specialized unit with a more sizeable goat herd.

4) Extensive: • organised • not organised

10 >15 ha; free grazing animals; • >50 goats; reproduction monitoring; irregular health

monitoring • occasional herd monitoring; > 55 years old.

5) Familial: • changing ones • true ones

3 Low herd size ; • very basic herd management (pasture, treatments); • < 10 goats; no herd monitoring.

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types 1 & 2). Systems based upon occasional use of concentrates represented only 25 % of these intensive systems. On the other hand, the native Creole goat is the breed most frequently used. Nevertheless, some of the breeders (6%) tend to introduce exotic breeds in order to upgrade the local type by increasing its body size (Gau et al., 2000). However, these genetic strategies have often failed due to a lack of understanding of the additional requirements for the breeding of such genotypes. The first study of the whole goat sector is recent (Asselin de Beauville 2002). Butchering on the farm and direct sale is the most common marketing practice. Only 2 % of the breeders surveyed sell through the abattoir. In 2000, the amount of imported meat reached 300 T of carcass (mainly frozen) while 400 T were produced locally. Among this local production, only 10 % was officially registered, while 55 % was used in Indian ceremonies (Figure 1).

Goat products and functions

The different products have multiple cultural implications: entire bucks for animal sacrifices in the “Indian culture”; meat cooked according to famous Indian recipe; skins used to make traditional drums used in the local, very famous traditional music (internationally known). It has been reported that the size of the goat population in the French West Indies islands increases as the proportion of Indian people rises (Shitalou, unpublished). As a matter of fact, it is quite obvious that the goat is very important in the Indian culture. Entire pure bucks are sacrificed by Indian families in religious ceremonies. A banquet is organised where a great number of friends and families are invited to share the meat cooked as “colombo”, a kind of curry introduced by the Indian community (Moutoussamy, 1989). This characteristic has been used as a strong argument in favour of a local development of the goat industry in the 80’s: the availability of bucks was low (lack of thousands of animals) and the price was very high (at least 300 Euros/buck). Usually, the production of bucks for sacrifices and that of kids for meat channels are not separated. However, with the increase in demand (and prices) for bucks destined for sacrifice, specific rearing systems (Asselin de Beauville, 2002) have been implemented in some farm units (as described in Table 1). The “colombo” goat tradition has been adopted by the entire population. It is now (quite) a “national” Guadeloupean festive dish, even registered in French gastronomy books. However, Indian and coloured people seem to cook goat in a different way: skinned and

Figure 1. Goat meat marketing in Guadeloupe (from Asselin de Beauville, 2002).

Traditional

Modern

Locallyproducedmeat

Officialmarketingnetwork

Informalmarketingnetwork

Butchers 10 T

Directselling

140 T

Indianceremonies

220 T

Massmarketting&Wholsellers

300 T

30 T

Importedmeat

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not skinned respectively (Asselin de Beauville, 2002). This specificity needs to be studied from various aspects: its sociological and cultural basis, its technical consequences for the abattoir and its implications for the application of EU regulations. Is it possible not to skin the animal at the abattoir and is it possible to support officially a sub-sector consisting in animal sacrifices? Most of the skins are used for making drums. Knowing that percussion is a central element in traditional music and folk songs, drums are the most important music instruments. Generally speaking, drums act like a symbol of cultural identity. We have assisted to a strong renewal wave in search of cultural identity. It took place in the 70’s for people originating from Africa (and coloured people in general) and in the 90’s for people originating from India. The local drums are Gwo-ka drums, played mostly by coloured people, and Matalon and Tapou drums, played by Indian musicians. More recently, the demand for Mass-a-po, small double-faced drums used in carnival bands, increased with the rediscovery of carnival events and the multiplication of carnival bands. Hundreds of drums are needed for all these cultural events. There is no local tannery; there are only some hand-tanners working at home. It has been calculated that there is a lack of at least 3000 skins per year for professionals (the other non-official sector and drums reparation were not taken into account). Drum craftsmen must import tanned skins from Pakistan, Africa or Haiti. For the latter, the price of imported tanned skin varies from 15 to 25 Euros; it is twice as much when purchased locally (Asselin de Beauville, 2002). The animal and its diverse products play also a role in family economy. Goats are used primarily for subsistence and are also frequently used in case of sudden needs of cash for the farm or household (Alexandre et al., 1991). On small farms, marginal family labour is used. In addition, goats play a significant environmental role since they convert marginal land or crop-residues into valuable products through their rearing. The particularity of goat production in Guadeloupe consists in the strong relationship existing between the traditional products and local culture and resources. The attitudes of consumers and the whole society towards natural products are now important global issues. Goats and their products contribute to food security, ensure the presence of animal protein in nutrition, support family economics and promote the rural development of the region. There are today huge changes in regulations and standards for livestock products; many opportunities arise from these new trends in society and law, and may enhance the sustainability of farming systems. Which can be the opportunities and constraints for local development?

Opportunities and constraints for development

Great opportunities exist due to the high demand for goat meat. The native breeds and local feed resources (adapted and productive) can be promoted as the basis for specifying meat quality. Moreover, the diversity of goat rearing systems is advantageous in itself. Many livestock units have developed without any public support and are dynamic indeed. Specificity also relies upon the different roles played by the goat industry. Goat production has strong cultural links (with religion, music, cooking habits) and contributes somehow to tourism activities (gastronomy, carnival, etc). On the other hand, a main constraint that has been determined is the existence of so many small production units spread all over the country. They are part of the very diverse activities carried out by farmers (including non-agricultural ones) and cannot be organised due to their classic way of development. This seems to be the specificity of livestock farming systems in Guadeloupe, as also for cattle (Diman et al., 2005) and pigs (Zébus et al., 2005). On the other hand, the goat sector suffers from severe and frequent thefts as well as dog attacks, which damage new goat production units considerably (Asselin de Beauville, 2002).

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In the new context of EU regulations, questions arise for research and development activities that could enhance the various opportunities while reducing the main constraints. Research efforts are concentrated on forages and by-product feeds (free of animal by-products) as safe and healthy production techniques, as well as on the judicious use of drugs by way of an integrated approach to parasite control. They are also promoting the exploitation of the indigenous breed. In the future, special emphasis must be given to the characterisation of meat quality in order to promote specialised markets with a labelled local product. Post-production systems through monitored abattoirs are not sufficiently defined. Standards and quality issues related to goat meat are of critical importance to the safety and health of local consumers and need to be addressed through adapted regional research and development policies. The attitudes of consumers and society towards natural products (safety, traceability) and local products (cultural identity) are now important global issues. It should be interesting to determine the cultural and/or economic factors explaining the choices of consumers. Socio-economic studies on nutritional and cooking habits of the different communities could reveal strong trends for developing domestic production. Concerning the skin sub-sector, market research could allow to determine the potential competitivity of a local tanning sector, while promoting the organisation of skin supply to the local drum makers. Other questions related to research could refer to the technology for the elaboration of tanned skins (and consequently traditional drums) in relation to animal factors and rearing methods (sex, age, feeding methods, sanitary status, etc) that could affect skin quality and nature.

Conclusion

It will be necessary for both researchers and extension agents to exchange views about new development policies to meet the new regulations of the European Union. These regulations, although inspired by different socio-economic systems than those prevailing in the region, provide new opportunities for local development. For example, in an effort to achieve the goal of multi-functional agriculture, traditional practices supporting sociological and environmental functions must be enhanced. The challenge is how to take into account the informal sector, whose socio-economic importance is undeniable, both in terms of contribution to local production and to the number of farms. The considerable dynamism of this sector is noteworthy: there are certain advantages in terms of biodiversity preservation, maintenance of rural employment and contribution to a rich cultural life. All this suggests that a diversity of goat production systems should be considered as advantageous in itself. However, certain risks can emerge: i) the clientele of these producers might eventually expect quality standards (hygiene, traceability etc.), which in theory are not met by meat processing under farm conditions; ii) there is a massive stealing of all kinds of animals, which are sold, one way or another, through the market chains; iii) there appears to be some changing behaviour in the Indian population, towards applying the true Hindu principles concerning not eating meat; and iv) trading within EU countries could increase and therefore local producers should better protect their own local product.

References

Alexandre, G., H. Borel, G. Matheron and C. Rémy, 1991. Elevages caprins en Guadeloupe. Rev. Elev. Médecine Vét. Pays Trop. special issue: p. 27-39.

Asselin de Beauville, S., 2002. Diagnostic de la filière caprine en Guadeloupe. CNEARC Montpellier, Développement agricole tropical, Valorisation des productions, p. 95.

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Diman, J.L., M. Naves, G. Alexandre and M.F. Zébus, 2005. The diversity of ruminant rearing systems in Guadeloupe: positions within the industry and its sanitary regulations. In: Livestock farming systems: product quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability, R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 118: p. 355-360.

Gau, D., M. Naves, G. Alexandre, E. Shitalou and N. Mandonnet, 2000. Systèmes de production et orientations génétiques en élevage caprin en Guadeloupe. Proceedings of the 7th International Goat Conference, 10-15 May 2000, Tours, France, p. 367-370.

Moutoussamy, E., 1989. L’Indianité dans les Antilles françaises. In: L’Inde en nous. Des Caraïbes aux Mascareignes, CARBET, p. 69- 76.

Zébus, M.F., G. Alexandre, N. Dauphin and J.L. Diman, 2005. Diversity and sustainability in the pig industry in Guadeloupe. In: Livestock farming systems: product quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability, R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 118: p. 341-346.

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Certified beef production from local breeds in Chalkidiki, Greece

Ch. Ligda1, A. Georgoudis2, A. Floros3, E. Xenoudakis4 & J. Boyazoglu2

1NAGREF, Agricultural Research Station of Chalkidiki, 63 200 Nea Moudania, Greece 2Aristotle University, Department of Animal Production, 54 006 Thessaloniki, Greece 3Animal Genetic Improvement Center, Nea Mesimvria, Greece 4Division of Agricultural Development, Chalkidiki, Greece

Summary

A pilot project for the production of certified quality beef has been initiated in the Chalkidiki peninsula, based on the autochthonous cattle population of the Toroni region, native area of the Sykia cattle breed. The project is an attempt to upgrade and exploit the native Sykia cattle, which has reached very low population numbers due to the extensive crossbreeding with imported dual purpose and beef breeds. Taking into consideration the current situation of the population and the demands of the consumers for certified products, a breeding scheme for the formation and stabilisation of the modern type of the Sykia breed is being proposed. The key idea is to utilise the advantages of the different breeds used during the past and the adaptability of the local breed to the specific environment in order to produce quality beef . The market possibilities for beef are promising, as the Chalkidiki peninsula is near large urban centres (Thessaloniki) and it attracts numerous tourists every year. The implementation of the project will contribute to the sustainable development of the animal production sector of the region, while the project is expected to have multiple benefits, resulting in a more balanced development of the community.

Keywords: beef cattle, certified production, breeding schemes.

Introduction

The growing concern of consumers about the food they eat and the conditions under which it is produced has resulted in a new framework in livestock farming, by introducing production methods where safety for human health, animal welfare, environmental protection and conservation are the main concerns. In this context, local breeds could be viewed from a new perspective considering their contribution to the agricultural income. Under this new concept, the in-depth study of the population and the production system, the efforts to increase production, the monitoring of the production methods and the improvement and standardisation of the end product become imperative. This effort is planned within the framework of preservation of the original characteristics of the local population regarding their adaptability in local environment and production conditions. The present study has been carried out in the region of Toroni, in the Chalkidiki peninsula, aiming to investigate the possibilities of exploitation of the local cattle population through certified beef production. The key idea was to follow the principles of Integrated Farming in order to have a production monitored at all stages and a product (beef) that could be traced back. The reason is that Integrated Farming meets the challenges of sustainable development at farm level, by balancing food production, profitability, safety, animal welfare, social responsibility and protection of the environment.

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In the Toroni region, livestock farming presents the following characteristics:. Primary production takes place in an environment minimally affected by pollution or other

degradation factors.2. Inputs in the productive process, like feedstuffs, are locally produced and could be certified.3. Local cattle population is adapted to the natural environment and is resistant to disease and other

pathogens, thus minimising the use of medicines.4. Produced meat can be easily supplied to the consumers according to market demand. The above features provide the framework for the production of certified beef that will guarantee consumers a quality product, whose origin could be traced back, provided that the whole procedure would be carefully planned and monitored in all steps of the production chain, from the farm to the consumer.

Materials and methods

A detailed description of the main elements of the production system and of the cattle population of the region has been carried out. The population is raised in the region of Toroni, in the peninsula of Sithonia in Chalkidiki. The peninsula is semi-mountainous, the highest altitude reaching 730 m, covered by coniferous forest in the central part and plain areas around the Sykia village, after which the breed was named. The region’s climate is typical Mediterranean with low levels of precipitation, uniformly distributed along the year (Greek Habitat Project, 1996). The region of Toroni is a traditional agricultural area. For decades, one of the main activities has been animal husbandry, based mainly on goats and cattle. The economic importance of the Sykia breed in the region was pointed out early. Until 1923, the Reproduction Centre of Sykia breed operated in the region, providing with draft animals and cows the Chalkidiki peninsula, including Mount Athos. During that period, the number of heads kept was about 13,000. After 1922, the distribution of the land, the expansion of the arable areas and the consequent shrinkage of the area for grazing resulted in a decline of the number of cows in the region. According to the Reproduction Centre, in 1936, only 1,330 heads were counted (Chatziolos, 1933; Agricultural Bank of Greece, 1936). Today, the population is a mixture of the relicts of the Sykia cattle breed, which dominated the region in the past, and its crossbreeds with double purpose and meat cattle breeds. The main characteristic of all actions for the improvement of the performance of the population during the last 50 years was the crossbreeding with foreign breeds, mainly Schwyz, Simmental, Charolais and Limousin, aiming to increase body conformation traits and milk production. The resulting population of suckling cows grazing on the semi-mountainous pastures of the region is characterised by desirable characters but shows high variability (Boyazoglu & Flamant, 1990; Georgoudis et al., 2000). The total land of the region covers 19,800 hectares, of which 12% are arable land, 23% pastures and 68% forests. From the survey carried out, three groups of farmers can be distinguished according to herd size. The first group comprises farmers keeping about 10 heads, without any technical infrastructure or future plans of expansion, who continue raising cattle for sentimental reasons rather than for professional purposes. The second group, with an average herd size of about 50 heads, is characterised by a reasonable level of professionalism, basic technical infrastructure, considerable effort on herd management and future plans for enlargement. Finally, the third group of farmers, with herd size up to 130 heads, consists of professionals with a high degree of intensification of the production sector. They are characterised by privately owned installations, appropriate feeding systems and planned exploitation of the product. The proposed project concerns the last two groups of farmers, who expressed an interest in conforming to the new trends in production systems and are willing to follow the new regulations that, in the long run, will permit them to have a larger market share and to secure their businesses.

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The production system, applied with small differences by all the farmers, can be characterised as extensive. The animals are stabled in sheds, covered and closed on three sides only during the night and in extreme weather conditions. Feeding of the animals is based mainly on grazing in the pasture areas of Toroni. Supplementary feed is also provided when grazing is insufficient, as well as in certain periods of the production cycle of the animals. Calving usually takes place outdoors and the cows do not suffer from calving difficulties. The average birth weight of the calves is 30 kg and they usually suckle until the age of 6-8 months. They are slaughtered at an average age of 16 months and at slaughter weight of 130 kg and their meat is supplied to the local market (Ligda et al., 2001).

Results and discussion

In the present study, we report on the status of the population and the production system, the investigation on the possibilities of monitoring the production process in all the stages and the enquiry on the willingness of the farmers to participate in this project. Furthermore, the study has resulted in the formulation of some proposals in the framework of a project, here reported and discussed, on the following topics:

Design of the certification procedure

The data collected in this study will serve as a guideline for the certification process. More specifically, it will help to design the following steps: 1. Establishment of a selection scheme for the local cattle population.2. Specification of the critical points of the production process that will be monitored in order to apply

the certification and quality assurance procedure.3. Definition of the level of certification and of the application time.4. Establishment of a technical committee that will draft the certification standards.5. Calculation of the cost for introducing and applying the management system for the production of

certified quality products. Regarding the genetic material used, a project for the stabilisation of the population has been proposed. The key idea is to utilise both the advantages of the different breeds used during the past and the adaptability of the local breed to the specific environment in order to produce quality beef. Performance recording will be therefore initiated in order to select the most appropriate genetic material to form the modern type of the Sykia cattle population. The recorded traits will be type and conformation traits, reproduction traits (fertility, calving ease), longevity and carcass quality. Moreover, breed characteristics (horn shape, coat colour, etc.) will be also taken into consideration. The advantages of this scheme are the ease of management, the expression of high variation and heterosis (although not at the highest degree); even if the latter could be seen as a disadvantage when it comes to traits controlled by a single gene. The main advantage is the adaptation of the population to the specific environment.

Draft of the standards for quality certification

The quality certification standards are the documents that lay out the requirements of the management system and the administrative procedures, and determine the general rules for succeeding in providing the desired product quality and service to the consumers. This is a fundamental tool for the establishment of the target system of quality assurance. The publication of these standards will be managed and co-ordinated by a technical committee that will be formed during the first phase of the project and will complete its task with the collaboration of the official organisation for certification. This task will be accomplished in collaboration with the farmers’ organisation and other motivated people of the region.

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Design of the production chain

The phases of the production chain to be designed are as follows:1. Description of the proposed production system. The main points that will be monitored refer to the specified geographical zone, the animal

population, and some standards of the production system like weaning age of calves, grazing period, composition of the supplementary feeds, installations, age at slaughter, transportation, conditions at slaughter house, cutting, distribution, etc.

2. Description of product characteristics. Specific research will be planned to identify the organoleptic, nutritional, chemical, sanitary

and technological standards will be planned.3. Monitoring and control of the system inputs (mainly feedstuffs).4. Training of people involved. Guidelines will be provided to local members, both individual and bodies, to ensure better

preparation against future problems and to guarantee the application of standards.5. Gathering feedback data. The basic principle of the proposed plan, which can be summarised as the optimisation of the production of beef in the region, requires careful planning and management, and needs skilled, trained and conscientious farmers that will follow the relevant guidelines on the management of the animals. The commitment of the farmers and their compliance with the rules, the efficiency and standardisation of control are the guarantees of the success of the project.

References

Agricultural Bank of Greece, 1936. Technical Bulletin, p. 345-349. (in Greek)Boyazoglu, J. and J.C. Flamant, 1990. Mediterranean systems of animal production. The world

of pastoralism, p. 353-393.Chatziolos, K., 1933. The cattle breed of Sykia. Agricultural Bulletin, Ministry of Agriculture.Georgoudis, A., Ch. Ligda, K. Fragos, A. Baltas and J. Boyazoglu, 2000. The role of dual purpose

breeds in the evolution of the cattle milk production sector in Greece. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Prospects for a sustainable dairy sector in the Mediterranean, 26-28 October 2000, Hammamet, Tunis.

Greek Habitat Project, 1996. Natura 2000: an overview. Greek Biotope/Wetland Centre, Thessaloniki, 891 pp., p. 127.

Ligda, Ch., K. Fragos, A. Baltas, A. Georgoudis and J. Boyazoglu, 2001. A breeding program to backcross and conserve local (crossbred) cattle populations and improve their mothering abilities in Greece. Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, 25-29 August 2001, Budapest.

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Production of PDO beef: the example of “Fin Gras du Mézenc” in France

S. Ingrand, B. Dedieu & M.-O. Nozières

INRA SAD – TSE, Theix, F63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France

Summary

The aim of this work was to characterize the diversity, in terms of management, of animals sold under the label “Fin Gras du Mézenc” (FGM). The particularity of the FGM sign consists in: i) seasonality, as the selling period is from st February to st June; ii) fattening period, exclusively with locally produced hay. Surveys were carried out in 32 private farms (beef cattle, dairy cattle and mixed) producing FGM animals. The rearing system was analysed from various aspects - reproduction, replacement, culling, but also feeding and sorting of forage (hay) - in order to reconstruct the trajectory of the fattened animals from birth to slaughter (n=169). Five different types of trajectories were defined, involving from 5 to 95 animals. They are based on rearing conditions such as birth period, production system (dairy crossbred animals weaned at 3-4 months vs. beef calves weaned at 7-8 months), fattening duration and methods (hay sorted or not), and age at slaughter. The various trajectories represent the different expressions of the association between the possibility to sell the animal in conformity with the technical specifications and the farmer’s management of young animals within the herd.

Keywords: rearing practice, quality market chain, fattening, heifer, individual trajectory.

Introduction

The FGM Association was created in 1996 and involves farmers, butchers and elected representatives. Most animals are sold directly from the stall to butchers who come to the farm. Supermarkets are not authorized to sell FGM meat. Animals sold with the FGM label are reared in a specific small area, the “Plateau du Mézenc” (Figure 1), at over 1100m of altitude. The usable agricultural area is covered only with mountainous grass used for pasture or hay. The reputation of the meat is based on the quality of the hay, especially due to the floristic diversity and the presence of specific aromatic plants such as Meum athamanticum. The market is small-scale: 20 butchers, 91 farmers and only 390 animals were approved in 2002, 285 to be sold with the FGM label. The application for a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) label for this market chain is presently under consideration and should be achieved next year. The specifications for animal categories in the technical schedule are as follows: heifers at least 24 months old or steers at least 26 months old. Breed is not a principal characteristic and FGM animals can be produced either by dairy (using crossbreeds) or beef cattle farmers. Animals can be bought at an age of less than 1 year (20 to 25% of the FGM animals sold in 2002). The fattening period must last over 110 days, only with hay and a limited amount of specific concentrates (4 and 5 kg/d for heifers and steers respectively). Animals are slaughtered between 1st February and st June, in line with the tradition of the Easter steer (Martin et al., 2000). All selected animals are examined each year by a technical commission. The most important period is just before the slaughtering season when animals receive an eartag as final approval. This paper deals with the following question: what kind of diversity of FGM animals (heifers) is built by farmers (management) within a group of farms involved in the label?

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Materials and methods

Sample and surveys

The farm sample was chosen to represent different production systems (dairy, beef cattle, and categories of animals sold, from weaning calves to 3-year-old steers). Farms were also chosen by the technician of the technical commission to represent the diversity of rearing practices. On the whole, 32 surveys have been carried out, corresponding to one third of the total population (n=91). The objectives of the surveys were i) to understand herd management as a whole; ii) to reconstruct the trajectory of animals at least 2 years old, intended for the FGM market chain. The survey questionnaire was composed of 4 parts: i) identity of the farm (workforce, production system, herd structure, field pattern, etc.); ii) description of herd management; iii) individual trajectories of fattened animals sold in 2002; and iv) an open discussion about the farmer’s motivation concerning the FGM approach. Each survey was performed in half a day.

Methods and statistics

Based on the definitions given by Lasseur and Landais (1992) or Cournut (2001), we define a trajectory as the succession of management events from birth to slaughter. In order to distinguish some groups of trajectories among the whole population (n=169), 5 categories of variables were defined, dealing with: i) the description of the animal (breed and birth date); ii) the period between birth and the beginning of the st winter; iii) the period between the first winter and the beginning of the last winter; and iii) the fattening and commercialisation period. On the whole, the typology of the 69 trajectories was built using 11 variables in a factorial analysis. In a more collective approach, the concept of cohort of FGM animals was defined for all the females (the number of steers is not significant) born during 1999 and 2000 that could be sold in the FGM market chain during 2002 (beef breeds and crossbreeds). The pattern of each cohort was analysed from the beginning, with 100% of the animals, to the end, when the last heifer is sold or included in the cow’s herd, using 5 variables: the number of sorting operations (0, 1, 2 and more), the category and the age of heifers at slaughter, the proportion of fattened heifers in the cohort and the proportion of heifers fitting the technical schedule of the FGM label.

Figure 1. Location of the Mézenc area in France.

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Results

Characteristics of the farms

Beef cattle, dairy and mixed (2 herds) systems concern 13, 10 and 9 farms respectively. The usable farm area ranges from 10 to 280 ha, covered only with grasslands. Herd size was estimated by the yearly number of calvings: 10 to 155 (42 on average). The dominant breed is Montbeliarde for dairy cows and Charolais for beef cows. The grazing season is short, from 10th May to 1st November. During the winter, animals are kept indoors, receiving only hay as forage. The composition of this hay and the “know-how” of farmers concerning the way to sort it according to the category of animals is a key point considered in order to obtain the PDO quality sign. Some farmers distinguish two qualities of hay in their forage store: the “best” one and the “common” one. Criteria for this distinction are the hay field itself (soil, exposition and flora), the harvest conditions, and the harvest development stage. 2 dairy farmers do not distinguish between hay quality, 14 farmers use the first criterion, 12 the second one and 4 the third one as the major sorting criterion. During hay distribution to the animals, several practices can also be observed: a selection at bale level (better vs. basic bales), a selection at intra-bale level (the inside of the bale considered as better than the outside), or a combination of both ways of selection.

Individual trajectories of fattened animals

In the 32 farms, 169 animals have been identified corresponding to the technical schedule and suitable to be sold in the FGM 2002 slaughtering period, including only 17 steers. This concerns half of the beef cattle systems, a quarter of the mixed systems and a quarter of the dairy systems. 44% of the 32 farms produce 1 to 3 animals each year. All farms producing more than 10 animals involve beef cattle systems. Five main groups of trajectories were identified, which can be divided into 9 sub-groups. Schematically, 2 main variables explain i) variability (first factorial axis of the multivariate analysis): hay distribution modes during the wintering periods; and ii) the production system: “beef type” (weaning at 7-8 months old) vs. “dairy type” (early weaning at 3-4 months old). The A type (sub-groups 1 to 4) corresponds to 95 animals receiving a specific hay during the fattening period and produced in “beef type” systems. It contains all the steers. A1 to A4 sub-groups are discriminated by other variables, such as i) the duration of the fattening period: long for sub-group 1 (more than 180 d, 14 animals), short for sub-group 2 (less than 120 d, 9 animals); ii) the batching practices: specific batches for FGM (sub-group 3, associated with specific hay, 52 animals) or not (sub-group 4, 20 animals). The B type contains 5 heifers which were initially chosen for replacement but did not succeed in mating. The D type contains 17 heifers receiving specific hay during the fattening period and produced in dairy systems. The C type is intermediate between A and D and concerns 15 heifers managed in mixed herds. The E type (sub-groups E1 and E2) contains 37 heifers receiving no specific hay compared to their counterparts in the herd. Sub-groups 8 and 9 correspond to dairy and beef production systems respectively.

Management of FGM animals within the herd

The cohort pattern with at least 2 sorting operations represents only 20% of the population, vs. 40% for the other two, indicating that animals are very soon identified as suitable to be sold in one particular commercial category or to be used for replacement. When no sorting operations are made, herds are small (31 calvings/year) vs. 48 and 52, for 1, 2 and more operations respectively. In large herds, it is easier to manage different specialised batches, corresponding to different commercial categories. Farmers who choose to produce only FGM heifers after a fattening period are all involved in beef cattle

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systems. Those who manage several categories of finished heifers are involved in dairy systems. One third (n=10) of the farmers sell all their FGM heifers at the same age of 3 years (the technical schedule allows them to be sold at 2 years of age). 22 other variables were used to characterise the technical management of the whole herd. Three different farmer strategies concerning FGM production were then identified, corresponding respectively to 56, 67 and 46 FGM animals sold in 2002. Strategy 1 (11 farms): “a low proportion of heifers being fattened, all sold during the FGM period”. The herd size is large compared to the whole sample and in 8 cases there are more than 20 heifers in each cohort each year. Less than 30% of heifers of the total cohort are fattened. The others are sold at weaning, at the end of the first winter, or are chosen for replacement in beef cattle herds (n=7, only 1 dairy system). All the fattened heifers are sold in the FGM market chain. From the beginning to the end of the cohort, there are at least 3 sorting operations. Independently of physical batching, there is also an early identification of potential FGM heifers among the cohort. Hay is selected for FGM animals in most situations (75%), but the amount of concentrate is not adjusted systematically to live weight during the finishing period as advised (only 5 farmers). The age at slaughter is not a common criterion (2 or 3 years old and a combination of both in 4 cases). Only one farmer has some kind of a contract (not a formal one) with butchers and sells all his animals to the same ones each year. Strategy 2 (9 farms): “a high proportion of fattened heifers sold in the FGM period”. In 6 cases, more than 50% of heifers of the total cohort are fattened before being sold. There are no batching operations and all heifers are managed in the same way. Those chosen for replacement in beef cattle systems are sorted late at mating (2 years old). In 7 cases, all the heifers are sold in the same day to the butcher coming to the farm to choose them. They are subsequently slaughtered progressively during the FGM season or so, according to consumer demand. 5 farmers sell the animals always to the same butcher; the others have to look for a new butcher every year. Hay is sorted specifically for FGM heifers (8 cases). Animals may be either 2 or 3 years of age when slaughtered. The production systems are either dairy or mixed systems using industrial crossbreeding to produce FGM animals for more than half of the dairy cows. Strategy 3 (12 farms): “a wide range of fattened heifer categories produced”. In most cases, hay is not specifically sorted for fattened heifers while 75% of them are sold in the FGM market chain (however, this does not prejudge hay quality). Two sub-groups can be distinguished according to the proportion of the cohort being fattened. Sub-group 1 (5 farms): “less than 50% of the heifers being fattened”. Consequently, sorting and identifying operations are frequent: at least 2 and often 3 for all farmers. The number of heifers fitting the FGM technical schedule is low (1 to 3 each year) but they are all sold with the FGM label. There are no beef cattle systems in this sub-group. Sub-group 2 (7 farms): “more than 50% of the heifers being fattened”. These farmers have chosen to fatten as many animals as possible but only a few fit the FGM technical schedule. In 5 cases, there are no sorting operations in the cohort. This sub-group concerns no mixed systems. In one case (a dairy system), all heifers fattened are bought outside. Farmers with strategy 3 present the widest range of individual trajectories (Figure 2): all of them except the B type (heifers initially chosen for replacement in beef cattle herds), which is specific to strategy 1. Farmers from this latter group are the most specialised, producing a majority (80%) of animals from A trajectory (calf with cow until weaning, specific hay). D type trajectories (early weaning, sorted hay) are found only in strategies 2 and 3, which include the dairy systems.

Discussion and conclusion

Many years ago, the traditional production of FGM animals for the Easter period came mainly from dairy farmers practising crossbreeding to fatten a few (1 or 2) individuals. Their objective was to show, through the various fairs, their ability and knowledge on fattening in order to be recognised as

9

Figure 2. Proportion of animals sold according to their individual trajectory (n=5) in relation to the global livestock management strategy (n=3).

0

20

40

60

80

100

Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3

%

E Trajectory D Trajectory C Trajectory B Trajectory A Trajectory

“powerful” stockbreeders. Nowadays, large part of FGM animals come from beef cattle systems (79 of the 169 animals identified in the present study). The perennial characteristic of this production is that only a few animals in the herd are involved: FGM production is not yet specialised. In any case, this is not the required goal, especially for the approach consisting in applying for a PDO label, i.e. the recognition of ancestral knowledge and “know-how”, combined with attachment to a specific geographic location. According to our analysis, the technical management of animals sold under the FGM label cannot be qualified as standardised: different breeds (pure and crossbreeds), different ages at slaughter, etc. The diversity of individual trajectories suggests that the specificity of the FGM label consists first of all in the diet, thus giving birth to the idea of granting the PDO label to the feed rather than to the animals (as is the case for hay produced in the Crau, a specific area in the south-east of France). One possible answer to this suggestion is the following (shared by stakeholders in the project): the diversity of individual trajectories highlights the capacity of farmers to sort, select and adjust operations throughout the life of the animal. There is a combination between animals’ intrinsic characteristics (breed, sex, conformation and weight) and extrinsic characteristics (period of birth, butcher demand and opportunities during cattle fairs). Sorting animals and sorting hay: can these basic stockbreeding activities, concerning the management of livestock and resources diversity, be the determining factor for a PDO beef project?

References

Cournut, S., 2001. Le fonctionnement des systèmes biologiques pilotés: simulation à événements discrets d’un troupeau ovin conduit en trois agnelages en deux ans. Thèse de doctorat de l’Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, 418 pp.

Lasseur, J. and E. Landais, 1992. Mieux valoriser l’information dans les carnets d’agnelage pour évaluer des performances et des carrières productives de reproduction en élevage ovin-viande. INRA Prod. Anim. 5: p. 43-58.

Martin, A.M., J.C. Mermet and N. Ribet, 2000. L’invention du Mézenc. In: Campagnes de tous nos désirs. Patrimoines et nouveaux usages sociaux, M. Rautenberg (editor), Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris, Cahier 16: p. 45-57.

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Livestock farming systems and milk production characteristics in some mountain areas of North‑West Italy

L.M. Battaglini, A. Ighina, C. Lussiana, A. Mimosi & M. Bianchi

Università degli Studi di Torino, Dip. Scienze Zootecniche, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy

Summary

In some alpine valleys of Italy dairy cows are bred according to more or less traditional breeding systems. This situation determines different degrees of characterisation and specialization in milk production. The aim of this research, carried out through a two-year survey in two different mountain areas of northwestern Italian Alps (Ossola and Sacra valleys), was to identify the reasons for variations in yield and main qualitative characteristics of milk destined to local cheese production (Ossolano and Toma della Valle Sacra). Two different livestock farming systems were considered, the first one called “traditional” management, more oriented towards local resources for feeding and particularly pasture, and the second one called “intensive” management, prevalently based on indoor feeding with a high dependence on external feed. In particular, the indoor wintering and pasture feeding phases were analysed. The results showed that in the Ossola valley the grazing season on alpine pasture seems to have a determinant role in milk fat composition and somatic cell content; in the Sacra valley, season and system have influenced several milk composition parameters too. In the Ossola valley, management problems are often related to the high feed requirements of a particularly selected breed (Brown) and to dependence on external resources. In any case, the adoption of autochthonous breeds (e.g. Aosta Red Pied in the Sacra valley) may help to obtain more adequate milk production although it needs to be supported by good management in a less intensive farming system.

Keywords: dairy cow, breeds, management, pasture, milk quality.

Introduction

The production system of bovine milk mostly used in the alpine areas still represents one of the few possibilities to ensure human presence, land protection and environmental management. Recent EC prescriptions are particularly interesting for such systems as they tend to promote the land ranging of dairy cattle breeding and soil management methods compatible with the protection and improvement of environmental and natural resources (Agabriel et al., 2001; Coulon et al., 1997). Moreover, the evolution of the economic and normative framework concerning the qualitative aspects of dairy production has been aimed at placing increasing importance to high quality feedstuffs, both in terms of chemical composition and nutritional-dietetic profile, often related to a particular feeding management (Jeangros et al., 1997; Coulon, 1997; Chilliard et al., 2002). Thus consumers nowadays choose products according to their quality attributes and particularly to their possible health-related values, e.g. lipid compounds (Ferlay et al., 2002). The aim of this research was to point out the differences in milk yield and relevant chemical composition, including some in-depth examination of dietetic properties (fatty acid composition), among mountain farms in the northwestern Italian Alps, through the adoption of different livestock farming management systems and breeds (Brown and Aosta Red Pied). The milk produced is generally destined for local cheese production, in some cases with PDO marks.

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Materials and methods

This work is based on different surveys on milk yield characteristics of Brown and Aosta Red Pied dairy cows, separately reared in two alpine valleys of the northwestern Italian Alps (the Ossola and Sacra valleys respectively) in 2000 and 2001. In this mountain area, these breeds constitute a traditional livestock presence (Battaglini et al., 2003). The objective of the trials was to show the differences between systems through the characterization of the relevant management systems. In the Ossola valley, two types of farms have been identified: the first one based on a traditional management system (TS), more oriented towards feed from local resources, and the second one based on an intensive management system (IS) with considerable dependence on external feeding (each year, more than 50% of total feed requirements are covered by resources outside the region) and higher productivity. Brown dairy cattle are bred in both farm groups; in the last years, this breed has been subject to significant genetic improvement and is now characterized by high milk production and high feed requirements, while it seems to have a lower adaptability to difficult breeding conditions in these mountainous areas (Battaglini et al., 2001). In the Sacra valley, two groups of farms have been identified as well, based on different breeding systems, called TS and IS as above. Aosta Red Pied was the most important breed: it is an autochthonous dairy cow largely bred in northwestern Italian Alps that reaches an average milk production (3.8 t per lactation; Anaborava, 2003) evidently lower than the Brown breed (in Italy the average is 5.8 t per lactation; Anarb, 2003) and consequently with less nutrient requirements. In Table 1, a summary of the two different livestock systems in the two valleys is presented. It must be mentioned that it is possible to consider the two levels of management similar in both valleys, as both of them prevalently adopt the different techniques reported in Table . Individual milk yield from representative multiparous cows (2 to 6 sampled animals per farm, parity average= 3) for total lactation length indoors and at pasture, and the relevant qualitative parameters (fat, protein, somatic cells [SCC], fatty acid composition) have been monthly controlled and sampled in order to identify differences between the two breeding systems in the two main periods. Analysis of variance included management systems and feeding periods as factors, separately in the two valleys.

Table 1. General information of breeding systems in the two valleys

Ossola valley Sacra valley Breeds Brown Aosta Red Pied systems Traditional Intensive Traditional Intensive Farms (no.) 5 4 4 2 Cows per farm (no.) 20 39 30 62 Parity (no.) 3 3 3.2 3. Season breeding systems

autumn-winter Indoor Indoor Indoor Indoor spring-summer Indoor/pasture Indoor/pasture Pasture Indoor

Milking Mechanical manual

Mechanical

Manual

Mechanical

Indoor feed supply Hay, concentrate

Silage, hay, concentrate

Hay, concentrate

Silage, hay, concentrate, grass

Pasture height (m a.s.l.)

,800÷2,200 ,200 -

Grazing period (days) 92 62 150 - No supplementation at pasture.

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Different results were covariated with days in milk as the lactation stage represents a main factor of variability due to the general concentration of calving in the end of autumn - this fact concerns all the cows sampled.

Results and discussion

In the Ossola valley, important differences can be observed as to daily individual average production and protein content according to the management method (Table 2). The highest values found in the intensive systems are probably connected to the use of silage and concentrates, which are more suitable for satisfying the requirements of high genetic merit cows; only for fat and SCC the differences are significantly related to the feeding period factor. In fact, it is possible to observe the influence of pasture through a significant increase in milk fat percentage. Moreover, in both breeding systems, for the different feeding periods, a rather high content of somatic cells has been observed probably due to a series of management mistakes (e.g. milking practices), mainly dependent on a breed so specialised in milk production such as Brown cattle. During the short grazing season (2-3 months) involving only the highest pastures, it is possible to observe a significant decrease in milk yield: in fact, IS farms are used to keep the most productive cows indoors, while pasture swards are destined only for animals with modest yields or subjects at the end of lactation. In the Sacra valley, the intensive breeding system has a significant impact in terms of more favourable values in fat and protein: these results could be explained by a more accurate feeding system in these stables. Somatic cell content increases during the spring-summer season and this could be related to the relevant energy expenditure because of the land orography and the modest grass availability, if compared with the situation in the Ossola valley: here, pasture activity is particularly reduced and limited to the highest swards with the best pastoral values. By comparing the two realities, it appears that the Sacra valley globally presents more constant and adequate results in this environment: somatic cell count could be an expression of a lower impact of management and feeding variations; this could be explained by the less demanding Aosta Red Pied cow. It can be further observed that in the Sacra valley milk yields are not significantly different neither between the breeding systems nor between feeding periods, for a globally lower farm intensification degree than in the Ossola valley. Moreover, Aosta Red Pied is more compatible with traditional livestock systems in marginal areas such as the alpine valleys of Piemonte.

Table 2. Individual milk yield and composition. Autumn-winter Spring-summer Significance TS IS TS IS Season System Ossola valley

Cows (no.) 4 6 4 6 Milk yield (kg d-) 18.58B 24.88A 12.03 2.63 0.00 0.00 Fat (%) 3.48 3.82 4.4 4.28 0.00 0.23 Protein (%) 3.33 3.5 3.43b 3.53a 0.60 0.01 SCC (n 103ml-) 355 407 29 869 0.00 0.46

Sacra valley Cows (no.) 5 2 5 2 Milk yield (kg d-) 3.5 12.70 13.40 12.80 0.99 0.21 Fat (%) 3.48B 3.86A 3.6 3.5 0.54 0.00 Protein (%) 3.40B 3.70A 3.34B 3.5A 0.00 0.00 SCC (n 103ml-) 99b 304a 45 39 0.03 0.86

Results referred to grazing period for TS and IS farms in Ossola valley and TS farms in Sacra valley. P<0.01:A,B; P<0.05:a,b.

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In order to provide more information on milk characteristics, and in the light of recent acquisitions on the healthy qualities of lipids (Pariza & Cook, 2001), analyses on fatty acid composition were conducted in the two valleys. In the Ossola valley the comparison between the two breeding systems in the two feeding periods seems to demonstrate that there are no significant differences in milk fatty acid profile (Table 3). On the contrary, the values are highly significant for almost every parameter considered in relation with the feeding periods. The main effects are evident during the spring-summer period, when animals utilise fresh fodders or pasture grass rich in omega 3, with foreseeable increases of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids and decreases of saturated ones, as observed by some authors (Kudzal-Savoie & Kudzal, 1961, Ferlay et al., 2002). It appears that notwithstanding the modest length of the pasture period in this alpine region, grass feeding could contribute to the improvement of the dietary properties of milk, independently from the system adopted. The traditional system presents a fatty acid profile of higher dietetic value, with better percentages of omega 3 and omega 6, although not statistically significant. In the Sacra valley, a better relationship is observed between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and higher values of PUFA, omega 3 and omega 6 in traditional systems. The differences are particularly evident during the vegetative season and this can be explained by the use of pasture only in the TS farms.

Conclusions

Due to their particularities, local mountain dairy productions in northwestern Italian Alps still have reasons to survive, even in the context of livestock intensification. The latter unfortunately determined an evident disappearance of local less productive autochthonous breeds. In these environments it is possible to maintain typicality: in fact, some recent studies suggest that, thanks to different product properties,

Table 3. Milk fatty acid profile. Autumn-winter Spring-summer Significance TS IS TS IS Season System Ossola valley

Cows (no.) 4 6 4 6 Omega3 (%) 2.6 2.18 4.80 4.3 0.00 0.17 Omega6 (%) 3.02 2.96 3.18 3.04 0.47 0.55 Om3/Om6 0.88 0.72 .55 .43 0.00 0.24 SFA (%) 62.50 62.2 55.89 56.10 0.00 0.84 MUFA (%) 3.2 32.3 36.2 36.55 0.00 0.68 PUFA (%) 5.78 5.4 7.98 .35 0.00 0.20 SFA/UFA .3 .5 1.28 .29 0.00 0.82

Sacra valley Cows (no.) 5 2 5 2 Omega3 (%) 1.09 0.84 .44A 0.80B 0.31 0.00 Omega6 (%) 2.00 1.83 2.3 1.86 0.73 0.32 Om3/Om6 0.57 0.45 0.79a 0.43b 0.39 0.04 SFA (%) 68.03 69.35 64.07 6.2 0.02 0.07 MUFA (%) 28.35 27.58 3.94 29. 0.01 0.15 PUFA (%) 3.10 2.6 3.5a 2.66b 0.46 0.04 SFA/UFA 2. 2.30 1.85 2.09 0.01 0.07

Results referred to grazing period for TS and IS farms in Ossola valley and TS farms in Sacra valley. P<0.01:A,B; P<0.05:a,b.

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even health-promoting qualities, these dairy products could represent the key for the development of local markets. In the present research, surveys conducted in two different valleys produced some indications on the effects of different factors. In the Ossola valley, the grazing season on alpine pasture seems to play a determinant role in milk fat composition and somatic cell content; in the Sacra valley, season and system have influenced several milk composition parameters (e.g. SCC and fatty acid composition). These facts suggest a particular trend regarding the selection of animals to be bred in such mountain environments: breeds with more standardized quality are preferred due to the fact that the variations in milk quality are negative for the cheese-making industry. In these alpine conditions it is particularly important to maintain a constant production standard, thus favouring quality rather than yield. On the other hand, it can be observed that more extensive breeding systems with autochthonous breeds could be considered more suitable for local productions. Finally, it must be mentioned that greater adoption of pastoral systems, with appropriate breeds feeding on alpine pasture, should allow a more balanced environmental impact.

Acknowledgements

Part of this study was supported by the Interreg II Project I-CH.

References

Anaborava, 2003. Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Bovine Razza Valdostana, Aosta, Italy.Anarb, 2003. Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Razza Bruna, www.anarb.it. Battaglini, L.M., R. Fortina, A. Mimosi, C. Lussiana and M. Bianchi, 2001. Breeding systems of Brown

Swiss cows in Valdossola and milk characteristics for typical cheese making. Recent Progress in Animal Production Science. Proceedings of the ASPA XIV Congress, Firenze, 2: p. 210-212.

Battaglini, L.M., A. Mimosi, A. Ighina, M. Bianchi and C. Lussiana, 2003. Effects of breeds and different breeding systems on milk production in alpine regions. Sci. Tecn. Latt. Cas. 54: p. 335-342.

Chilliard, Y., A. Ferlay, J. Loor, J. Rouel and B. Martin, 2002. Trans and conjugated fatty acids in milk from cows and goats consuming pasture or receiving vegetable oils or seeds. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 4: p. 243-254.

Coulon, J.B., 1997. Effet de la nature des fourrages sur les caractéristiques physico-chimiques et organoleptiques du fromage. Fourrages 52: p. 429-436.

Coulon, J.B., A. Hauwuy, B. Martin and J.F. Chamba, 1997. Pratiques d’élevage, production laitière et caracteristiques des fromages dans les Alpes du Nord. Prod. Anim. 10: p. 195-205.

Ferlay, A., B. Martin, Ph. Pradel, P. Capitan, J.B. Coulon and Y. Chilliard, 2002. Effects of the nature of forages on cow milk fatty acids having a positive role on human health. In: Grassland Science in Europe, J.L. Durand, J.C. Emile, C. Huyghe and G. Lemaire (editors), Proceedings of the 19th General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation, Reading, UK, 7: p. 556-557.

Jeangros, B., J. Troxler, D. Conod, J. Scehovic, J.O. Bosset, U. Bütikofer, R. Gauch, R. Mariaca, J.P. Pauchard and R. Sieber, 1997. Relations entre les caractéristiques de l’herbe et celles du fromage. Présentation et premiers résultats d’une étude pluridisciplinaire. Fourrages 152: p. 437-443.

Kudzal-Savoie, S. and W. Kudzal, 1961. Influence de la mise à l’herbe des vaches laitières sur les indices de la matière grasse du beurre et sur les teneurs en différents acides gras polyinsaturés. Ann. Biol. Anim. Bioch. Bioph. : p. 4-69.

Pariza, M. and M.E. Cook, 2001. The biologically active isomers of conjugated linoleic acid. Prog. Lipid Res. 40: p. 283-98.

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205

How the development of typical products affects breeding stock qualification for endangered breeds: the case of the Gascon pig

A. Audiot1, B. Roche2 & M. Onco-Barella2

1INRA SAD, BP 27, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan Cedex, France 2INRA SAD, 17450 Saint Laurent de la Prée, France

Summary

Over ten years ago, the Gascon pig was endangered. It is now the component of top market pork products, among which the ‘Noir de Bigorre’ dry cured ham is the leading one. Our hypothesis is that the way in which these typical products are collectively developed results in a new definition of the characteristics of the animal resource. A study of the changing qualification criteria for breeding stock reveals that once the critical breed conservation stage has passed, the breeders then develop a series of qualification criteria for the animals during the emerging commercialisation project. There are two successive stages in this process. First, while the product concept is being developed, the breeders try to enhance the animals’ market value based on reference criteria used in conventional livestock production systems, such as size in relation to growth rate, carcass yield, or the productivity of sows. Second, the desire to reactivate the link between the breed and the territory by defining an ad hoc system leads breeders to select once again for the original traits of the Gascon pig.

Keywords: endangered local breed, pig, qualification criteria, typical product.

Introduction

The management of endangered local breeds, which was previously dealt with from a strictly genetic point of view, is now being integrated into new commercial development projects. These aim at developing new products highlighting the particularities of these local resources, namely the quality of the products, adaptation to a ‘terroir’ or an emblematic image (Casabianca & Fallola, 1994; Audiot, 1995; Flamant, 1998). New partners, active in different parts of the marketing chain and with different perspectives on the animal material, are now involved in qualifying and enhancing the market value of these particularities. Which of the animal’s characteristics are used in local breed management (by breeders and technicians) to both maintain genetic variability and meet the new requirements of agro-food markets and outlets? Our hypothesis is that the way in which these typical products are collectively developed results in a new definition of the characteristics of the animal resource (Casabianca, 1997). While investigating the ‘qualification system’ for Gascon pigs (Onco, 2002), we studied the evolution of qualification criteria for breeding stock since the conservation phase, to meet the needs for top market pork products.

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Case study and methodology

Until the beginning of the 20th century, the Gascon pig, an Iberian breed hardy and calm by nature, was very prevalent on farms in part of the Southwest of France. The Gascon pig was well known for the maternal qualities of its sows, the flavour of its meat and the quality of pork products derived from it. During the 1950s, its slow rate of growth and the high fat content of its carcasses were considered to be a handicap and the breed was first crossed with other breeds on a big scale and then replaced by more specialised breeds. In 1981, a national programme to protect endangered pig breeds was undertaken in France and the Institut Technique du Porc (ITP), in co-operation with the Chambre d’Agriculture des Hautes-Pyrénées, made an inventory of 300 purebred Gascon sows and 2 boars with the Gascon phenotype (one of them resulting from a recent cross). Since then, through the initiatives of various partners, various activities have continued to protect and subsequently increase the production of the Gascon pig. Until the breed was officially recognised by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1997, an expert from the ITP chose the animals to be used for the programme according to his own criteria. Since then, the ITP has been delegated by the LIGERAL (Association of collective herdbooks for local pig breeds), which was founded in 1996, to monitor the genetic aspects (which involved defining and implementing the conservation programme, keeping the pig herdbook and issuing certificates of origin). The ITP participates in the breeding stock certification board which also includes the pig technician from the Chamber of Agriculture and two breeders. Since 995, thanks to the increase in population brought about by the conservation programme (at that time more than 300 sows had been registered), part of the breed has been developed by producers belonging to the AEPG (Haute-Pyrenees association of Gascon pig breeders) who are involved in promoting the ‘Noir de Bigorre’ dry cured ham. This producer/processor/distributor network consists of forty-five breeders (including fifteen who are specialised in fattening animals for the market), a company, ‘Les Salaisons Pyrénéenes’, which processes most of the carcasses, and two independent delicatessen craftsmen. The network is closely supervised by the Chambre d’Agriculture des Hautes-Pyrénées. The way in which candidate sows and boars are chosen for breeding purposes was analysed with a threefold objective of:• identifying the different qualification criteria (external traits, zootechnical skills, etc.) used since

1981;• determining how they relate to i) each breeder’s individual project, ii) genetic requirements for

maintaining the breed iii) ensuring that the animals are suitable for the given production conditions, iv) ensuring that the carcasses are suitable for processing into local products;

• analysing how the criteria have evolved in relation to the various stakeholders involved in managing and/or promoting the breed.

Semi-directive interviews were held with all of the 30 breeders and breeders/fatteners who have breeding stock. The conservation programme managers and the processing and distributing representatives of the production/processing/distribution group were also asked to answer researchers’ questions. A few breeders (four), who were not part of the production/processing/distribution network, were asked to respond to an informal survey.

Results

During the early years of the conservation programme, breeding stock was chosen with two objectives in mind. The first one was to ensure that the animals match Portal’s description in the standard established in 956, the main characteristics of which are: medium-sized; cylindrical body, sometimes

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with narrow belly; solid legs with black claws; long and thin head with a pointed face and a black, fine and mobile face mask; narrow ears closer at the base with a length equal to half of that of the head, ranged horizontally and slightly titled above the eyes; round back; slopping rump; long and thick tail ending with a bouquet of big bristles; black skin; black bristles, long, hard, thicker and tighter on the dorsal line, often with tufts. The second objective was to manage breed diversity (male lines and female families) in order to keep consanguinity as low as possible while pushing the population of breeding stock above a critical threshold. There was practically no selection pressure on breeding stock during this period and breeders were thus able to use animals which matched the standard but whose origins were not clear and vice versa. Official recognition of the breed imposed the selection of sows with a minimum of 12 teats. This criterion, which is one of the components for mothering ability (Bidanel, 1998), is now systematically taken into account in France for breeds which are part of a selection programme and/or have a pig herdbook. Since the production and distribution network began in 995, some breeders, wishing to increase the carcass weight, tried to increase the size of the animals. In doing so, they improved the prolificacy of sows since the animals had benefited from crossing with improved breeds. At first, the breeders were satisfied as their income increased, but this later led to an increase in the phenotypic variability. Animals were born which did not match the characteristics defined in the breed standard for registration in the pig herdbook (occurrence of Celtic traits: rust-coloured spots, ears not conforming with the standard, short snouts, large sizes, etc). The few tests undertaken by breeders during this period quickly confirmed that neither Gascon pigs, nor the farm environment were suitable for industrial pig breeding techniques. These results matched those of a series of experiments which confirmed that the relatively high fat-content of the carcasses made the Gascon pig unsuitable (and this was true for the local Basque and Limousin breeds as well) for modern livestock production methods but did argue in favour of their being used to make dried and salted hams (Legault et al., 996; Labroue et al., 2000). Processors then played a major role in redefining the type of animal likely to produce a dry cured ham which is ‘neither too fat, nor too lean, nor too heavy, but with intramuscular fat’. They proposed decreasing the size of the animals (since large animals are associated with too lean carcasses) and increasing the slimness of legs (since slim bones are associated with the organoleptic quality of the dry cured ham on the one hand and with pure breed characteristics on the other). Responding to this the Association for development of the industry, whose goal was to consolidate the specificity of the product and to develop the image of free range pigs, decided to decrease the animals’ heterogeneity (and hence the heterogeneity of carcasses) by standardizing pig management systems. In 1998 the technical specifications for product conformity certification required outdoor raising of animals (and also rational feeding, a minimum of 5 months of fattening with access to natural outdoor grazing, a maximum density of 46 pigs/hectare, etc.). This was combined with a carcass payment grid which was devised as an incentive to adopt the new guidelines. The breeders then decided not to keep pigs from litters with a higher growth rate for breeding purposes. The applied animal selection indicates a return to typical Iberian animals for their adaptability to the local environment. Increasing attention was paid to specific characteristics of the standard, in particular the back whorl, mentioned in the initial standard but the lack of which had been tolerated until then.

Discussion

After the initial conservation phase, the qualification criteria defined for marketing products derived from Gascon pigs did not challenge the choice criteria used for conservation purposes alone. Genealogy

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remained the principal criterion taken into account by almost all breeders with breeding stock when choosing service boars. Gradually, however, new criteria whose relative importance varied over time were added to meet the new expectations of various stakeholders in the production/processing/distribution network (Table 1). The way these criteria changed can be interpreted by referring to two phases, which followed the conservation phase:• A first phase during which the product concept was developed and the producers, due to some

uncertainty about the standard prior to official recognition of the breed, tried to select animals on the basis of reference criteria used for classical production systems and related to the rate of growth, the carcass weight and the prolificacy of sows.

• A second phase for defining the farming system, which was supposed to facilitate the animals’ ability to adapt to the natural environment (hardiness) while promoting the image of traditional agriculture. During this phase the increase in population allowed for more stringent selection of animals in terms of pure breed criteria.

Nevertheless, not all of the breeders agreed on these choices. Some criteria were controversial, depending on the type of individual project developed by each stakeholder and a fortiori depending on the respective stakeholder’s role and level of commitment to the common project. Tensions emerged between those in favour of selection and those concerned about conservation, between supporters of quality and others whose priority was to make a profit. These tensions are even more intense between breeders who are part of the producer/processor/distributor network and those who are more conservative in outlook and who have stayed out of the

Table 1. Evolution of qualification criteria used for breeding stock in the Gascon pig breed.

Area of concern Qualification criteria 1982–1995 1997 1995–1998 1998 onwards

Management of genetic variability Genealogy +++ +++ +++ 100% for

General standard: height at shoulders, body length

+++ +++ ++ 35% for 40% for

Breed standards Specific morphological criteria: back whorl, horizontal ears

++ ++ +++ 60 % for both and

Number of teats - +++ +++ 85% for 92% for

Big size (for growth rate and carcass weight) - - ++ 20% for

Zootechnical traits Prolificacy - - +++ 70%

Ability for outdoor rearing

Stance quality, overall height, behaviour - - ++ 40% for both

and

Carcass quality Leg slimness - - ++ 20% for both and

Phases: 1982-1985 conservation phase, 1997 official recognition of the breed, 1995-1998 product concept development. Intensity in the application of criteria: - no consideration, ++ medium consideration, +++ high consideration; last column: % of farmers and type of animals concerned.

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organisational economic framework while still being committed to breed management. A clear issue today is who is to be responsible for managing animals for purposes of diversity but which are otherwise not suitable for the needs of the production/processing/distribution network.

Conclusion

Over a few years, certain endangered breeds have benefited from conservation programmes which have changed their status and led to their production as material for top market products. With this new objective, while there is still concern for conservation, the qualification of animals is based on different criteria from those chosen for classic selection schemes. A study of the changing characteristics of animals, taken into account during the different development phases of the Gascon pig production/processing/distribution industry, reveals how the producers built their own empirical production system without having any precise references to the animals and their aptitudes. The relationship between breed, product and territory had until then determined the choice of qualification criteria. At that time producers emphasised qualitative characteristics and also the value of the original characteristics of the Gascon pig. The few quantitative aspects maintained were argued solely from a phenotypic perspective and not from a genetic one. These results would seem to be generally applicable since the same phenomenon was observed for the Maraîchine bovine breed (Guichard, 2002). They reinforce the argument that quality production/processing/distribution networks based on traditional methods can effectively help to maintain animal biodiversity (Audiot & Flamant, 1995). However, the system has not yet been stabilised. Stakeholders in the network recently submitted a request for certification as an appellation contrôlée (not only for dry cured ham but also for fresh meat) and it is highly likely that forthcoming developments will include stricter quality control capable of revealing the characteristics of carcasses which will in turn serve to enrich criteria for a future selection scheme for breeding stock. Consequently, it appears that we must analyse the collective system of breed management (a set of references associated with the qualification criteria, methods and tools used) in order to be able to subsequently clarify those conditions which complement the enhancement of products’ market value and management of the genetic variability of an endangered local breed.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all of the people mentioned in this paper who manage the Gascon pig breed for their interest in this work. They are also grateful to F. Casabianca for his constant and invaluable help and to A. Gibon for a critical review of the manuscript. The study was jointly financed by the INRA Département Sciences pour l’Action et le Développement and the Bureau des Ressources Génétiques.

References

Audiot, A., 1995. Races d’hier pour l’élevage de demain. Espaces ruraux, INRA Editions, 229 pp. Audiot, A. and J.C. Flamant, 1995. Conservation and commercially oriented production of rare animal

resources in France: analysis of new possibilities of local development. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Global Conference on Conservation of Domestic Animal Genetic Resources, R.D. Crawford, E.E. Lister and J.T. Buckley (editors), p. 213-218.

Bidanel, J.P., 1998. Conséquences génétiques de l’accroissement de la prolificité des truies. INRA Prod. Anim. 11: p. 238-241.

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Casabianca, F., 99. Conservation des populations porcines méditerranéennes, modalités techniques et enjeux sociaux. Mediterranean animal germplasm and future human challenges, Benevento, Italy, EAAP Publication 85: p. 173-181.

Casabianca, F. and A. Fallola, 1994. Avenir de l’élevage porcin méditerranéen extensif et coordination des filières de production. Orientation des activités d’élevage par la qualité des produits transformés. The study of livestock farming systems in a research and development framework, EAAP Publication 63: p. 6-3.

Flamant, J.C., 1996. Addressing the changing habits of the consumers: chance and danger for typical mediterranean animal products. Lessons and conclusions from the international symposium on the basis of quality of typical Mediterranean animal products. In: Basis of the quality of typical Mediterranean animal products, J.C. Flamant, D. Gabina and M. Espejo Diaz (editors),Wageningen Pers, EAAP Publication 90: p. 537-545.

Guichard, A., 2002. La construction d’une ressource locale vue au travers de sa qualification: la race bovine Maraîchine. Mémoire de fin d’études, INRA, ISARA de Lyon, 71 pp.

Labroue, F., S. Goumy, J. Gruand, J. Mourot, V. Neelz and C. Legault; 2000. Comparaison au Large White de quatre races locales porcines françaises pour les performances de croissance, de carcasse et de qualité de viande. Journées Rech. Porcine en France 32: p. 403-411.

Legault, C., A. Audiot, D. Daridan, J. Gruand, J. Lagant, M. Luquet, M. Molénat, D. Rouzade and M.N. Simon, 1996. Recherche de références sur les possibilités de valoriser les porcs Gascon et Limousin par des produits de qualité. 1. Engraissement, carcasses, coûts de production. Journées Rech. Porcine en France 28: p. 115-122.

Onco, M., 2002. Faire évoluer le système de qualification du porc Gascon? Mémoire pour l’obtention du Diplôme du Master in Agricultural Sciences, INRA, ENSAT, 88 pp.

Portal, M. and E. Quitte, 1956. Les races porcines françaises. Ministère de l’Agriculture, 78 rue de Varennes, Paris VII.

2

Note on some characteristics of the local Karakachan sheep, the oldest breed in the Balkans

D. Nedelchev1, E. Raicheva1 & D. Kuzmanova2

1Institute of Animal Science, 2232 Kostinbrod, Bulgaria 2Agricultural University of Plovdiv, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria

Summary

The Karakachan breed is an old local sheep breed. Karakachan sheep were bred as a nomadic breed on the pastures of Stara planina, Rila, Vitosha and Rodopa in the summer and in the Aegean Thrace in the winter. In the last 50 years, the number of Karakachan sheep has been reduced drastically, although these animals are very important as animal genetic resources (AnGR).

Keywords: Karakachan breed, wool, carcass quality.

Introduction

The Karakachan breed is an old local breed of sheep. Big flocks of Karakachan sheep were bred under nomadic conditions on the pastures of Stara planina, Rila, Vitosha and Rodopa in the summer and in the Aegean Thrace in the winter. The sheep milk was used for the production of white and yellow cheese destined for export to the Balkans and Asia. In the last 50 years, the number of Karakachan sheep has been reduced drastically. The sheep, bred in small flocks, are very important as animal genetic resources (AnGR). In order to minimize the increase of inbreeding in small populations, special mating schemes with rotation of breeding males (Alexieva, 1987) are being developed. Recently, the Karakachan breed has been included in the “Bulgarian rare breeds” Program, financed by the Swiss government. Karakachan sheep are a small-sized breed. Ewes average 25-35 kg of live weight, but they have a strong skeletal system and are able to cover long distances. The Karakachan breed can be recommended for breeding in the mountainous area of the Balkans on the basis of:• its suitability for breeding in big flocks as an organic animal, in conformity with nature;• its contribution to the creation of local full employment;• its contribution in supporting and improving the soil and biodiversity. In the framework of a global study of livestock farming systems, the aim of our research is to make an assessment of the traits of the Karakachan breed. The present note presents preliminary data about the characteristics of Karakachan wool and Karakachan meat lambs.

Materials and methods

The morphological characteristics of the wool samples from 25 ewes at 2.5 years of age were studied. For the histologal study of the skin, the classic method was used and observations were made on serial sections.

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An experiment was carried out with 50 male weaning lambs of the Karakachan breed. The lambs received a complete mixture containing 6.0 MJ of energy and 160 g of crude protein per kg. The lambs were fed ad libitum. The live weight of lambs was controlled. When the lambs reached a live weight of 25 or 35 kg, the carcass analysis was carried out using the carcass classification system (S) EUROP (EEC 2137/92; EEC 461/93; Raicheva, 1997). The thickness of subcutaneous fat was measured at the penultimate rib, at the tail base and at the breast. The weights of carcass, subcutaneous fat, meat with intramuscular fat and internal fat were measured. Finally, the chemical composition of mean samples of minced meat, including subcutaneous fat, was analyzed. Data were analyzed by standard variance statistical methods using the Anova software.

Results and discussion

The results regarding morphological characteristics of the wool fibres are presented in Table 1. The ewes with white colour fleece are 30-40%. The remaining ewes have other fleece colours-black, brown, grey and beige. The wool yield is 1.4-2.8 kg. The fibres are very long (about 18-35 cm) with relatively little medulla. The ratio between primary and secondary hair

Table 1. The morphology characteristic of wool fibres Traits Overcoat fibres

Mean Undercoat fibres

Mean Fibre diameter, ì m 5.49 30.51 Medullated fibres Fragmentary, % 6.6 36.23 Unfregmentary to ½ from diameter, % 32.30 63.55 Unfregmentary over ½ from diameter, % 9.49 0.22 Fibre length, mm 207.90 137.00 % fibres with diameter to:

29 ì m 3.34 84.85 29. – 4 ì m 29.3 5.5 Over 4. ì m 6.53 -

Table 2. Characteristic of the fat tissue of lamb carcasses from Karakachan breed. Traits Light carcasses Heavy carcasses Mean Sx Mean Sx Carcass weight, kg 10.33 - 0.382 15.04A - 0.494 Weight of the subcutaneous fats, kg 1.06 - 0.141 1.86B - 0.145 Thickness of the subcutaneous fats, mm At the rib before last 2.03 - 0.321 3.06C - 0.267 At the tail base 5.83 - 0.749 18.16A - 1.550 At the breast .6 - .3 9.83 - 0.792 Internal fats depots, kg Kidney fats, kg 0.112 - 0.015 0.188C - 0.021 Pelvic fats, kg 0.167 - 0.028 0.395A - 0.036 Fats in meat, % 15.30 - 0.808 23.A - 0.703

Note: Significant of the differences between groups. * - P <0.05 (Ñ); ** - P < 0.01 (Â); *** - P < 0.001 (À). * - P<0.05 (C); ** - P<0.01 (B); *** - P<0.001 (A).

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follicles S/P is 2.8-3.1. Hair papillae from primary hair bulbs are very branched and supplied with blood. This determines the high intensity of growth and the positioning of the ortocortex and paracortex. In comparison to other carpet wool breeds, the wool of the Karakachan breed has less medulla, resulting in high quality and strength. This wool is used for the production of beautiful hand-made carpets. The obtained results show that the lambs of the Karakachan breed belong to two categories according to their carcass weight - light and heavy carcasses (Table 2). The group of the light carcasses includes mainly the B and C categories. The average carcass weight is 8.6 kg for the B category and 11.4 for the C category. Meat colour at m. Rectus abdominis is rose and the degree of fat cover 2 and 3. These carcasses are mainly of first quality. The fat content in meat is about 5.3%. The quality of heavy carcasses is mainly O3 (fair conformation and average fat cover) and R3 (good conformation and average fat cover), with an average carcass weight of 15.0 kg. The fat content is about 23.17%. This is more significant than in light carcasses (P<0.05). The characteristics of the fat tissue of light and heavy carcasses are shown in Table 2. The weight of the subcutaneous fat of light carcasses is significantly less (P<0.01) than in heavy carcasses. The same observation was made regarding the thickness of subcutaneous fat at the penultimate rib and at the tail base and that of internal fat (kidney and pelvic) (P<0.05, P<0.001).

References

Alexieva, S., 1987. The possibility for preservation the genetic resources of local sheep breed in Bulgaria. Bulgarian Agricultural Science, XXIV, 3: p. 33-37.

Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2137/92 concerning the Community scale for the classification of carcasses of ovine.

Commission Regulation (EEC) No. 461/93 laying down detailed rules for the Community scale for the classification of carcasses of ovine.

Nedelchev, D., 1983. On the morphology, development of skin, hairs and some physical qualities of wool in sheep in connection with their zootechnical evaluation. Dissertation, Institute of Animal Science, Kostinbrod, Bulgarian Agricultural Academy, Sofia.

Raicheva, E., 1997. The dynamic of formation and the methods for assessment of carcass quality. Dissertation, Institute of Animal Science, Kostinbrod, Bulgarian Agricultural Academy, Sofia.

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Chapter 4: Accounting for multifunctionality in local development of

livestock farming

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2

Local animal resources and products in sustainable development: role and potential of equids

N. Miraglia1, D. Burger2, M. Kapron3, J. Flanagan4, B. Langlois5 & W. Martin-Rosset6

1Dipartimento di Scienze Animali, Vegetali e dell’Ambiente, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy 2Haras National, 1580 Avenches, Switzerland 3Agricultural University ul. Akademicka 13, 29-50 Lublin, Portugal 4Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4, Ireland 5INRA, Department of Genetic, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France 6INRA, Department of Animal Husbandry and Nutrition, Clermont-Ferrand Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France

Summary

The production of Equids in Europe is oriented towards sports and races which constitute the main economic activity. However, the preservation of old draft breeds of local horse populations and the growth in the population of asses in recent years are emerging fields. The main reason for this situation is the very deep-rooted image of equids in the culture of the industrialised countries, generating both non-material products and socio-economic benefits. Equids are still multipurpose animals. They contribute to:• the diversification of agricultural activities, products (production of riding horses, meat, and more

rarely milk) and labour (ploughing, loading timber in the forest, harnessing, carriages); • the utilisation of extensive areas (marginal lands) and the preservation of natural areas (natural

parks or reserves); • the development of agritourism in equestrian farms located in marginal and suburban areas. All these activities contribute to the maintenance of population in rural areas, the creation of new relationships between citizens and the rural way of life, the preservation of rare breeds and traditional socio-cultural life and, in addition, to the supply of some animal products. The contribution of equids to such socio-economic activities is illustrated in this report by case studies of seven European countries.

Keywords: equids, multipurpose, sustainable development, Europe.

Introduction

It is commonly believed that the breeding of equids in Europe is oriented only towards sports and races, which constitute the main economic activity, the so-called horse industry. Nevertheless, equids are multipurpose animals and this fact has emerged particularly in recent years. At present equids play a significant role in the exploitation of marginal lands. They can generate both non-material products and socio-economic benefits from different kinds of activities such as the development of agritourism with saddle horses or carriages. As far as environment preservation is concerned, the recent exploitation of certain products, such as equine milk for human consumption and use (cosmetics), could contribute to the preservation of animal biodiversity or/and could also positively influence the micro-economy of marginal and hilly areas, where the total number of residents and raised animals is decreasing, with

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consequent problems of forest fires, soil erosion and desertification. Another kind of exploitation of marginal lands has also emerged recently in some European countries: the production of asses and mules. In fact, the need to save breeds of asses from the risk of extinction and to find alternatives to the use of agricultural machines in deforesting and tree cleaning, necessitated the study of the possibility to obtain profit-related economic advantages from these kinds of production. All these different horse-related activities also influenced horse meat production that is actually becoming the second choice in horse farming after the above-mentioned productions. This paper aims at highlighting:• the role of husbandry of Equids in terms of activities (rearing and farming), in terms of economic

activity (production and utilisation), and in relation to the several dimensions of agriculture; • the multiple and interactive use of Equids, which goes far beyond the classical scheme of an animal

commodity chain.

Contribution of equids to sustainable or rural development

Equids play an important role by contributing to:• the diversification of agricultural products and activities (production of riding horses, meat, milk,

and work activities including harnessing, ploughing, forestry and carriages); • the sustainability of extensive areas (marginal lands) and preserved areas (natural parks); • the development of agri-tourism in equestrian farms located in marginal areas or closer to urban

centres; • the development of sportshorse and racehorse breeding in extensive pasture areas. In this context, equids meet also the most important expectations of modern society which are multi dimentional:• preservation of the environment, the landscape and the output from grassland; • preservation of livestock biodiversity; • relationship of citizens with cultural rural life; • preservation of traditional socio-cultural life;• economic and territorial values.

Preservation of environment, landscape and output from grassland

Grass and preserved forages account for 50 to 80 percent of the feed of horses in a year. Forages can supply 40 to 70 percent of the horse’s annual feed requirements. Differences can be noticed according to location and management of horse feeding areas. In humid temperate mountains and/or rangelands of France (Massif central, Pyrénées, Limousin), husbandry systems with heavy mares bred outdoors for producing young colts for fattening are frequent. For nine months animals are fed on grass close to the farms in early spring and late autumn, and on highlands in the summer. Small amounts of preserved forages and concentrates are provided during the winter in late pregnancy (Figures 1 and 2). The colts can be reared on such land to be slaughtered either at weaning, when they are born in very early spring (but the mare has to be supplemented), or later on, at 30 months of age (Figures 1, 2 and 3). In the later case the colts can also be fattened in the lowlands (i) within a feed-lot system using hay or again grass or maize silage-based diets, supplemented with 5 to 40% of concentrate according to the nutritive value of forages and/or age at slaughter; (ii) on grass alone, within grazing systems in which they can be associated with beef or dairy cattle (Figures 2 and 3). Seventy to eighty foals are weaned per 100 mares mated (Lienard & Martin-Rosset, 1984). Similar systems are implemented with dual purpose horses in Italy: in the Molise region close to the Abruzzo mountains with Pentro Horses (Miraglia et al., 2001); in the Marche mountains with Catria horses (La Manna et al., 2002); in the regions of Veneto and Trentin

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Figure 1. Management of heavy brood mares in upland harsh conditions in the centre of France: Auvergne region (adapted from Martin-Rosset & Trillaud-Geyl, 1984, quoted in Micol & Martin-Rosset, 1995).

Figure 2. Management of heavy brood mares in grassland and temperate zones: centre west of France, Limousin region (adapted from Martin-Rosset & Trillaud-Geyl, 1984, quoted in Micol & Martin-Rosset, 1995).

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close to the Dolomite mountains with Haflinger horses and in other Italian regions such as Sardinia and Sicily (Giara ponies and Sanfratellano horses respectively); in Spain, in the Pyrenees mountains with Galego horses (Santamarina, 2000); in Switzerland, in the Jura mountains and other Pre-alpine zones for breeding Franches Montagnes horses (Röger-Lakenbrink, 1997); and in Iceland for breeding Icelandic horses (Gudmunsson & Dyrmundsson, 1994). In all these areas horses graze mostly on rangelands during the summer season, either on their own or with beef cattle or dairy heifers mainly (Micol & Martin-Rosset, 1995; Miraglia et al., 2002; Fed. Suisse d’Elevage, 2002) or with sheep (Gudmunsson & Dyrmundsson, 1994). The horses contribute significantly to pastoral management and improve sward biodiversity and pastoral value (Loiseau & Martin-Rosset, 1985, 1989; Gudmundsson, 1995; Miraglia et al., 2001, 2002; Fleurance et al., 2003). Similar systems are traditionally applied also in Ireland for pony production in Connemara (Petch, 1998), and in UK, Finland (Saastamoinen, 2003), Norway, Iceland, Austria and France for the production of New Forest ponies, Fjord, Icelandic, Haflinger and half warm-blood horses respectively, used for hacking and trekking activities. In small-scale forestry, horses are also used for removing seed trees and wind-thrown timber in harsh zones (Finland: Maijala, 1999; South Germany: Bade Wurtemberg, France: Morvan area). The most common breeds are North Swedish, cold-blood breed in Sweden, Fjords or Dole in Norway, Finnhorses in Finland, Franches Montagnes horses in Switzerland, Ardennes in Belgium, Comtois, Bretons and Ardennes in France. Mules are often used in Spain, Italy and Portugal (EU Equus, 2001). In the lowlands of temperate zones, horses used for sports, the so-called warm-blood breeds (Clarke & Wallin, 1992), or races (trotters and thoroughbreds), have been produced for many decades in different European countries. Feeding systems are based on grass. Preserved forages are extensively offered to mares (Figure 4) and growing horses, with the more or less use of compensatory growth during the summer season (Figure 5). Horses are routinely combined with ruminants: beef cows, heifers or steers in France (Selle Français and French trotter in Normandy), cattle and sheep in Ireland (Connemara in

Figure 3. Feeding management and body weight of colts in the main finishing systems of heavy horses (INRA, 1990, quoted in Micol & Martin-Rosset, 1995).

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Figure 4. Management of saddle brood mares in grassland temperate conditions: centre west of France: Limousin region (adapted from Institut du Cheval, 1987, quoted in Micol & Martin-Rosset, 1995).

Figure 5. Feeding management and body weight curve in growing saddle horses (INRA, 1990, quoted in Micol & Martin-Rosset, 1995).

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the West and Thoroughbreds in the South and East), dairy cows or heifers in The Netherlands (KWPN breed), in Germany (German warmbloods: Trakehners, Hannoverian, Holstein, etc.), in Switzerland (Franches Montagnes horses and Swiss warmblood), in Belgium (Belgian warmblood), in Denmark (Danish warmblood), in Sweden (Swedish trotter and Swedish warmblood horses), in Poland (in the North: Wielkopolska breed; and in the Southeast: Malopolska breed). More rarely horses are alternated with sheep. In the Mediterranean and in some European countries equids are used for agricultural work: ploughing and transportation in terraced hillsides and muddy river valleys (EAAP, 1995). Experiments conducted in France with horses and cattle or sheep (Martin-Rosset et al., 1984; Loiseau & Martin-Rosset, 1985, 1989) and in Iceland with horses and sheep (Gundmunsson & Dyrmundsson, 1994; Gudmunsson, 1995) showed that horses are able to graze the proportion of grass that ruminants cannot graze due to their grazing behaviour: height of grazing related to the absence of incisors, and higher selectivity towards botanical species in the sward, namely for sheep. Moreover, horses can also clean the land, either early or late in the grazing season, by grazing the ungrazed grass left by ruminants during the previous summer. This system is frequently implemented with herds of mares of heavy breeds in France (Massif Central: Martin-Rosset & Trillaud-Geyl, 1984; or Jura areas) and in Italy (Abruzzo: Miraglia et al., 2001). Ponies or light horses bred for trekking are often wintered on such land, keeping it clean and productive (Connemara in Ireland, Icelandic horses in Iceland, New Forest in UK, Fjord in Norway, heavy breeds in France and Italy). In nature conservation areas, horses are combined with cattle in order to maintain biodiversity (Duncan, 1983, 1992; Putman, 1986; Gordon, 1989b; Putman et al., 1991; Menard et al., 2002) and also to preserve wild life in the territory (Duncan, 1992) and promote socio-cultural activities in and around natural parks. In France, Camargue horses are managed with cattle destined for bull-fighting in the Camargue National Park (Duncan, 1992). In Italy, Maremmano horses are used for trekking in the Maremma Regional Park (Bonavolontà & Silvestrelli, 1989). Similarly, Sanfratellano horses are used for trekking in the Regional Park of Nebrodi in Sicilia (Liotta et al., 2002). In Ireland, Connemara ponies are used for hacking and trekking in the well preserved Connemara area. Haflinger, Franches-Montagnes, Fjord and Silesian horses are used likewise in Austria, Switzerland (Röger-Lakenbrink, 1999), Norway and Poland respectively. In all cases horses contribute to the output of grasslands in terms of animal production, pastoral management and landscape, and profitable use of the available infrastructure. A recent study of the European Commission (2000) has estimated that 3. 3 to 3. 9 million hectares are used for feeding horses, that is, 2. 6 to 3. 3% of total utilised agricultural area in EU-15, which is to be compared to land use for rapeseed (2.1%) and sugar beets (1.6%). This is a significant fact taking into consideration the decrease in other animal productions (EU Equus, 2001).

Preservation of livestock biodiversity

The preservation and exploitation of livestock biodiversity is becoming an important issue in animal science. Each breed is characterized by its own genetic characteristics depending on adaptation mechanisms developed in centuries of evolution and influencing productive capacities and performances. In the last decades, intensive breeding determined a considerable loss of genetic biodiversity. However, in Europe and some Mediterranean countries many equine breeds exist that occupy special niches and contribute to the protection of biodiversity. For instance, a great variation in body size and adaptability is still maintained among horses raised for leisure activities, such as between Polish Konik (ex Tarpan) and Thoroughbred or between Shetland and Percheron. There is also a very large diversity in relation to abilities. For example, between racing trotters and Icelandic Toelters or between French Jumpers and German dressage horses. Some rare breeds like Lipizzaner, Kladruber, Dulmener Ponies, Hackneys, and Poitou asses, are being saved from extinction thanks to the passion of many horse lovers. Some years ago, a study attempted to assess the possibilities for funding the preservation mainly of draught horses (Rossier et al., 1986). We can now conclude

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that the leisure society with its high standards of living has found the economic means to preserve biodiversity. Autochthonous populations need to be re-evaluated because they contribute to: the exploitation of marginal and low productivity areas; environmental protection; recovery of traditional culture; improvement of the “typical” products market; and diffusion of rural tourism. Switzerland has implemented a programme to ensure the survival of the Franches Montagnes breed in accordance with international regulations. Local breeds like Icelandic Toelter, Haflinger, Lipizzaner, Merens and Connemara tend to reach a worldwide standard, like Thoroughbred and pure bred Arabian, with international conferences for the management of Stud-Books. Other breeders prefer to maintain their local trademark image and ignore the export market. Yet, a lot of them like trotter and sports horse breeders, are indecisive between these two extremes. Moreover, autochthonous populations can be valued also as sources of genes, some of which have been completely or nearly lost in the cosmopolitan breeds; for example, the Tarpan breed in Poland that underwent extensive crossbreeding with breeds from Western and Central Europe, Oriental countries and Central Asia to breed Wielkopolska and Malopolska breeds.

Relationships between urban citizens and cultural rural life

Equids represent a considerable attraction for urban citizens who are increasingly interested in the rural way of life, keen to rediscover uncontaminated wild lands, or are interested in equids’ educational and therapeutic functions. The presentation of various breeds in the framework of shows and sales used to gather a huge number of farmers, non farmers, breeders, representatives of breeding societies, friends and supporters of the breeds. For example, the Clifden Connemara show, organised on the third Thursday of August since 1924 in Ireland, gathers 400 ponies and thousands of people from all over the country and from abroad as well. This kind of tourism is becoming more and more diffused as confirmed by the increasing number of horses bred for this kind of ability and also equestrian farms with facilities available for hosting a rising number of tourists. This is particularly relevant in those agricultural areas where in recent years land has been abandoned by farmers because of lack of economic advantages from other animal production and/or traditional agricultural exploitation. Equestrian agri-tourism is now professionally organised and proposed through a commercial network. Horses have an important role in the marketing of such districts (in France: Camargue area, Dome district; in Italy: Maremma district, South Abruzzo area, Nebrodi park in Sicilia, Giara district; in Switzerland: Grison and Glaris Alps; in Austria: Tyrol; in Ireland: Connemara district). The role of horses in such areas is similar to that of sailing activities on the seashore or ski activities in the mountains. Horses are also increasingly used for education and equestrian rehabilitation. These activities are frequently combined and/or complementary with other farming activities dedicated to animal production or also sometimes with other leisure activities: agricultural services, for example weekly management of riding horses on the farm, for riding by urban citizens during the weekend, or accommodation for walkers and/or riders. A study conducted in England and Wales on agricultural holdings pointed out that equine-related activities were the third largest enterprise after agricultural services and accommodation (McInerney & Turner, 1991 quoted by EU Equus, 2001). This situation should be even more favourable in the very near future as a positive significant relationship has been found between consumption level and the number of horses per inhabitant (Eurostat, 2000b).

Preservation of traditional socio‑cultural life

Equids represent a strong, positive image for people because of the strong historical link between equine breeds (horses and asses) and particular geographical and/or ecological areas in some countries. This image contributes actively to the preservation of local historical buildings like castles and abbeys that

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are transformed into stud farms. It therefore plays a significant role in building a local trademark image that is valorised by tourism. Examples are given by Le Pin and Pompadour Studs in France, Einsiedeln in Switzerland, Flynge in Sweden and many others. In Switzerland, the Franches Montagnes horses have traditionally been an important part of socio-cultural life. They are the focus of many traditional events highlighting the rural scene. These activities are of particular significance in the traditional centres of Franches Montagne breeding and equestrian activity (Avenches, Bellelay, Agasul, Berne, Saignelégier), where they also contribute to social cohesion amongst Swiss counties (Federation Suisse d’Elevage, 2002). We have already mentioned the Clifden show in Ireland which is part of the identity of the Connemara county. In France, typical Camargue equestrian games contribute to the specific image of this region. Let us also cite some Italian shows such as the Giara ponies’ races and shows in Sardinia and the Palio of Siena in Tuscany, and the superb equestrian bullfight of Portugal where the animal is not killed and where the Lusitanian horse shows its abilities. Horses could be used as mediators between the economical and the socio-cultural valorisation of the environment. In most cases, horses are bred in extensive areas. Horse breeding can also represent a considerable source of non-material values and an image that could be intended as a “trademark”. In fact, this mark is supported by the development of pleasure activities such as tourism, stud farms, specialised craftsmanship (saddlery, farriers, etc.), artistic features (painting, sculpture, photography, movies, theatre, for example Zingaro’s theatre in Paris, etc.). These activities can be well developed in our society when historical and symbolical aspects of horses are well known. From this point of view, horse sports could be considered as a symbol of arrogance because they involve competitions that represent war; on the other hand, other equids such as asses are a symbol of humbleness and submissiveness. Between these two extreme situations, there are many intermediate ones that include draught horses, ponies, hacking horses, etc. Thus, a major concern is to fit the different situations of horses in their right place to avoid marketing mistakes.

Equids and socio‑economic issues

All the aspects mentioned above match a number of socio-economic advantages concerning direct and indirect profits. They mainly concern:• employment; • quality of products; • development of breeding strategies in the context of sustainable agriculture.

Employment

The equid commodity chain generates employment, part- and full-time, at different levels and often very different in typology. Horse breeding systems for sports and leisure involve zootechnical practices as for other domestic herbivores. In addition, many other activities are linked to horse breeding, for example horse breaking, breeding shows for mares and progeny, competition in horse events for young horses, etc. These different tasks are often carried out by different people as they require some expertise. Thus, this commodity chain needs specialised professionals (equine veterinarians, horse nutritionists, farriers, riders, grooms, horse breakers, head lads, etc.) or specialised industries (equine veterinary products, horse clinics, specialised feeds and supplements, artificial insemination organisations, etc). An increasing number of women are also involved in such jobs, many more than in other types of jobs (Digard et al., 1999; Tourre-Malen, 2004). This commodity chain generates various levels of employment in the different countries of Europe. In this case, these specialisations involve direct profits. Other profits that depend directly on equids’ breeding come from specialised horse equipment (saddlery, horse harnessing, studs, various accessory

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etc.), specialised riding equipment (clothing industry, etc.), service companies, specialised press, specialised corporations, etc. All these activities generate a wide productive and trading mechanism. This means that the economic advantages coming from equids bred in traditional breeding systems, including landscape exploitation, can be compared to the benefits derived from more traditional livestock products (milk, meat, etc.). Finally, it is important to underline all the by-products derived form horse breeding: equestrian shows and promenades, riding schools and betting. In this last case, a pleasure activity carries considerable economic advantages for horse breeding because a quota of betting receipts is destined to improve horse breeding and specialised activities.

Quality of products

In recent years the considerable diffusion of equid breeding underlines the important role of these animals in the exploitation of marginal and hilly areas and the potential economical advantages coming from the different kinds of production. The exploitation of certain products, such as equine milk for human consumption and meat production, could contribute to the preservation of animal biodiversity on the one hand, and on the other hand to the micro-economy of these areas, where the total number of residents and raised animals is decreasing, with related social problems of forest and woodland fires, soil erosion and desertification. Traditionally, human consumption of both mare milk and ass milk has stimulated some interest because of its supposed nutritional and therapeutic properties (Doreau et al., 2002). Recent results from microbiological studies point out that ass milk is an excellent base ingredient for probiotic food preparations because of its positive qualities, such as low microbial counts, high lysozyme content and optimal composition as a growth medium for useful lactic acid bacteria (Coppola et al., 2002). It should also be mentioned that the utilisation of mare milk in Western Europe is developing not only as a functional food but also for dermatological purposes. Besides this, more recent clinical studies confirm ass milk feeding as a safe and valid treatment in the cases of multiple food intolerance in infancy (Carrocio et al., 2000). From a zootechnical point of view, preliminary investigations on equine milk have been carried out successfully by many authors (Doreau et al., 2002). Horse meat production is diffused in France, Italy and to a lesser extend in Spain as a specialised production, and in some eastern and western European countries (Germany, UK, Ireland and Poland) with different breeding typologies connected with the availability and quality of grass and forages, depending on the extensive systems in which the horses are managed. There is a rising interest for this product due the well known vicissitudes that have arisen from the BSE problems in cattle and thanks to the nutritional qualities of horse meat. Horse meat is known to have a low lipid content, namely in unsaturated fatty acids, a high content in protein and amino acids; and finally, the meat is not suspected for any contamination (Martin-Rosset, 2001).

Development of breeding and farming strategies in the framework of sustainable agriculture

A good exploitation of marginal zones and grasslands depends not only on technical factors, but also on the recovery of these areas by farmers in the framework of sustainable agriculture and, more recently, in the framework of rural tourism development. Horse breeding is actually more and more diffused in the exploitation of landscape because of the different products available, such as milk or meat, but mainly due to the increasing demand of horses for hacking. This situation contributes to the valorisation of all the agritouristic resources with significant economical advantages coming from a touristic offer which might be competitive with other activities associated to sustainable agriculture. In this context, there is a new challenge for multipurpose breeds in the different European countries concerned: Italy (autochtonous equine populations: Murgese, Tolfetano, Sanfratellano, Catria, Salernitano, Persano and Maremmano horses; Bardigiano, Avelignese, Giara and Esperia ponies; Martina Franca, Ragusano,

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Amiata, Sardo and Asinara asses; Figures 6 and 8), France (Camargue, Merens, Pottock, old type of Anglo Arab, some heavy breeds), Switzerland (Franches Montagnes horses; Figure 7), Finland (Finnhorses), Austria (Haflinger), Poland (Silesian, Malopolska breeds), Norway (Fjords and Dole), Ireland (Connemara), UK (New Forest), and Iceland (Icelandic). All these breeds are subjected more or less to new genetic management not only for preserving the genetic resource but also for meeting the new demand. Such activity is becoming more and more interesting in the Mediterranean countries (Italy: Miraglia et al., 2001, 2002) as well, both for the economical advantages they provide to breeders and the protection of landscape they ensure for the benefit of the community, as far as mule production is concerned. Mule production now represents a significant economic source for breeders. In fact, the new agro-environmental regulation concerning forestry will give a new impulse to the use of crossbreeds and will consequently contribute to the genetic safeguard of some equine populations at risk of extinction (mainly asses). Economic advantages connected to horse activities are consistent with the protection of nature and cultural origin. As a result, horses are a significant actor in the sustainable agricultural development of certain regions. They promote these regions through their involvement in agritourism, by contributing to valid, alternative ways of utilising local agricultural resources and the preservation of landscape quality.

Figure 6. Map of Italy and diffusion of equids in Central-Southern Regions(Miraglia et al., 2002).

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Figure 7. Contribution of the Franches Montagnes breed to the territory management in Switzerland.

Figure 8. Equids are multipurpose animals: an example in Southern Italy (Miraglia et al., 2002).

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Discussion

Ethical aspects

There are not many ethical problems regarding horse use and production. The horse has been traditionally respected, and we should be careful to continue this tradition. At the breeding level, some pasture systems could involve certain welfare problems related to the lack of forages and watering places, generally influenced by overgrazing and environmental degradation. The problem of doping (growth hormone) is of considerable importance in horse breeding also where there is a need to fight vigorously against all kind of non-ethical temptating tool. In the same field, horse meat consumption represents a necessity for some, while it is unacceptable for others. Furthermore, betting on horse races is often the object of condemnation, the latter being unfounded as horse races allow to control the betting that would otherwise remain totally underground.

Socio‑economic aspects

In Europe, agricultural policy is more and more focused on the concept of global management and on the promotion of sustainable agriculture. The so-called “second pillar” of the common agricultural policy aims to guarantee the future of rural areas, including social as well as economic needs (European Commission, 2001 quoted in Equus, 2001). In this context, the production and utilisation of equids can make a significant contribution to this new challenge. The equine industry is facing a rising socio-economic demand, which can be met by the diversified production and utilisation of equids. Equids are bred for work: races, sports, hacking, forestry; agritourism, socio-cultural events, equestrian rehabilitation. They are also involved in pastoral management providing animal output (horses bred for work or meat/milk) from grassland and they contribute to the preservation of biodiversity and landscape. Equids are also significant for the development of ecological farming methods. They contribute to maintaining population in rural areas, as they provide complementary incomes and maintain traditional cultural events that highlight the rural scene. Moreover, urban citizens find in equids a way to experience again the rural way of life and/or to practice new sports or leisure activities in the margins of towns and/or in the countryside, even in natural parks. Finally, horses constitute a global approach in the valorisation of heritage. This evolution is supported in some European countries. In France, a new concept has been developed: the Contract for Land Use or CLU (in French, Contrat Territorial d’Exploitation CTE; Anonym, 2001), in the context of an agricultural act passed by the Parliament on 9 July 1999. In this act, the different functions agriculture provides in and for the benefit of society are stated. This CLU is the major tool for implementing such an original framework. Full and part-time farmers ready to be involved in agricultural practice that preserves the environment in the context of a project of socio-economic development, are supported by state funding if they fit the criteria before and during the contract. The idea is as follows: if agricultural systems provide benefit to the society, benefit which cannot be entirely paid by the market, a financial contribution from society is required as a compensation. The National Stud, an organisation of the French Ministry of Agriculture, is in charge of sustaining the implementation of such a framework for the equine industry. In Switzerland, the Franches Montagne breed is well supported by the Swiss National Stud farm in Avenches. This federal organisation provides strategic, logistic, operational and technical support to the farmers and horse breeders in all aspects of the horse industry, as the horses are part of the territory management (Figure 7, Poncet, 1992; Weiss, 1999; Poncet, 2001; Féd. Suisse d’Elevage du cheval de la race des Franches-Montagnes, 2002). In The Netherlands, there are currently several development policies involving horses, as the latter are seen as part of the landscape and farmland for equine activities (Ministry of public housing, spatial

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order and environmental management, 2001). In Italy, the various equids bred for diversified purposes are increasingly taking part in territory management, as shown in Figure 8 (Miraglia et al., 2002). In Italy the UNIRE (Unione Nazionale Incremento Razze Equine) is in charge of supporting equine breeding, concerning mainly sport horses (races and equestrian competitions); the financial support for improving breeding is constituted by a quota coming from betting; in the case of autochthonous populations, the technical and financial support for breeding is guaranteed by the Italian Breeders Association (AIA) and, in the case of populations considered at risk of extinction, by special EEC funding. In Nordic countries, horse breeding and management are supported to some extend as well. In Finland, special support from the State and/or EU is provided for original breeds and for horses used in landscape preservation or as an alternative to grass silage production with grazing (Saastamoinen, 2003). In Norway, an important tradition is the mountain grazing system, whereby mares are managed with approved stallions doing free mating in areas administered by the NHS (Norks Hesteavlsseter). This system is heavily subsidised in the context of the annual support of horse breeding activity in the country. (NHS, 1996; Kvam, 1996). In Ireland, the keeping of local breeds of horses (Connemara and Irish Draught) is financially supported under the EU Rural Environment Protection Scheme, while the breeding of sport horses is supported by public funds through a State grant given to the Irish Horse Board.

Prospects for research

The role and potential of equids could not be maintained and extended without very active research. Research on equids has been carried out since the seventies in Europe (France, Germany, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, UK, Poland and Italy), it is now emerging in Belgium, Ireland, Norway and Switzerland. Research has contributed to raising fundamental knowledge on horses to the same standard level as for other farm animals. But new challenges for research are emerging as equids are now considered as significant socio-economical actors in the society of the 21st century. Multi-disciplinary research is now needed to evaluate the impact of equids on farming, agri-tourism and/or preservation systems, to improve the use of equids, and to manage biodiversity of the different breeds. Studies are progressively implemented in these different fields by research institutions in collaboration with professionals of the equid commodity chain, at the request and/or with the economic support of regions. In France for example, in the research institution of the region of Normandy (North-West), National Studs, professionals and regional authorities have carried out a long-term study on the production and use of young horses devoted to sports and races in a grassland area. Such an organisation is supported by fundings supplied by the region of Normandy, the French State through research institutions and National Studs and European Interreg network. In France, efforts have been made towards the identification of equid farming systems and the evaluation of the place of horses in farming systems (Moulin, 1995). Such efforts should be supported, in order to be extended to different zones, and co-ordinated, in order to determine more accurately the socio-economic contribution of equids in the different farming and/or use systems at farm and region level, using the same methodology used by researchers in Livestock Farming Systems (Gibon et al., 1996; Keating & McCown, 2001). States and regions need indicators to elaborate a policy for equids in the scope of a global management of sustainable agriculture and peri-urban zones. The identification of equids and breeds should be promoted for genetic and economic purposes. A few small breeds are very well adapted to farming systems and/or use; but they are a small, endangered population. The new tools of molecular biology should be applied to preserve such a patrimony. For example, such an attempt has been very successful for the Lippizan breed with the support of EAAP and the European Community (Curik et al., 2001; Dovc et al., 2001; Kavar et al., 2001; Marti et al., 2001; Szbara et al., 2001; Achmann et al., 2002). Extended identification should be implemented using modern tools, such as microchips, in order to evaluate more accurately the importance of equid populations, as has already been done for

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other farm animals. An attempt towards a Unique Equine Life Number (UELN) for sports horses is in progress in the European Union thanks to the good co-ordination between EAAP (Horse commission: Interstallion working group) and WBFSH (World Breeding Federation of Sports Horses); this effort is based on the combination of the methodologies and tools implemented in various countries for breeding evaluation. All these efforts to point out the importance of the equid commodity chain require a good co-ordination between the European countries, and the support of the EU Commission through the relevant pluriannual programmes. At present there is no possibility for funding these efforts by the EU in the context of the Framework Programme for R&D (6th FP). EAAP, with the contribution of the Horse Commission, could negotiate with the European Commission in order to elaborate actions in the context of the development of the th FP.

Conclusions

It is clear that equids are currently playing an increasing role in the new context of sustainable development, contrary to other animal productions. Until recently, the major constraints regarding their development have only been of psychological nature: should horses be considered as an agricultural product and/or a leisure animal? It is obvious that they should be considered as both. This diversity of activities and multi-purpose uses represents now a strong advantage in the context of the new deal for territory management. In recent years, the concept that once limited agricultural production only to food production is outmoded in Europe. This is particularly obvious in horse production that has now to be considered as a full agricultural product as of right.

Aknowledgements

S. Bellon (INRA, SAD, Unité d’Ecodeveloppement, Research centre of Avignon, France) and M. Saastamoinen (MTT, Agricultural research centre of Finland, Equine station, Finland) for their relevant comments and suggestions.

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Natural products for upgrading sustainability of land resources and landscapes: the case of the Argan forest

A. El Aich1, A. Bourbouze2, P. Bas3 & P. Morand-Fehr3

1Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, BP 6202, Rabat, Maroc 2Institut Agronomique Méditerranéen de Montpellier, France 3UMR, Physiologie de la Nutrition et Alimentation, INRA-INAPG, Paris, France

Summary

The argan forest in southwestern Morocco is a three-component farming system based essentially on barley, the argan tree and the goat. Barley has several functions: it is part of the staple diet, while its straw, stubble and grain are also used as animal feed. The second component, the argan tree (having a dual role as fodder and fruit tree), constitutes the core of this agrarian system. The local goat breed constitutes the third component. Forty heads is the usual herd size of small ruminants, with goats predominating at 80%, followed by sheep at 20% (de Ponteves et al., 1990; Boscher, 1992). Goats predominate because they are better adapted to the argan forest rangeland than sheep, thanks to their ability to climb. Sylvo-pastoral resources, shrubs and argan trees, provide 51% of these herds’ feed on a year-round basis. Stubble, which provides about 9.5% of the feed requirements (Boscher, 1992), is used from June to September. Direct feed inputs from the farm and purchased feed from the market (straw, argan and barley pulp) cover 7.2 and 32.2% of the livestock feed needs respectively (Boscher, 1992). Argan pulp (Aligue, i.e. dried pulp of argan fruits) is the supplement fed to animals by herdsmen when pasture grows thinner. Livestock owners differ as to the quantity of feed they distribute and the frequency of its distribution. Argan pulp is usually fed between October and December. Onthebasisofflocksize,fivetypesofproducershavebeenidentified.Goatperformancesaregenerally poor. Feed is mainly provided by sylvo-pastoral resources. Grazing on the argan trees is very important, especially during drought periods. According to the period of the year, the contribution of argan leaves and fruit to the goat’s diet ranges from 47 to 85%. The typicality of goat meat from the argan area was studied in two experiments. Each experiment was carried out with 3 groups of 6 male goats, either reared indoors or grazing in the argan forest, with or without a concentrate. In the argan area, the growth rate of goats receiving no energy supplementation wasverylowinthefirstexperiment(34g/d),butitwasrelativelyhighinthesecondexperiment(64g/d),underconditionsofmoreherbaceousvegetation.Inthesecondexperiment,theweightsofomental and perirenal adipose tissues were the lowest in the 2 groups of goats raised in the argan area. Goats from the argan area had the highest percentages of odd FA, branched-chain FA, and n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated FA, but the lowest percentage of palmitic acid. The low fat content of the meat of goatsrearedinthearganareaandthefattyacidprofilerenderthismeatmorebeneficialtoconsumers’health.

Keywords: Argan tree, grazing goats, sylvo-pastoral resources, adipose tissues, muscles.

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Introduction

The Argan tree (Argania spinosa) is an endemic tree found in the southwestern part of Morocco. Argan forests occupy an area of 400,000 ha and contain approximately 26 to 30% of the Moroccan goat population (El Aich, 1995). The argan forest is a three-component farming system based on barley, the argan tree and the goat. Barley has several functions: it is part of the staple diet for people, while its straw, stubble and grain are also used as animal feeds. The second component, the argan tree (with a dual role as fodder and fruit tree), is the core of this agrarian system. The local goat breed constitutes the third component. Bousquet (2000) pointed out the predominance of grazing in the argan forest, especially from December to August. Boscher (1992) estimated that the argan forest and argan by-products, notably the pulp of the fruit named “alig”, cover 50% of the goats’ nutritional needs. Person (1998) underlined the high variability of the contribution of argan trees to goats’ diets depending on the different grazing areas and the prevailing type of climate in a given year (El Aich, 1995; Bousquet, 2000; El Aich et al., 2006). In addition to grazing, goats consume the pulp of argan fruits and dispose of the seeds, which are used in oil manufacturing. This paper aims to analyze the relationship between goats and their environment. The specific objectives are: . the characterisation of the argan forest resources;2. the characterisation of the goat production system;3. the study of meat production and quality.

Characterization of the argan forest resources

Zoning of the landscape in the argan forest

The ecosystem of the “argan forest” is characterized by the diversity of its space. Such diversity is explained by the components of this system. Indeed, it is a three-dimensional system with interacting components: i) argan trees, which provide fruit for oil production; ii) barley, for producing grain and by-products; and iii) goats, which increase the returns of all feedstuffs provided by the system. The multiplicity of agricultural spaces stems from the co-existence of two types of land occupancy that induce different types of management. Indeed, three main types of agricultural space can be distinguished as a result of the co-existence of forestry regulation and customary law: • Private lands, close to dwellings, specifically reserved for barley cropping. There are also argan

trees in association with barley that are in very good conditions.• State-owned forests (“domanial” forests), where farmers are allowed on an individual basis to

exploit argan trees (fruit, wood for fuel and grazing).• Mouchaa (“domanial” land), which farmers use collectively, mainly for grazing. Table presents the zoning of the agricultural space according to the different types of uses.

The use of the argan forest resources

Two types of organization predominate in the argan forest, resulting from two types of regulation. The first one is modern, official and is coordinated by the Forest Department - it is characterized by an effort to adapt forest regulations to the argan conditions. The other one is traditional, based on Islamic law, and defines the rules of access to the resources as regards grazing in the “Agdal” (i.e. area excluded from grazing for a certain period of time), access to “Mouchaa” land, as well as the right of inheritance of land and argan trees.

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The rules for using the “Agdal” land are well established. An announcement is made around the 5th of May in the weekly market (“Souk”). The date of the announcement is subject to changes according to the prevailing climatic conditions. The opening of the “Agdal” areas for grazing takes place right after the harvest of the argan fruits. During the “Agdal” period, no one can cross someone else’s plots and no animals can graze in the collective grazing areas; grazing is restricted to the private plots. Table 2 compares the two regulatory systems (traditional and modern) for the use of argan forest resources.

Characterization of goat husbandry in the argan forest

Types of production systems

The main characteristics of goat husbandry in the argan forest are: • Permanent presence of bucks with goats in the flocks. • Suckling kids are present over a long period, with a peak in spring (February to May) and another

less important peak during the autumn. During rainy years, 20 to 30% of goats kid twice a year, during early spring and late autumn.

• Low rates of fertility and prolificacy.• High mortality of young kids; 15 to 30% of kids die before weaning.• Low growth rates, as reported in table 4.• Milk production from goats averages 50 kg of milk/lactation.

Three types of goat holders exist, according to a survey conducted in the Tamanar area (Bousquet, 2000). Table 3 presents their types of production systems.

Table 1. Patterns of landscape use at the argan forest. Determination of type of space Land tenure Land use Type of use Privately cropped land

Private property Cereals

Cultivated melk under argan trees

Private property

Cereals and argan trees

• Individual harvesting (cereals, argan nuts, olives…).

• Individual grazing of stubble.

Cultivated Agdal Public authority land

Cereals and argan trees

Uncultivated Agdal

Public authority land

Argan trees

• Individual harvesting of argan nuts after Agdal period.

• Collective grazing (common grazing land) during other periods than Agdal and crops.

Mouchaa State-owned land

Argan trees • Overgrazed common grazing land, free harvest of argan nuts.

Clearance of argan trees

State-owned land

Argan trees • Forbidden grazing (6 to 8 years for sheep, 10 to 2 years for goats).

• Night un-authorized grazing. Water points Collective • Concentration of animals.

• Conflicts with neighbors.

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Goat feeding systems in the argan forest

Feeding systems depend on many interacting factors such as:• The availability of supplementary feeds that influences directly the grazing activities of goats.• The availability of pastoral resources (herbaceous layer) and agricultural residues (straw and

stubble) that determines the contribution of argan trees to goat feeding.• The availability of sylvo-pastoral resources that is controlled by the socio-economic management

as well as by the access to these resources, as discussed earlier.

Supplementary feeding of goats

In the argan forest, goats are considered hardy animals. Most of their feed comes from grazing (75 to 80 % of their needs). They receive less supplementary feeds than other animal species. Most goat

Table 2. The major rules for use of the resources in the argan forest.

Forestry regulations Traditional regulations • Principle-based rights: gathering argan

fruits, picking deadwood, grazing (under argan trees, aerial grazing is tolerated), cropping cleared areas, wood cutting with preliminary agreement.

• Ban on cutting argan trees and on cropping in cleared areas for argan rehabilitation.

• Imprescriptible rights of use of the argan forest through wood cutting (80 % of the revenues go to the rural community).

• Restriction of grazing in some privately exploited plots, hiring of a guard, possible fencing, common grazing out of the Agdal period.

• Free access to the “Mouchaa”. • Application of Islamic regulatory system

for the inheritance of the privately- exploited plots.

• Distinction between right of cropping (barley), right of grazing stubble and the right to harvest argan fruits.

Table 3. Types of goat production systems in Tamanar (Essaouira region).

Types Small holders (20 to 25%)

Medium holders (65 to 70%)

Large holders (<10%)

Size of goat flock

(goat >1 year)

15 to 20 30 to 40 40 to 80 60 to 100 over 100

Size of sheep flock

<10 30 to 40 <10 30 to 40 50 to 100

Herding Member of the family Member of the family or a wage earner

Nutritional supplement

Absent During droughts

During droughts

During droughts, and

priority is given to sheep

During droughts, and period of feed

shortages Meat

production Kids and

culled animals

Kids and culled

animals

Kids and culled

animals

Kids and culled animals

Kids, culled animals and

castrated bucks

Source: Fiat, 1989.

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keepers distribute small amounts of argan pulp (aligue) to weak animals (around 200 g/animal/day), females in early lactation stages and young kids (25 to 30 g/goat/day). Goats rarely receive a ration of barley, corn or bran.

Aerial grazing

In the argan forest, there are three types of grazing practices (Figure 1). Grazing in the trees (aerial grazing, Photo 1) is the first and most predominant one, especially late in the season (September to December 2001). The second grazing type (biped grazing) involves goats browsing the lower branches of the tree standing on their hind legs. It represents less than 10% of the grazing time. The last grazing type is when goats consume the herbaceous and shrubby layers under the trees. This last grazing type depends on the availability of pastoral resources and agricultural residues (stubble).

Factors affecting aerial grazing

Aerial grazing depends on the climbing ability of the goat, and on the accessibility of trees. In this regard, the “Haha” breed is raised for its climbing ability. The teaching of young cubs (under 3 months) is mainly done by adult animals. According to livestock holders, goats originating from other areas never climb up the argan trees; they only graze the herbaceous and shrubby layers under the trees. The climbing ability of goats depends on their physiological stage. Indeed, gestating goats, old goats and bucks during the mating season never climb up the trees to graze. Goats fall frequently from the trees. According to goat keepers, 10 to 30% of the goats break their legs as a result of such falls. The other key factor in aerial grazing is the tree accessibility. Tree accessibility is a factor that can be measured easily. Tree morphology varies greatly depending on a wide range of factors, such as location and ownership. However, a large number of trees are accessible. Person (1998) estimated the proportion of inaccessible trees to be less than 30%. Accessibility to argan trees is usually made easy by the herders’ practices. Herders play a fundamental role in helping goats to climb up trees. They facilitate the goat’s access to the trees by laying stones at the bottom of the tree (“stairs for goats”). They may even carry animals on their backs to help them get on the trees.

Goats’ diet

Feed resources forming the goats’ diet are very diverse, as shown in Figure 1. The overall contribution of argan trees (leaves and fruits) ranges from 47 to 84% according to the period of the year. Argan leaves are the main component of goats’ diet all year long (35 to 68%). Argan fruits are consumed from April to June. Other plant species have a seasonal contribution. For instance, herbaceous species favoured by rain are consumed during early spring. Olea europea (var. oleaster) leaves are mainly consumed late in the season (September to December) when the availability of the under-tree layer becomes insufficient. The chemical composition of argan leaves and argan by-products fed to goats in the southwestern part of Morocco is shown in Table 4.

Meat production and meat quality

Two experiments were conducted in the argan forest of Morocco, between Essaouira and Tamanar, during 2 consecutive years (2001 and 2002). Each year, 18 entire male goats of the local breed “Haha”, between 8 and 10 months of age and with a live weight of about 10 kg, were allocated into three groups.

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Figure 1. Aerial, under argan trees and biped grazing of goats in the argan forest in terms of minutes/hours.May, July and August 2001 were not sampled.

Photo 1. Local “Haha” goats grazing into argan tree.

aerial grazing grazing under argan trees biped grazing

24

The “Haha” population is characteristically small. The average height is 50 cm, and the average weight is 27 and 20 kg for adult males and females respectively. Two groups raised in the argan forest area were compared to a group raised indoors (ZP). The target slaughter weight ranged from 16 to 17 kg. The diet of ZP goats was based on barley (50%), wheat bran (30%), and beet pulp (18%) in the first experiment, and of barley (46%), sunflower meal (30%) and beet pulp (23%) in the second experiment. The two groups raised in the argan forest received as a supplement either a mixed diet with argan pulp (PA) or some argan pulp only (PP). The supplement diet of goats from group PA was composed of barley (39%), wheat bran (18%) and argan pulp (43%) in the first experiment, and of barley (54%), sunflower meal (18%) and argan pulp (29%) in the second experiment. In the first experiment, the diet distributed daily was about 377, 210 and 92 g per goat for the ZP, PA and PP group respectively. In the second experiment, the figures were 580, 397 and 106 g respectively. The intake of herbaceous plants and shrubs was very low in the first experiment but relatively high in the second one. The lipid content of Longissimus dorsi muscle was determined according to the method of Bligh and Dyer (1959) and the fatty acid (FA) content was determined by using the method of Rule (1997). Fatty acids were separated according to chromatographic conditions described by Bas et al. (2003).

Meat production

During the first experiment, kids receiving supplementation (ZP and PA) performed better than those limited to grazing, while in the second experiment kids raised in the argan forest showed a daily growth significantly different from that of the group of kids that were not allowed to graze in the argan forest (Table 5). In the first experiment, the target live weight of goats was reached in about 3 months for all the goats of groups ZP and PA. Their average daily gain (ADG) did not differ (Table 4). Conversely, PP goats did not reach the target live weight neither in that period nor in 3 extra experimental months, because of the severe drought during the year 2000. In the second experiment, the ADGs of goats raised in the argan forest (PA and PP) were not significantly different and were about 30% higher than those of ZP

Table 4. Chemical composition of argan leaves and argan by-products.

Kind of feed

DM %

CP %DM

CF %DM

Carbohydrates %

Ash %

Minerals %

NDF %DM References

Leaves and twigs 9.3 2.4 18.5 - - 9.2 - Knar (1989)

- 26.3 .6 - 3.6 - - Cotton (1888)

3. 23 10.3 - - - - Maallah et al. (1995) Brain

78.90 41.02 2.20 - - 4.36 4.81 Igmoullan (1999)

- 6.0 3.9 18.5 4. - - Fellat-Zarrouk et al.(1987)

9 7.8 4.29 - - - - Knar (1989) Pulp

85 6.39 10.36 3-38 - - 9.9 Igmoullan (1999)

DM: dry matter. CP: crude proteins. CF: crude fiber. NDF: neutral detergent fibre.

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goats. The second experiment was conducted during a relatively rainy year, which explained the higher ADG for the grazing groups (PA and PP) in comparison to the indoor one (ZP). In the two experiments, the weights of omental and perirenal adipose tissues of PA and PP goats were both much lower (≅ 75%) than those of ZP goats. However, comparing the two experiments, the weights of these adipose tissues were lower in the second one for ZP and PA goats, but were similar for PP goats even when comparison was made to equivalent carcass weight. The lipid content of muscle was about twice lower for PA and PP goats than for ZP goats.

Meat quality

Generally, the fat of internal adipose tissues (omental and perirenal) and muscles of PA and PP goats had a higher percentage of polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) than that of ZP goats (Table 6). As this increase of PUFA was relatively higher for n-3PUFA than for n-6PUFA, the n-6:n-3 ratio became lowest in the adipose tissues and muscles of goats raised in the argan forest. It could be lead to a ratio n-6:n-3 < 5.0 in the daily diet that could be beneficial against coronary heart disease (Wood & Enser, 1997). Conversely, the percentages of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were the lowest in PA and PP goats. This decrease of MUFA percentage was about twice higher in muscles than in adipose tissues (-20.3% and -10.6%, respectively). It resulted almost exclusively in a decrease of C18:1c9c percentage. But internal adipose tissue and muscles of PA and PP goats had higher percentages of isomers of oleic acid (+73.6% and +28.1% in adipose tissues and muscles respectively) than those of ZP goats. Moreover, PA and PP goat tissues had more oddFA than ZP ones (+38.9% and +24.7% in adipose tissues and muscles respectively). Likewise, PA and PP goat tissues had more branched-chain FA (BRFA) of iso and of anteiso structure than ZP ones (+37.1% and +19.2% in adipose tissues and muscles respectively). These

Table 5. Characteristics of goats performances.

Experiment 1 Experiment 2 ZP PA PP ZP PA PP

Initial live weight, kg

2.9a (0.72)

12.8a (1.35)

2.3a (1.18)

10.6a (0.51)

10.4a (0.42)

.a (0.78)

Live weight at slaughter, kg

6.a (0.47)

6.a (1.00)

13.0b (1.08)

5.9 a (0.37)

5.6 a (0.50)

6.3 a (1.43)

Duration of the experiment, d

90.3 a (5.72)

90.3 a (5.72)

99. b (54.7)

111.0 a (14.2)

98.0b (0.0)

99.0b (0.0)

ADG, g/d 54.2 a (10.8)

54.3 a (15.5)

34.3 b (8.2)

5.5 a (7.3)

2.b (13.1)

64.3 ab (12.6)

Hot carcass weight, kg .9 a (0.51)

.3 ab (0.42)

6.9 b (0.78)

6.6 a (0.50)

6.8 a (0.50)

.2 a (0.59)

OM2, g 400 a (70.5)

26 b (47.1)

5 b (78.9)

35 a (63.7)

64 b (19.7)

103b (24.1)

PR3, g 262 a (50.1)

2 b (36.9)

43 b (42.9)

93 a (40.2)

4b (21.0)

4b (13.0)

MU4, % 2.6 a (0.76)

. b (0.66)

.4 b (0.47)

2.6 a (0.78)

.b (0.18)

.b (0.29)

For an experiment, mean within a row lacking a common superscript differ (P<0.05). Standard deviation were given between brackets. ADG: Average daily gain during the 2 common weeks of the experiments for every goat. 2OM: weight of omental adipose tissue. 3PR: weight of perirenal adipose tissue. 4MU: Lipid content in muscle, longissimus dorsi.

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higher percentages of oddFA and of BRFA could reflect their fat percentage in the blood of circulating FA originating from ruminal lipid microorganisms. Bas et al. (2003) found indeed that with diets rich in NDF, oddFA and BRFA, fat could be higher than 30% of total FA. The adipose tissue and muscle lipids of PP goats had most often higher percentages of stearic acid (+5.5% and +23.1% respectively), but a lower percentage of palmitic acid (-12.6% and –6.3% respectively) than that of ZP goats. Thus, the total saturated FA percentage did not differ in internal adipose tissues between the three groups of goats, but nevertheless it appeared to be higher in muscles of PA and PP goats than in ZP ones. The decrease in palmitic acid percentage was considered a good factor for the health of consumers, because of acknowledged atherogenic characteristics of this FA (Ulbricht and Southgate, 1991). The PA goats had FA percentages in adipose tissues and muscles most often very close to those of the PP group. The only significant difference between these two groups of goats concerned oddFA and BRFA. In internal adipose tissues of PA goats, these FA were intermediate between PP and ZP ones. This difference between PA and PP adipose tissue percentages was 23% and 62% for oddFA and BRFA respectively. Thus, it was very difficult to distinguish goat meat for the two groups raised in the argan forest on the basis of their FA profile. Nevertheless, more than 2:3 of the PA and PP goats could be distinguished by the percentages of FA in the adipose tissues reported in Table 6 (C16:0, C18:1n9c, oddFA, BRFA, n-6FA and n-3FA), while 100% of the ZP goats could be easily distinguished from PP and PA by their FA profile of adipose tissues and muscles.

Table 6. Fatty acid composition of adipose tissues and of goats muscles.

Adipose tissues Muscles ZP PA PP ZP PA PP

C16:0

29.0a (4.1)

24.b (3.6)

25.4b (4.1)

20.3a (2.4)

19.0b (3.3)

19.0b (2.90)

C16:1 .3a (0.23)

.3ab (0.54)

.5b (0.38)

2.0a (0.36)

1.8b (0.33)

.b (0.31)

C18:0

33.a (33.1)

35.8b (35.8)

35.0ab (35.0)

4.5a (1.3)

.6b (1.6)

.9b (1.3)

C18:1n9c 20.9a (5.5)

6.b (3.0)

14.8b (2.7)

45.a (3.4)

33.4b (3.6)

32.b (4.8)

oC18:12 3.8a (3.8)

.6b (7.6)

6.6b (6.6)

3.2a (0.6)

4.4b (1.1)

4.b (0.6)

oddFA 3.6a (3.6)

4.b (4.7)

5.0c (5.0)

2.2a (0.52)

2.8b (0.40)

2.8b (0.61)

BRFA3 (iso + aiso) 2.a (0.62)

3.b (0.48)

3.c (1.11)

.a (1.1)

.2ab (1.2)

.3b (1.3)

n-6PUFA4 .5a (0.69)

2.6b (0.98)

2.8b (0.73)

6.0a (2.7)

10.1b (3.2)

.2b (3.9)

n-3PUFA5 0.07a (0.07)

0.45b (0.46)

0.55b (0.55)

0.80a (0.34)

3.b (1.4)

3.3b (1.4)

For an experiment, mean within a row lacking a common superscript differ (P<0.05). Stanard deviation were given between brackets. Adipose tissues (omental and perirenal). 2 oC18:1: Other isomers of oleic acid. 3BRFA: Branched-chain fatty acids. 4n-6PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids of the series n-6, consisting of: C18:2n-6 C18:3n-6 and C20:4n-6 for the adipose tissues and C18:2n6, C18:3n6, C20:3n6, C20:4n6, for the muscles. 5n-3PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid of the series n-3, consisting of: C18:3n-3 for the adipose tissues and C18:3-n3, C20:3n-3, C20:5n-3, C22:5n-3, C22:6n-3 for the muscles.

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This study demonstrated that the meat of goats that had access to the argan forest for grazing could be differentiated from that of goats fattened indoors by a specific fatty acid profile. This difference of composition expressed a more intense ruminal activity on the one hand, and a diet richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids on the other hand. Due to a more important supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids of the n-3 series and a lower supply of palmitic acid, the meat of goats grazing in the argan forest had a positive aspect regarding consumers’ health. Energy supplementation to the goats that grazed in the argan forest had a beneficial effect on growth rate, but had a low effect on fat depot weights and on fatty acid composition of adipose tissues and muscles. Thus, the main interest of this supplementation can be assessed in economic terms when grazing resources are very scarce.

Conclusion

The qualities of the argan forest’s natural products (meat and oil) ensure the ecological integrity of this ecosystem. Argan oil production is increasing because of the development of cooperatives. The meat of young kids produced in this area should be promoted for its typicality. Indeed, thanks to a more important supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids of the n-3 series and a lower supply of palmitic acid, the meat of goats grazing in the argan forest has a positive aspect regarding consumer’s health preservation. Increasing the returns of these natural products should improve the sustainability of the argan forest.

References

Bas, P., H. Archimède, A. Rouzeau and D. Sauvant, 2003. Fatty acid composition of mixed-rumen bacteria: effect of concentration and type of forage. J. Dairy Sci. 86: p. 2940-2948.

Bligh, E.G. and W.J. Dyer, 1959. A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 3: p. 9-9.

Boscher, C., 1992. Fragilité et résilience du système agraire de l’argan forest des Ait Baha vis-à-vis des aléas climatiques. Rapport de fin d’études de l’Ecole Supérieure d’Agronomie Tropicale, Montpellier, 69 pp.

Bousquet, V., 2000. L’élevage caprin dans le système agraire de l’argan forest. Rapport de l’Institut Agronomique Méditerranéen de Montpellier, 87 pp.

Cotton, ?, 1888. Etude de la noix d’argan: nouveau principe immédiat, l’arganine. J. Pharm. Chim. 18: p. 298.

De Ponteves, E., A. Bourbouze and H. Narjisse, 1990. Occupation de l’espace, droit coutumier et législation forestière dans un terroir de l’argan forest septentrionale au Maroc. Cahier de la Recherche Développement, CIRAD 06, 26: p. 28-43.

El Aich, A., 1995. Goat farming systems in Morocco. In: Goat production systems in the Mediterranean, A. El Aich, S. Landau, A. Bourbouze, R. Rubino and P. Morand-Fehr (editors), Wageningen Pers, EAAP Publication 71: p. 202-220.

El Aich, A., N. El Assouli, A. Fathi, P. Morand-Fehr and A. Bourbouze, 2006. Ingestive behavior of goats grazing in the Southwestern argan (Argania spinosa) forest of Morocco. Small Ruminant Research 60 (in press).

Fellat-Zarrouk, K., S. Smoughen and R. Maurin, 1987. A study of the pulp of the fruit of the argan tree (Argania spinosa) of Morocco. Fats and latex. Actes de l’Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II : p. -22.

Fiat, L., 1989. Les voies d’amélioration de l’élevage caprin dans le système agraire de l’argan forest de la région d’Essaouira. Rapport de stage, ENSSAA, Dijon, IAM Montpellier, 88 pp.

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Igmoullan, A., 1999. Valorisation en alimentation animale des sous-produits de fruits d’arganier dans le Souss: cas des Ait Baha. Mémoire préparé dans le cadre de l’accès au grade d’ingénieur en chef, Direction Provinciale de l’Agriculture de Khénifra, 120 pp.

Knar, B., 1989. Evolution saisonnière de la valeur nutritive des trios principaux phenotypes d’arganier. Mémoire de fin d’étude de l’Ecole Nationale de Meknes.

Maalah, A., A. Hafidi and H. Ajana, 1995. Variation de la composition des amandes d’arganier en fonction des caratéristiques morphologiques du fruit: détermination de variétés chimiotaxonomiques. Coll. Inter. Arganier, 26-28 October 1995, Agadir, Morocco.

Person, S., 1998. Targant n’Tarat ou l’arganier de la chèvre. Approche du système agraire de l’arganeraie, Maroc-Essaouira. Rapport de stage, CNEARC/IAM, Montpellier, 91 pp.

Rule, D.C., 1997 Direct transesterification of total fatty acids of adipose tissue, and of freeze-dried muscle and liver with boron-trifluoride in methanol. Meat Sci. 46: p. 23-32.

Ulbricht, T.L.V. and D.A.T. Southgate, 1991. Coronary heart disease: seven dietary factors. Lancet 338: p. 49-56.

Wood, J.D. and M. Enser, 1997. Factors influencing fatty acids in meat and the role of antioxidants in improving meat quality. Br. J. Nutr. 78: p. S49-S60.

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24

The old Italian Merino‑derived breeds and their role in landscape conservation in typical production and in the maintenance of traditional culture

F. Panella1, F.M. Sarti1, E. Lasagna1, C. Renieri2 & M. Antonini3

1Università degli Studi di Perugia, Dipartimento di Scienze Zootecniche, Borgo XX Giugno 74, 06121 Perugia, Italy 2Università degli Studi di Camerino, Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Via Circonvallazione 93-95, 62024 Matelica (MC), Italy 3ENEA C.R. Casaccia UTS Biotec AGRO, Via Anguillarese 301, 00060 S.M. di Galeria (Roma), Italy

Summary

The old Merino-derived Italian breeds Gentile di Puglia and Sopravissana had a strong effect in the establishment of the technological, social and economic characteristics of the rural populations living in the Centre and South of Italy. As a matter of fact these breeds, once reared in large flocks (over 2,000 heads), constituted for centuries the main economic resource of those populations. Besides that, seasonal transhumance migration made a real contribution in shaping their social development. The presence of thousands of sheep from May to October had a definite effect on the determination of the present botanical composition of the mountain pasture and consequently the current landscape of the Appennine environment. The products of Gentile di Puglia and Sopravissana are high quality wool, “romanesco” and “canestrato” cheese, and lambs named “pasqualini”, “natalini”, “mulacchi”, “abbacchio”; all of these products have their own characteristics and can therefore be recognised for their real tipicality. During the last half century, these two breeds, which had a population of over 5,000,000 heads, suffered a dramatic drop; only a few thousand heads currently survive. In this context, all the economic and social aspects related to their rearing are endangered. It is easily observed that in many territories the characteristic flora has changed and, at the same time, the typical products mentioned above have become difficult to find. For this reason, a number of projects are being planned to save these breeds from extinction, by implementing more efficient selection strategies, monitoring the residual populations, providing economic support to the farmers who still breed them and setting up conservation flocks in regional and national parks.

Keywords: Gentile di Puglia, Sopravissana, landscape conservation, typical products, traditional culture.

Introduction

There are two ancient Merino-derived breeds still existing in Italy: Sopravissana and Gentile di Puglia. Although they once had large populations, in the last thirty years their numbers have decreased so much that both are currently in danger of extinction. The main reasons for this decrease were: use of synthetic textile fibres, low economic value of wool, selection of new breeds specialised for meat or milk, reclamation and agricultural

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development of the marshland pastures in Puglia, Toscana, and Lazio, depopulation of the mountains. Gentile di Puglia originated in 435 while Southern Italy was under Spanish domination. Local Apulian sheep were crossed with Merinos rams imported from Spain. The breed spread in the Basilicata, Calabria, Molise, Abruzzo and Campania regions (Sarti et al., 2002). Sopravissana originated in 1700 when some Merinos Rambouillet rams were given to Cardinal Adani and taken to the Appennino hills, in the Marche region, close to the village of Visso. They were mated with sheep of the local population called Vissana. The breed propagated over the Marche, Umbria, Lazio, Toscana and Abruzzo regions (Sarti et al., 2002). For centuries, these breeds had a strong influence on the landscape of those areas. Their products became very popular and typical. Moreover, transhumance, which was the management system of these breeds, had an enormous influence on the customs, the habits and the ethnological evolution of the population involved in their breeding.

Landscape conservation

At present, landscape have just an aesthetic value but also an economic one. As a matter of fact, beautiful landscapes offer income opportunities in the ecological and nature tourism business. Sheep play a basic role in modelling and sustaining the original landscape of the Appennino hills. The species that graze on the pasture are of great importance in defining its botanical composition because of the different ways in which they utilise the pasture species. Usually, cattle pull up the plants using their tongues at about 2 cm from the soil, in contrast to sheep which pull up the plants using their lips and thus cut the pasture in a very homogeneous way. Moreover, cattle require a large individual space, while sheep browse very close to each other and therefore utilise the pasture in a complete and tidy way. Another difference is that cattle dung patches are very large and persistent and can therefore cause an increase in nitrophilous flora. In the last twenty years during which the Sopravissana and Gentile di Puglia were substituted by more specialised sheep breeds, the shepherd was faced with many problems caused by the difficult adaptation of the new breeds to the hill environment. As a result, the flock management changed from transhumance to a permanent farming system. Therefore the hill pasture, abandoned or utilised by other species such as cattle, changed its botanical composition and, consequently, the landscape became different and less attractive. Under these circumstances, only the two ancient breeds would be able to restore the original features.

The traditional culture

The traditional management of these sheep breeds was mainly characterised by transhumance, which was carried out in different ways for the two breeds. In Gentile di Puglia, transhumance covered more than two hundred kilometres along the “tratturi” that were special large paths, approximately 100 meters wide, starting from Puglia and reaching the Appennino hills in Abruzzo. In Sopravissana, transhumance was made from the Lazio region, along the ancient roman “consolari” roads such as Flaminia and Salaria, to the Umbria and Marche regions (Liberale, 2000). In spite of those geographical differences, the influence that transhumance had on the human population involved in the two breeds was very similar. In fact, transhumance was like a bond between different geographic areas that reduced the cultural differences through the common purpose of the pastoral enterprise towards economic opportunities.

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Each year, a multitude of flocks and shepherds came and went, upsetting and recomposing small and large communities and influencing their social habits. In the villages with the strongest pastoral tradition, the matriarchal institution was widespread. The woman was the head of the family. She held the contacts with the territory, while also managing the poor financial resources left by the husband. Transhumance divided the year in two halves, each with a different way of life. Departure at the end of September was a sorrowful time for the divided families, coinciding with the sadness of the autumn season; then, the winter in Maremma or Tavoliere di Puglia, far from their native country, was the lowest and hardest period for men. Finally, in June, they returned home. Everything happened during the summer time: debt payments, marriage promises, enrolment of shepherds for the new season, maintenance of the houses, etc; even births were expected to take place in that period and a child born out of that period was called “the priest’s son”. At present the flocks are still practising transhumance but in a different way than in the past. As a matter of fact, the animals are transported up to the hills by trucks and managed by shepherds coming from different countries, mainly from the Balkans. Under these conditions it is clear that traditional culture will become only a sweet dream; but on the other side, the presence of animals on the pastures could continue to be a reality in the future.

Typical productions

In the second half of the 20th century, the market was essentially concerned with higher production. Due to the wool and to the small quantities of milk and meat produced by the two breeds, their economic potential was very low in spite of their high quality. At present there is renewed commercial interest in traditional products and therefore both Sopravissana and Gentile di Puglia could have great opportunities in this market.

Milk

The milk of the two breeds was used to make two typical cheeses: Canestrato, from Gentile di Puglia, and Romanesco, from Sopravissana. When the two breeds were substituted by more specialised ones, such as Sarda or Comisana, these cheeses continued to be produced but they seem to taste different, according to the consumers’ opinion, probably because of both genetic (breeds) and environmental (pastures) differences. The two breeds are able to produce very high-quality milk, as can be observed in Table , where the milk of Sopravissana is compared to milk of Sarda sheep, one of the most specialised breeds in this production. The Sopravissana product has significantly more fat (8.86 vs. 7.00) and more protein (6.70 vs. 5.58). It is also interesting to note that in the milk of this breed the number of somatic cells is less than one tenth of that found in Sarda, probably because of good resistance to sanitary problems that cause mastitis. Another difference can be observed between the cheese made with Sopravissana and Gentile di Puglia milk and that obtained from other

Table 1. Milk quality in Sopravissana and Sarda sheep. Fat Lactose Protein SCC % % % ,000/ml Sopravissana 8.86a 4.4 6.70a 32a Sarda 7.00b 4.83 5.58b ,500b SCC: Somatic Cell Count. a, b: P<0.01.

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specialised sheep milk. Although no experimental data are available, all the people involved in the sheep cheese industry who were experienced in the traditional Canestrato and Romanesco cheeses, affirmed that these products were characterized by a more intensive yellow colour and by a unique, excellent taste.

Meat

The typical meat product of the two breeds was lamb, named after the slaughtering period such as the Gentile di Puglia “Pasqualini” (Easter period), “Natalini” (Christmas time), “Mulacchi” (sacrificed after they were brought back home from transhumance on a mule). In other circumstances the lamb was named after the slaughtering method such as the Sopravissana “Abbacchio” (slaughtered by a cudgel blow in the nape of the neck). To verify the actual carcass and meat quality of Sopravissana and Gentile di Puglia lambs, a comparison was made (Sarti et al., 2001a) with Sarda lambs, which represent the most popular product in Italy. As reported in Table 2, Gentile di Puglia and Sopravissana lambs have a rather heavier skin as a consequence of their ethnological origin from the Merinos breed that was for centuries selected for wool production and therefore has a very abundant coat (Muñoz, 1994). The percentages of viscera, both edible and non-edible, were higher in Sarda. On the contrary, the dressed carcass percentage, that is the most important trait from the economic point of view, is higher in Gentile di Puglia and also, but not significantly, in Sopravissana. As regards the main commercial cuts (Table 3), it is possible to ascertain that the two breeds have a lower percentage of rack and slightly higher percentages of the other traits compared to Sarda. The most interesting differences are found in the quantities of the tissues (bone, fat and muscle) in the leg (Table 4): Gentile di Puglia and Sopravissana showed significantly higher percentages of muscle and lower percentage of bone compared to Sarda. Some differences can also be noted in meat quality (Sarti et al., 2001b). As a matter of fact, Sarda lamb meat (Table 5) has a lower water holding capacity (63.11) and, at the same time, a higher cooking loss (34.91) and a higher warner blatzer shear (2.74). All of these parameters demonstrate that the lambs of the two Merino-derived breeds have more tender meat. This characteristic is also confirmed (Table 6) by the collagen content that appears higher in the Sarda.

Wool

In Gentile di Puglia and Sopravissana, wool production was a very important economic factor, representing about 30% of the flocks’ total return. It should be pointed out that these two breeds were derived from the Merinos breed and were selected for wool production. In the last 50 years, the market price of wool dropped dramatically because of its substitution with synthetic fibres. As a consequence, there was a serious danger that the residual population would experience a drop in wool quality. Fortunately, a recent survey demonstrated that the average diameter of the fibres (Table 7) is very good and therefore this wool can still be utilised in the textile industry. This production is important for economic recovery because wool, unlike milk or lamb, is easy to collect and easy to process and sell in the typical products market.

Importance of restoring the breeds

The main interest in saving these two ancient breeds is to continue obtaining their products, such as milk for traditional cheeses, typical meat and fine-fibre wool. As a consequence, their

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Table 2. Percentages of the main slaughtering traits on net live weight.

Sarda Gentile di Puglia Sopravissana Skin 2.2a 3.2ab 5.5b Blood 6.a 5.3b 5.5b Stomach and intestines

9.5a 8.6b 8.6b

Edible viscera 7.0a 6.2b 6.2b Head 5. 5.5 5.5 Dressed carcass 53.0a 56.0b 53.4a

a,b: P<0.05. Table 3. Percentages of the main cuts on half carcass. Sarda Gentile di Puglia Sopravissana Neck 8.2a 8.8b 8.8b Shoulder .a 18.2b 18.5b Rack 20.2 9.5 9.6 Loin 8.7 9.0 8.8 Leg 35.0 35.2 35.0

a,b: P <0.05. Table 4. Percentages of the main tissues in the leg. Sarda Gentile di Puglia Sopravissana Meat 61.8a 64.9b 64.4b Bone 28.9 25. 2.2 Fat 6.6 6.9 5.8

a,b: P <0.05.

Table 5. Physical characteristics of the meat. Cooking loss WBS WHC % Kg/cm2 % Gentile di Puglia 34.30b 2.45 63.34a Sarda 34.9b 2.4 63.a Sopravissana 33.6a 2.36 64.84b

a,b: P <0,05. Table 6. Collagen percentage in the meat. Collagen

soluble Collagen insoluble

Collagen total

% % % Gentile di Puglia 0.015a 0.040 0.055a Sarda 0.021a 0.047 0.068a Sopravissana 0.012a 0.044 0.056a

a,b: P <0.01.

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presence on the pastures will allow to recover their original botanical composition and will therefore encourage tourism related to the beautiful landscape. Unfortunately, up to now, the only interest concerning the preservation of the two breeds was expressed by the academic-scientific world. Some projects (Sarti & Panella, 2000) have been carried out to establish their actual number and productive potential. The public administrators of agricultural policies started showing some interest in this subject a few months ago only. For example, the Lazio region began to give financial support for the rearing of the Sopravissana breed, and the Marche region is going to set up a Sopravissana conservation flock in the framework of the activities of the Sibillini National Park. But no action has been set up to support Gentile di Puglia so far.

References

Liberale, R., 2000. Pastorizia e tratturi in Abruzzo. Breve compendio storico, ARSSA.Muòoz, C.E., 1994. La raza Merina y sus cruces en la producciòn de carne. Ministerio de

Agricoltura Pesca y Alimentacion.Sarti, F.M., D. Bogani, E. Lasagna and F. Panella, 2001a. La salvaguardia del patrimonio

genetico delle razza Sopravissana: qualità della carcassa. Atti 36° Simposio Internazionale di Zootecnia, Portonovo (AN), 27 Aprile.

Sarti, F.M., D. Bogani, E. Lasagna and F. Panella, 2001b. La salvaguardia del patrimonio genetico della razza Sopravissana; qualità delle carni. Atti Convegno Nazionale “Parliamo di...zootecnia e sviluppo sostenibile”, Fossano (CN), 11-12 Ottobre, p. 99.

Sarti, F.M. and F. Panella, 2000. Ricognizione in alcuni allevamenti dell’Italia centrale per identificare la popolazione ovina residua di razza Sopravissana. Atti Convegno Nazionale “Parliamo di…allevamenti nel 3° millennio”, Fossano (CN), 12-13 Ottobre, p. 97.

Sarti, F.M., F. Panella, M. Pauselli, F.M. Sarti and E. Lasagna, 2002. Il divulgatore. Edagricole, Bologna, Italia.

Table 7. Wool fibre diameter. Fibre diameter (micron) Mean Min Max Gentile di Puglia 20.97 2. 30.69 Sopravissana 22.10 6.00 44.00

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Assessment of land use practices in mountain livestock farms: the case of farms producing milk for Beaufort cheese (Northern Alps)

A. Havet1, L. Dobremez2, Y. Pauthenet3 & A. Gaillot2

1UMR 1048 SAD-APT, INRA-INAPG, BP01, 78850 Thiverval-Grignon, France 2Cemagref UR Agricultures et Milieux Montagnards, BP 76, 38402 Saint-Martin d’Hères Cedex, France 3SUACI-GIS Alpes du Nord, 11 rue Métropole, 73000 Chambéry, France

Summary

In order to study the maintenance of an open landscape at farm level, knowledge of the determining factors in land use practices is required. An agronomic model that relates the constraints in the use of grasslands with their effective functions enables several hypotheses to be tested on land use by dairy farms in a valley of the Northern Alps. The application of the model reveals that land use and upkeep practices are often ‘not standard’. The farmers’ operating logics combined with the characteristics of their field patterns explain these results.

Keywords: land use, practice, environment, farm functioning, livestock farm, Northern Alps.

Introduction

Maintaining an open landscape in mountain areas is considered a major environmental problem (MacDonald et al., 2000), especially in the French Northern Alps (Fleury et al., 2001), a mountain under urban influence. The expectations of local stakeholders meet the requirements of the AOC cheese sectors as to milk quality (respect for food standards: no silage, limited concentrates) and land use practices (product image). Studying this challenge at farm level requires knowledge of the determinant factors of land use practices. Indeed, opening up the landscape is achieved by special land management methods, and not all farms have the same room for manoeuvre to achieve them. Several hypotheses are formulated concerning these determining factors: i) at field scale, the “mode d’exploitation parcellaire (MEP)” (Hubert, 1994), which is the field pattern use method over the agricultural year, has an impact on the control of scrub invasion and therefore on how far a landscape can be opened up; ii) difficult environmental conditions favour a simplification of land use practices, even a resort to the use of only those lands which are easier to use; iii) the strategic functioning of farms (Capillon, 1993), notably in terms of available manpower and equipment, contributes to clear land use choices. The study, conducted in the Tarentaise valley, on farms producing milk for Beaufort cheese, takes into account a model for relating the constraints to field use with their effective functions for the farmer and for environmental stakes (Havet et al., 2002). After the presentation of the study area, the information collection methods and the model, we will test the various hypotheses.

Study area and information collection methods

The study area, in the Tarentaise valley (Moûtiers and Bozel districts in Savoy), is characterised by considerable tourism activities: ski resorts in the winter and the Vanoise National Park in the summer are very attractive for tourists. In this area, a decline in the number of farms has been observed (7 out

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of 10 disappeared between 1979 and 2000; during this period the agricultural utilized area decreased by 12%). This context explains why there is a strong demand for landscape quality. In the studied area, dairy cattle farms constitute about half of the farms and use three quarters of the agricultural utilized area: these are the subjects of this work. Milk marketing is dominated by the Beaufort AOC cheese industry, which aims to assert the links between the high reputation of the cheese and the quality of the environment and landscape. The measures included in the collective Beaufort CTE (contract for implementing multi-functionality) go beyond AOC cheese specifications in order to change farmers’ practices: improving self-sufficiency in fodder, better management of cattle waste, more systematic upkeep of grazing lands. But these recommendations come up against work constraints for farmers who often have a combination of activities to perform. Twenty farms were surveyed in 2002 on the following topics: farm strategy, land use - through aerial photographs in order to identify the different farm blocks (groups of fields close to each other, with the same land use practices throughout the year; the uses and constraints as perceived by farmers, and the reasons for the choices made by farmers are investigated), land upkeep activities (according to the farmers’ perception of scrub invasion of their land), work organisation (groups of workers, tasks carried out and time spent, ‘typical day’ per season).

An agronomic model of field use

In the Marais de l’Ouest (Vendée, France), negotiations between protectors of nature and farmers on the use of land have led us to build a model linking the constraints in the use of grazing land and the risks faced by the farmer when he carries out the functions of these grazing lands in the farm (Havet et al., 2002). The context factors determining the constraints depend either directly on the field (physical, geometric, agronomic or legal characteristics of each field or characteristics of the immediate neighbouring area), or on the way in which the farm land is organised (distances and distribution). The functions of the fields - use of the grassland at a given moment - can be of three types: feeding animals (according to species or feeding requirement levels of the different batches of animals), grassland management (forage stores, pasture, fertilisation), work organisation (monitoring and handling animals). For example, a distant meadow may be used for spring grazing of suckler cows, causing a work overload for the farmer (because of fertilizer spreading) as it is a long way from the farmstead. Farmers’ practices for carrying out each function are assessed on a scale of risk (possible, ‘not standard’ or forbidden) defined by experts in a table where context factors are linked with grazing land functions. For example, the use of a distant field for grazing is characterized as forbidden for dairy cows in full production (continuous monitoring, although difficult to organise, is obligatory), as ‘not standard’ for young heifers or growing calves (continuous monitoring is difficult to organise but could be avoided), and as possible for the maintenance of dry cows (continuous monitoring is not necessary).

Results

Adjusting the model to the context factors and grassland functions in the Tarentaise

Thirty context factors were identified at grassland block level on the basis of the constraints mentioned by farmers concerning different uses. They can be classified into four categories:1. geo-morphological and pedological factors (slopes, altitude, exposure);2. factors linked to vegetation (quality of vegetation, scrub invasion);

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3. structural or geographical factors (parcelling, distance to the farmstead or to the milking site, accessibility for machinery);

4. factors linked to the environment of the block (proximity of fields within the block, presence of ski run, houses or water catchment nearby).

Sixteen grazing land functions emerge from farm surveys. They can be classified into three categories:1. animal feeding (young heifers, heifers or dry cows, dairy cows in ‘winter’ or ‘summer’ milk

production, according to the production period);2. grass management (hay cutting, regrowth, free pasture or not in the alpine summer pastures,

pastures at lower altitude, topping, turnout); 3. upkeep and fertilization (crushing, harrowing, scrub clearance by hand, organic fertilisation). Each of these functions is confronted by all the context factors (Figure 1): each intersection (a function x a context factor) refers to a level of risk for carrying out functions or MEP.

The “Modes d’Exploitation Parcellaire” (MEP) in the Tarentaise

The “Mode d’exploitation parcellaire” is the field pattern use method over the agricultural year at field scale (Hubert, 1994). For each block, the farmer has a consistent sequence of seasonal functions (spring, summer, autumn) over the agricultural year and thus creates different field pattern use methods. By analysing criteria such as hay cutting, grazing in different seasons, fertilization, grass renewal practices, location of blocks (in alpine summer pastures or not), the 200 field pattern use methods defined after the surveys can be grouped together into 40 MEP-types (Figure 2). For the implementation of each MEP-type along the year, a level of risk is given that considers only the highest level of risk for the different seasons. Thus, for the ‘steep slopes’ context factor, if the level of risk is ‘possible’ for the spring function, ‘not standard’ for the summer function and once

Figure 1. Example of intersecting between function and context factors: the function ‘feeding in spring dairy cows producing winter milk’.

context factors modalities level of risk explanation

geo-morphological and pedological

associated with vegetation

structural and geographic

associated with the block environment

hilly land, stones, terraces steep slopes

possible no risk for dairy cows

limited scrub invasion considerable scrub invasion more than 2 km away from the milking machine

few possibilities of a site for the milking machine

water catchment in close perimeter water catchment in distant perimeter

possible not standard

forbidden

forbidden

not standard

not standard

forbidden

not constraining for grazing

risks: thorns will damage the udders

high probability: thorns will damage udders + deterioration of milk hygiene the cows are obliged to walk and lose in milk production

the nearby pastures will be damaged if the milking machine cannot be moved very often

drinking water legislation

no milking machine (keeping animals in one place is forbidden)

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again ‘possible’ for the autumn function, the level of risk will be characterised as ‘not standard’ for the MEP-type which connects these three seasonal functions. In this way, the MEP for each block, described by its context factors, can be characterised by a level of risk. At farm level, the importance of the risks depends on the contribution of each block to grazing or to building up forage stores. Thus, risks may be taken on a block which has in fact made only a marginal contribution at farm level. Moreover, ‘not standard’ practices to implement a MEP do not mean that the context factors have no influence, but that other considerations have prevailed for the farmer. For example, hay making in meadows on a steep slope could mean that no other meadows are available and that the farmer accepts to face additional work requirements.

MEP‑types and scrub invasion

Farmers provided information about scrub invasion on more than 150 blocks. Farmers’ statements were confirmed in a few situations by observations in the field: the farmers’ versions do not differ and correspond well to the realities observed. Among the 60% of blocks characterized as ‘clean’, MEP-types integrating cutting hay or grazing alpine summer pastures are to be found. The 40% of blocks characterized as invaded by scrub are above all MEP-types integrating spring or summer grazing for heifers (except alpine pastures), even if mechanical cutting was used to renew the grass, and a few MEP-types based on grazing dairy cows. The first hypothesis of this work is confirmed: MEP and scrub invasion are not independent from one another: 1. MEP-types with hay cutting allow to control the scrub; 2. in alpine pastures, scrub invasion is possible in lower sectors only;3. the MEP-types involving grazing heifers are often located in distant blocks and/or on steep slopes

and the upkeep is not regular and/or not homogeneous on the whole block;4. the MEP-types involving grazing dairy cows are generally ‘clean’, except in a few farms with

limited manpower available and whose fields are charaterized by very strong constraints (steep slopes).

Environmental conditions and land use practices

In more than 75% of the blocks, there are risks to be taken (according to the above model). For MEP integrating hay cutting, the farms take risks on at least 50% of their cutting areas. In a steep slope context, risks taken are related to i) crushing (in more than 40% of blocks that concentrate on spring

Figure 2. Example of grouping several field pattern use methods into a MEP-type called ‘quite late to late hay + short to medium regrowth + grazing possible in autumn with organic fertilising’.

Key: DCG winter = grazing for dairy cows producing winter milk; HG = grazing heifers.

quite late hay short regrowth

1st cut 2nd cut (or 1st in summer) autumn organic fertilisation quite late hay medium regrowth DCG winter then HG in spring

quite late hay late hay late hay quite late hay

short regrowth medium regrowth short regrowth short regrowth

DCG winter

DCG winter then HG DCG winter then HG DCG winter

in spring in autumn in spring in autumn in autumn (+ mineral)

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grazing of dairy cows or heifers), ii) dung harrowing (in about 20% of alpine pasture blocks), and iii) hay cutting (in about 25% of blocks with hay cutting). Regarding the context factor ‘distance’, the problem for dairy cows pastures has been solved by farmers thanks to the mobile milking machine. The second hypothesis of this work is partly invalidated: farmers are usually required to go beyond the limits set by the context factors, even in difficult environmental conditions; in particular, they accept additional workload on slopes in relation to what would be necessary in a more favourable context. This explains, among others, why a lot of farmers state they are overloaded with work.

Functioning of farms and land use

The farms interviewed were classified into functioning types (Dobremez et al., 2002). Most of the farms practice summer grazing outside the farm: they entrust cattle to a pastoral association or to another farmer who manages alpine pastures. They can thus dedicate time to hay cutting in the summer and concentrate their milk production mainly in the winter. Inside this livestock system, the small farms (less than 15 dairy cows with low manpower) have MEP which are very demanding, because of a very restricted field pattern (mainly steep slopes): they are obliged to make hay by using a small motor mower and to clear scrub manually. The other farms rely on abundant manpower (up to 4-5 annual work units in the summer). Although they are obliged to to buy hay in order to cover part of their feed needs, they have ‘not standard’ MEP too: i) cutting hay on slopes when they do not have other choice, ii) cutting hay on meadows which are more 10 km away, in order to avoid cutting on steep slopes. The upkeep of pastures is often selective (where the crusher can go), but they can organise work teams to clear the scrub. The farmers who manage alpine pastures take other farmers’ stock to the pastures and have a lot of work in late spring and during the summer. They carry out ‘not standard’ MEP for dung harrowing and grass management in alpine pastures: the workload requirement is high in dairy alpine pastures even if there is a salaried workforce during the summer. The third hypothesis of this work is confirmed: the strategic functioning of the farm explains the assumption of risk concerning land use, in particular as regards the objectives related to land upkeep and forage self-sufficiency.

Conclusion

All the farms implement MEP that are ‘not standard’, such as cutting hay on steep slopes or on distant meadows and clearing scrub by hand: the strategic functioning of the farm and the available field pattern often explain these choices. The maintenance of open landscapes often entails changes of practices. The model developed may prove to be a good means for arguing such changes and emphasizing the risks that some farmers would seem obliged to face.

References

Capillon, A., 1993. Typologie des exploitations agricoles, contribution à l’étude régionale des problèmes techniques. Thèse pour l’obtention du titre de docteur, INA-PG, 58 pp.

Dobremez, L., E. Perret, F. Delattre and O. Camacho, 2002. Le maintien des paysages ouverts en montagne: une contribution différenciée selon les exploitations agricoles. Illustration en Tarentaise. Ingénieries-EAT spécial Aménités rurales: p. 53-65.

Fleury, P. and J.M. Dorioz, 2001. Sustainable agricultural land use in alpine regions (SAGRI-ALP). Final report (FAIR5 CT97-3798 project). GIS Alpes du Nord (France), FiBL (Switzerland), IASMA (Italy), ARU (Austria), AFI (Germania), 87 pp.

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Havet, A., E. Kernéïs, Y. Pons and C. Chevallier, 2002. Interacting grassland field and farm constraints: a method to analyse possible changes in grassland management. Grassland Science in Europe 7: p. 926-92.

Hubert, B., 1994. Pastoralisme et territoire. Modélisation des pratiques d’utilisation. Cahiers Agricultures 3: p. 9-22.

MacDonald, D., J.R. Crabtree, G. Wiesinger, T. Dax, N. Stamou, P. Fleury, J. Gutierrez Lazpita and A. Gibon, 2000. Agricultural abandonment in mountain areas of Europe: environmental consequences and policy response. Journal of Environmental Management 59: p. 47-69.

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The PDO Pélardon, the federator of new individual and collective dynamics

M. Napoléone1 & J.P. Boutonnet2

1INRA SAD Agroparc, Domaine Saint Paul, 84 914 Avignon Cedex 9, France 2INRA UMR Innovation, Place Viala, 34 060 Montpellier Cedex 1, France

Summary

This text analyses the individual and collective dynamics generated by the creation of a PDO goat cheese in the south of France. Surveys with farmers, processors and marketing professionals indicate distinct processes that differ between the farmhouse sector and the dairy sector. The PDO facilitates access to the national market for larger enterprises, thus freeing more than 30 % of the regional supply. This rapid increase in demand influences the farm-produced cheese sector, leading to a certain concentration on larger production units, which are able to rapidly position themselves in regional supermarkets and develop their technical systems for year-round production. On the other hand, smaller farms stick to more traditional production methods, and concentrate on local outlets and/or local traditional cheeses, for which the identification of origin by a PDO is not a necessity. As for the dairy sector, the importance of local governance for cooperatives and the difficulties in managing the seasonal nature of production led to a new qualification of their members’ production methods, legitimising a variety of technical systems.

Keywords: Controlled Designation of Origin, production systems, cheese production and processing, dynamics.

Introduction

This paper aims at analysing the dynamics resulting from the recent adoption of the Pélardon goat cheese PDO in the south of France. After a presentation of the Pélardon cheese production and processing PDO, we will focus on the evolution over time of the cooperative of Moissac, which makes up 30% of all Pélardon production, in relation to changes in its members’ production systems. Finally we will analyse the consequences of these developments for the rest of Pélardon production and processing. We will discuss the role that the PDO plays in: giving new meaning to scrubland and rough grazing in the most intensive systems; expanding sales in small and medium-sized supermarkets outside the production area; generating a certain concentration of production volumes on large cheese farms; restoring the meaning and legitimacy of the diversity of production systems within dairy production and processing.

PDO: Protected Designation of Origin, a quality sign founded on a link between a geographical origin, know-how and a precedent of production in the geographical area.

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Materials and methods

This text is based on investigations which took place in 20032. All marketing operators (other than farmers) and a sample of cheese-making farmers were interviewed: dairy plants, cheese manufacturers, wholesalers, retail outlets (chain retailers as well as individual shops). The semi-directive interview was focused on marketing policy: product, marketing channel, vertical relationship with deliveries and customers. Particular attention was paid to the reconstruction of the dynamics of the Cévennes cooperative, with emphasis on marketing and relationship with its members. Comprehensive interviews were carried out with farmers to understand how the production process is organised and how it has been developing since it was set up. The preferred method is narration: during the interview we note the way in which the farmer views the situation, judges it, explains it and links it to concomitant or past, collective or individual events. 40 cheese producers (out of 69) and 20 dairy farmers (out of 28) were interviewed, who are members of the cooperative situated in the historical area of the PDO. This text is based on the cross-disciplinary reading of these individual chronicles, as well as on the analysis of relationships between the evolution over time of the Cévennnes cooperative and the developments in its members’ production systems.

Results

A particular historical context: from the Cévennes to the Pélardon PDO

Pélardon is a traditional cheese from the Mediterranean Cévennes, which has been produced in a variety of peasant farms for a very long time. In the 1950s and 1960s, a handful of people in the Cévennes set up a dairy cooperative, in the context of an integrated economic and social development project. Peasant farming is gradually giving way to specialised livestock farming. Pélardon production is getting a new lease of life, locally, technically and socially. In the 1980s, the Languedoc–Roussillon region chose to promote a few traditional regional products. It “defined a technical regulation defining Pélardon and its manufacturing conditions” (A.D.P., 1996). In 1996, “120 producers were accepted by the regional approval committee and benefit from the logistical base of this brand name”. The area of production extends to the five departments of the Languedoc, in other words a much wider area than the original area of production of this cheese. In 994, in order to protect their product from industrial manufacture outside the area, producers and processors applied for the PDO. The PDO registration took place in August 2000 (Journal Officiel Décret, 2000). The delimited production area includes the Cévennes areas and Mediterranean-influenced rough pasture and scrubland of the five departments of the Languedoc-Roussillon. In spite of the fact that the denominated area is limited to these regions, the historical context generated a great diversity of geographical, social and economic situations, production structures and livestock practices. The specifications, which are the result of negotiations between producers, processors and the INAO, have to suit the greatest number of and be admissible on administrative criteria. After some years of negotiations, the stakeholders agreed to define two main objectives to form the basis of the specifications. On the one hand, to display traditional processing methods (unpasteurised and full cream milk; prohibition of freezing the curds; hand ladled curds), and on the other hand to display a desire to link the product to local traditional conditions (no silage, goats graze at least 210 days

2In the framework of a partnership project of the INRA DADP LR: J.P. Boutonnet and M. Napoléone, Coordinations d’amont et d’aval d’une coopérative laitière. Ajustement de la saisonnalité au sein de la filière; M.H. Van Mighliem, Dynamique et diversité de la production fermière (student engineer course); A. Benkhala, Organisation d’aval de la filière Pélardon (DEA Economics course).

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every year; 80 % of feed comes from the area. In fact, these clauses are more of an encouragement towards the use of grazing land than a real obligation3). These specifications establish rules which are benchmarks, and allow discussion between players in a very diversified sector.

The production and processing chain today

The region has 547 farmers with more than 20 goats. 450 farmers are tenant producers who process and market their products themselves (57 % in direct sales, 29% to retailers, 14 % to mass distribution). We will speak about the farm-produced cheese sub-sector. 97 farmers produce milk and/or curd that they sell, without processing, to collectors who then process them into cheese and market 100% of their products via mass distribution. We will also speak about the dairy sub-sector. 321 farmers are located in the geographical area of the Pélardon PDO (Gateau D. and Roux B., 2002). At the beginning of 2002, 108 producers (i.e. 34 %), including 39 dairy farmers and 69 tenants, joined the PDO scheme4. The PDO sector has 4 processors and /or cheese maturers on a relatively small scale if compared to the major industrial groups: two cooperatives, the Cevennes cooperative (28 members), the cooperative of Lodève (13 members), and two private processors collecting milk and/or curd from 10 to 15 farmers. In 2001, the total production of PDO Pélardon was 180 metric tonnes, of which 1/3 produced by the cooperative of Moissac. So it is a relatively small-scale traditional sector that has been reorganising itself since the adoption of the Pélardon PDO.

From a local cooperative to the national market

The cooperative, situated in the historical heartland of production, collects and processes the whole of goat milk from 28 producers, half of whom are administrators. Its history represents the evolution of a traditional logic towards an industrial logic:• 1956 – 1987: local cooperative selling the cheeses easily to a local clientele. A goat genetics

research station, integrated into the cooperative, gives technical impetus to the production systems.

• 1987 – 2000: periods of crisis and overproduction: the million-litre-processed threshold brings the product sales strategy into question. Local outlets are no longer sufficient. The cooperative tests sales to supermarket chains in the region. But it has to face the sluggishness of logistics procedures for access to these commercial platforms. On the other hand, the cooperative creates diversified products and encourages producers to develop off-season breeding in their herds, in order to spread supply and sales. However, in spite of the price structure and the distribution of models based on off-season breeding, supplies remain seasonal.

• Since 2000: opening up to the national market. The PDO accentuates the cooperative’s investment policy to adapt the production chain to specification standards. Their depreciation required an increase in processed volumes and the identification of new outlets. But the logistical effort to access supermarkets is too difficult for this small cooperative to sustain. Managers negotiate a commercial agreement for the sale of products with a cooperative union already offering a range of PDO and regional products on national platforms. Access to the national market represents real potential for selling the products, but in return requires delivery of regular volumes. Seasonality becomes a handicap for the cooperative even more than in the past, since any retention by freezing is forbidden by PDO specifications.

3The word pasture is not defined in the specifications. It may be interpreted as a simple letting out of the animals, with a virtually total input in the goathouse, or on the contrary as the main feed of the herd.4Source: Association de Défense du Pélardon.

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Effects on the evolution of the cooperative members’ production systems

The analysis of the farms’ evolution over the three periods previously described leads us to link the technical system with the cooperative’s dynamics.

Before 1987: two valleys, a cooperative, and a local goat station

Even though there was a certain diversity of production systems, producers adapted their production to the goat station model (births in the spring, herd managed in a uniform manner, use of forage in trough feeding). All the producers concentrated their reproduction practices in the spring. The cooperative was closed in the winter.

From 1987 to 2000: an explosion of technical models in the sector

Confronted with difficulties in sales, the enterprise sought to act on the seasonal nature of supplies: by having the dairy operating all year round; by establishing a pricing structure favouring winter milk. Most farmers developed their own management practices: • Some farmers move their births from March to January, keeping a period without deliveries

for goats to dry out.• Others try to move births to the autumn by synchronising heats. In general, two birth periods

are established, with varying degrees of success. Off-season breeding challenges certain rules of the valley’s dominant production model in the previous period; particularly those practices linked to the management of homogeneous herds, in a synchronised pattern, alternating normal phases of reproduction, gestation and lactation, and facilitating herd feeding and work organisation. Therefore, in this period we can see a certain “explosion” of technical models, without the station serving as local referent on new models. At the same time, in spite of these developments, the co-operative dairy plant continues with a lack of milk deliveries in the autumn. This becomes worrying for the management of the co-operative, resulting in many discussions among the members and the management staff. For most cooperative managers5 the production system with off-season births stands out as the method that will solve the supply problems. This model defines “what effort has to be made by the members for the benefit of the cooperative”, implying changes in reproduction practices that should be considered by the collective. This analysis serves as a basis for the characterisation of the farms. Three opposing categories emerge from the interviews:• Farms having a significant part of their herd with births in the autumn. They are perceived and

defined as farmers making efforts to comply with the co-operative’s requirements.• Farmers who have kept births grouped in late winter, and who can be perceived as not making

any effort in relation to the problem of supply in autumn.• Small pastoral herds which have only a low impact with respect to annual volume. The perception of diversity can lead to emphasize certain models at the expense of others and thus limit possibilities of cooperation. Without going into any further detail here, this way of qualifying the diversity of farms, distinguishing those who make efforts from those who do not, is a key element in local culture, built up in dairy enterprises that face difficulties in managing seasonal factors. A similar individual and collective process of development has been observed in

5Manager: a person involved in managing the cooperative: directors and administrators.

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the case of the cooperative at Crest producing PDO Picodon (120 members) (Napoléone, 2000), and the same categories of farming were defined by the same words.

After 2000, a new meaning to the diversity of production systems

The PDO, obtained in 2000, made access to national supermarket chains easier. As the supermarket chains require regular deliveries all year round and the PDO regulation does not allow frozen cheese, the need for autumn (off season) kidding became more and more meaningful. PDO is thus an indirect incentive to produce winter milk. In order to have out of season kidding, one farmer successfully tried the new technique of “light treatment” (artificial light in the building for inducing out of season oestrus). After 2 years of observation, 3 other farmers put this technique into practice in their farms. The feasibility of this new technique is precipitating the evolution process in the technical systems and worries the cooperative managers. A new risk is identified by cooperative managers: having too much autumn-winter milk, at the risk of unbalancing the payment structure, and no longer having sufficient milk in the summer6. At the same time, farming by applying the “210 days of grazing” clause, questions the idea of local conditions for the members. Most of the farmers hope to give a meaning to this clause by implementing “good” management practices. These farmers think that PDO is consistent with improved and sustainable techniques of land use. From a certain point of view, the PDO opens onto dynamics of land use and brings production systems closer to a sustainable use of land resources. So it seems that the risk of upsetting the balance of supplies, as perceived by the cooperative managers, and the encouragement of the PDO to use grazing land, is questioning the way of qualifying production system diversity on a less industrial and more territorial basis (as explained by Sylvander and Marty, 2000). New methods of coordination between producers and the cooperative for managing the distribution of supplies over the year are under discussion.

Discussion

This text is based on intervention research that is currently in progress. The three investigations on the consequences of PDO accreditation presented in this discussion are issues of debate with our regional partners:• PDO restores the meaning of rough pasture in the most intensive systems.• PDO reinforces the process of concentration in large farms in the farming sector.• PDO restores the meaning of diversity in the dairy industry.

PDO restores the meaning of rough pasture in the most intensive systems

A certain contradiction can be observed regarding the fact that the PDO indirectly encourages the largest farms to produce winter milk, while at the same time encourages the use of grazing land. In fact, shifting the reproduction period to winter often results in feeding milking-goats indoors with hay and concentrates. So these farmers give priority to the use of forage land to build up stocks of hay, rather than for grazing. If the quality is not high enough, the purchase of hay becomes necessary. Likewise, shifting to autumn milk production results in producing PDO milk from hay and concentrates, and exacerbates land pressure on areas that can be harvested.

6Which validates the conclusions we made in 2000, observing the dynamics of the Crest (Napoléone, 2000).

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However, farmers who commit themselves to increasing the volume of winter milk production are often already functioning in an intensive system of production, in which the use of grazing land is not a priority. Shifting to winter milk production can enable these farmers to reconcile both intensive production objectives and grazing requirements. Winter milk production enables these farmers to produce their milk in management conditions that they think sufficient (in the goathouse), and use grazing land – on available areas, i.e. not suitable for harvesting - as a means of starting up production again after 5 or 6 months of lactation. In these farms certain categories of land, such as scrubland, rough pastures and woods, which would not have been used by animals in spring production, will be more easily used with animals in autumn production. Farmers seem to pay more and more attention to grazing as a fundamental part of their production system. They wish to emphasise the relationships between flock management and land management. The way in which the resource is used, the organisation of the grazing periods throughout the year, feeding strategy, shepherding methods on the grazing lands, and fencing, are under debate among goat farmers in the region. A long process of learning and evolution of the farming systems is under way. On the long term, there is a potential for future revision of the code of practices of the PDO, in order to guarantee more specific practices.

The PDO reinforces the process of concentration in the farm‑produced cheese sector

Like other quality signs (labels, brands, IGP), the PDO enables distributors to segment the market, and have their products positioned on the shelves of small and large supermarkets, in the range of products with a traditional and /or local image (Agreste, 2001). Thanks to the PDO, regional supermarket outlets are indirectly increasing by /3. This important opening up of the regional market, about 2 years now, is an opportunity for producers and processors to develop, with the capacity to respond quickly to such an increase in demand, and supply milk to their customers all year round. Namely, other processing enterprises and /or maturers and wholesalers (insofar as these private structures are capable of developing their supplies), but also and above all the one or two largest goat cheese farms in the region. Conversely, the interviews that we carried out with producers of farm-produced cheese products stress that the PDO is not an argument in the case of direct sales to a local clientele that knows the producer and the product. Confidence in the farmer is in this case more important than the brand name to guarantee the origin (Sarter, 2002). On the other hand, the occasional customer asks for Pélardon in the marketplace that only PDO members can propose. It has to be recognised that only 35 % of farm cheese producers have become members of the PDO. Hence, the idea is put forward that in the farm-produced cheese sector, increase in regional demand, as a result of a cooperative’s access to the national market - leads to a development process of enlargement and concentration in the largest farms, which develop their position in supermarkets. A process that can consequently render the access to these markets more difficult for small and medium sized enterprises. The development of these small to medium farms is based on direct, confidence-based relations with the consumer, through the image of a traditional product made with traditional production methods; in this context, the PDO distinction is not indispensable.

An increase linked mainly to the access of the Cévennes Cooperative to the national market.

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Innovation and PDO restore the meaning of diversity in the cooperative dairy sector

If we consider the example of the cooperative of Moissac, the way of characterising farm diversity was, in a period of quite radical overproduction, mainly linked to off-season reproduction practices. However, technical difficulties led to a certain explosion of production methods and limited the distribution of this innovation in the 1990s. In the last two years instead, the diffusion of the bright light innovation has been amazing. Except for the incentive regarding price structure, there is no established system for regulation and coordination between farmers and the collection-processing cooperative other than reciprocal and interpersonal interaction. The rapid spread of this innovation brings the risk of late pricing structure for milk produced, and therefore delaying the period of under-supply to the end of the summer. The perception of these risks is leading cooperative managers to see diversity no longer as a handicap to be reduced by a dominant model, but as an asset on which they must rely to manage the seasonal nature of supplies. Production systems with births in spring, capable of maintaining their production in summer when the off-season herds are dry, become one of the tools for regulating the seasonality of supplies which is useful to stabilise. Thus there is a shift towards a different qualification of production systems. To stabilise milk collection a real assembly strategy is required, based on the characteristics and complementary nature of production systems. Here we are close to the organisation strategies of collection areas described by M. Le Bail concerning durum wheat production (Le Bail, 2001). Different types of agreement can be considered, depending on the production organisation methods and enabling the development of appropriate technical development patterns. We are thus observing new restructuring and mutual recognition between the different production methods. The PDO thus results in new interaction between dairy farmers and collection-processing structures; an interaction which is undoubtedly made easier when the structure has the status of cooperative.

Conclusion

It seems that the PDO is leading to two divergent development processes. In the farm-produced cheese sector, the PDO is a development tool for larger dairy farms, which subsequently tend to become intensified, but on the other hand it causes smaller, more traditional farms to retreat towards forms of marketing that do not involve the PDO. In the dairy sector an inverse process can be observed, namely that the maintenance of a certain diversity of production methods becomes a management tool for the distribution of supply, leading to new mutual recognitions and the concept of real assembly strategies making the best possible use of the diversity of traditional expertise.

References

A.D.P., 1996. Contexte de la production de Pélardon en Languedoc-Roussillon. Dossier de demande d’PDO. Association de Défense du Pélardon.

Agreste, 2001. Enquête sur les produits agroalimentaires sous signes officiels d’identification de la qualité et de l’origine. Ministère de l’agriculture, Paris.

Gateau, D.and B. Roux, 2002. Rapport sur la filière fromages de chèvre en Languedoc-Roussillon. INRA, Paris.

Journal Officiel de la République Française, Décret du 25 août 2000 relatif à l’appellation d’origine “Pélardon”. J.O. N° 197: p. 13107.

Le Bail, M., 2001. Spécificité locale pour un produit banal. Le blé dur destiné à la fabrication de pâtes alimentaires. Etudes et Recherches sur les systèmes agraires et le développement 32: p. 37- 50.

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Napoléone, M., 2000. Impact économique et social de la gestion de la saisonnalité de la production en élevage caprin laitier. Proceedings of the International Goat Conference, 15-18 May 2000, Tours, France.

Sarter, G., 2002. Appréciation des viandes de poulet au Maroc. Communication au colloque “Système agroalimentaire localisés: produits, entreprises et dynamiques locales”, 16-18 October 2002, Montpellier, France.

Sylvander, B. and F. Marty, 2000. Logiques sectorielles et territoriales dans les AOC fromagères: vers un compromis par le modèle industriel flexible? Revue d’Economie Régionale et Urbaine 3: p. 502-517.

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The contribution of grazing management to the conservation of bird habitats

E. Kernéïs1, M. Tichit2 & F. Léger2

1INRA SAD, Domaine de Saint Laurent de la Prée, 17450 Fouras, France 2INRA UMR INAPG SAD-APT, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris, France

Summary

This paper tackles the questions raised by the conservation of a multipurpose resource: ensuring both cattle feeding and bird habitat. An exploratory protocol on 19 fields was set up to assess the impact of different grazing regimes on sward structure during the spring. Their impact was assessed in relation to the optimal sward structure for nesting lapwing (Vanellus vanellus). Only 6 fields, with winter grazing and heavy grazing in early spring, displayed a sward structure coinciding with lapwing habitat requirements. Taking into account the habitat requirements of nesting lapwings suggests considering the delayed effects of diverse autumn grazing practices.

Keywords: bird habitat, lapwing, Vanellus vanellus, grazing practices, multiple use resources.

Introduction

Publics policies now recognise that livestock production can promote environmental objectives. For the remaining wet grasslands of the French Atlantic marshlands, the ‘Natura 2000’ EU regulation provides a statutory framework and incentives for their conservation, with a high priority on ornithological interests. The response of farmers has to be concrete in order for new grazing practices to be built, fulfilling both environmental and productive goals. The drainage and intensification of wet grasslands brought about a sharp decrease in the lapwing population over the last twenty years. Wet grasslands are a critical habitat for this ground nesting bird species. However, all grassland fields are not equally attractive and lapwings usually select fields with a particular sward structure. For nesting, a low sward height (3 to 5 cm) and sparse and occasional tussocks (5-15%) were reported as attractive (Milsom et al., 2000). A few tussocks are needed as a protection to the nests against predators and as a cover for the chicks (ibid). Since cattle graze these grasslands and have a direct impact on sward structure, it is relevant to wonder whether grazing management can steer sward-cover states to match the habitat requirements of lapwing (Hart et al., 2002). The purpose of this paper is to assess which grazing regimes can promote lapwing habitat as well as feeding resources for cattle. First, we present methods used to monitor the impact of grazing on sward state during the spring, with a particular emphasis on sward heterogeneity. Second, we evaluate sward structure created by different grazing regimes in relation to the habitat requirements of lapwing. We finally tackle the questions raised by the conservation or creation of a multipurpose resource: ensuring both cattle feeding and bird habitat.

Materials and methods

An exploratory protocol was set up in 2002 on 19 fields in order to assess the impact of grazing regimes on mean sward height dynamics during the spring. The selection of fields was

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0

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24/3 3/4 13/4 23/4 3/5 13/5 23/5 2/6 12/6 22/6 2/7 12/7

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Figure 1. Mean sward height dynamics during spring. Group A: circles (n=5 fields).Group B: squares (n=3 fields). Group C: triangles (n=6 fields).

determined by i) the need to sample a small range of soil/wetness conditions; and ii) a wide range of stocking rates. Between April st and July st, sward height was measured every fifteen days using a swardstick (Duru & Bossuet, 1992). Measurements were taken in each field while walking representative transects. About 60 to 80 height measurements/ha were necessary to give an accuracy of +/- 3 cm, based on 95% confidence limits. To analyse sward nitrogen content, biomass samples were taken at 3 cm above ground using a hand motor-mower (4 repetitions 0.25m²). To assess stocking rate, data were collected monthly by interviewing farmers. Sward height data were split into 4 height classes and processed through a heterogeneity index (Burel & Baudry, 1999). Heterogeneity is given by

( ) ( )( )∑−= jipjipH ,log,

where i and j are height classes and p(i,j) is the probability to have two adjacent height classes along the transect. Heterogeneity increases with the number of height classes together with their spatial distribution (fragmentation).

Results

Four groups of mean sward height dynamics were identified. In group A (5 fields), mean sward height increased progressively during the spring (21-32 cm), whereas it remained relatively stable in group B (3 fields: 17-21 cm). In group C, mean sward height decreased in mid-spring, subsequently reaching again its initial level by the end of spring (6 fields: 11-9 cm) (Figure 1). Such evolution was in sharp contrast to that of group D (5 fields), presenting a highly fluctuating mean sward height (17-30 cm) at different dates during the spring (results not shown). Changes over time of the heterogeneity index seemed to match somehow that of mean sward height. In groups A, B, D, heterogeneity was high and increased during the spring (0.61<H<0.84), while it remained lower in group C (0.16<H<0.55) (Figure 2). For three groups (A, B, D), we can say that at no period did grazing allow the creation of a sward structure potentially attractive to lapwing in early spring. Only group C showed a mean sward height coinciding with lapwing habitat requirements until mid-spring. These fields were winter grazed (until 6th of February) with low fertiliser. Nitrogen nutrition index (NNI) was slightly

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Figure 2. Mean heterogeneity index dynamics during spring. Group A: black line. Group B: dot line. Group C: grey line. For details on number of fields and dates of measurements, see Figure 1.

lower than 50%, indicating that nitrogen availability (related to soil and fertilisation practices) may have limited sward growth. In early spring, fields were grazed by suckler cows with one cycle during the spring. An intensive defoliation (8 Livestock Units/ha during 15 days) limited regrowth until mid-spring. Short patches (0-5cm) accounted for 30 to 60% of sampled points, indicating a situation of overgrazing as a result of which the farmer did not have to regulate excess production by cutting. In groups A and B, fields were continuously grazed by heifers at a low average stocking rate during the spring (0.7 LU/ha, 1.0 LU/ha, respectively) and NNI was also lower than 50%. Thus grazing pressure was insufficient to control sward-cover state at a level favorable to lapwing. Group D corresponded to rotationally grazed fields by dairy cows. Fields were more fertilised (NNI close to 80%), leading to higher sward height in early spring. Stocking rate (March-April) varied greatly among fields (1.5 LU/ha to 4.3 LU/ha) and short patches after grazing never represented more than 15% of points.

Discussion

Managing sward height for livestock rearing as well as for lapwing habitats involves trade-offs. When birds arrive in the Atlantic marshlands by the end of winter, grasslands are not yet grazed because of low soil carrying capacity. The sward structure of fields with shorter areas suitable for lapwing is likely to be influenced by the grazing pattern of the previous autumn or winter. To maintain a short sward height during early spring, a low fertilisation associated with an intensive defoliation seems to be necessary. However, winter grazing and heavy grazing in early spring are not feasible in all farms, because the grazing pressure in autumn is allocated according to forage stockpiling as well as to grass availability constraints in the livestock system. Dairy farmers who feed cows mainly with grass silage in the summer, may limit grazing intensity in the autumn on some fields to secure grass silage in the following May. At marshland scale, a diversified sward structure results from several farmers acting independently for their own purposes. Taking into account the habitat requirements of nesting lapwings thus suggests considering the delayed effects of diverse autumn and winter grazing practices. In conclusion, the management of pastoral and environmental resources challenges our current models. They should include the effects of short-term selection by grazers on the long-term evolution of habitat characteristics. New on-farm research is also needed, since the management of bird habitats requires creating and sharing a set of different resources on extended time and space scale.

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References

Burel, F. and J. Baudry, 1999. Ecologie du paysage: concepts, méthodes et applications, Editions TEC & DOC, 359 pp.

Duru, M. and L. Bossuet, 1992. Estimation de la masse d’herbe par le “sward stick”. Premier résultats. Fourrages 131: p. 283-300.

Hart, J.D., T.P. Milsom, A. Baxter, P.F. Kelly and W.K. Parkin, 2002. The impact of livestock on Lapwing Vanellus vanellus breeding densities and performance on coastal grazing marsh. Bird Study 49: p. 67-78.

Milsom, T.P., S.D. Langton, W.K. Parkin, J.D. Hart and N.P. Moore, 2000. Habitat models of bird species’ distribution: an aid to the management of coastal grazing marshes. Journal of Applied Ecology 37: p. 706-727.

2

Multicriteria environmental assessment of contrasting pig farming systems

C. Basset-Mens & H.M.G. van der Werf

INRA, UMR Sol Agronomie Spatialisation, 65 rue de Saint Brieuc, CS 84215, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France

Summary

In France, the image of the conventional intensive mode of pig production is very poor because it is associated with environmental degradation. Alternative and more extensive ways of pig production exist, certified by a quality label, such as organic and «Label Rouge» (LR). However, the environmental impacts of these systems have not yet been assessed. The aim of this study was to produce a multicriteria environmental assessment of three contrasting pig farming systems: conventional Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), LR and organic, using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. Average, favourable and unfavourable scenarios were defined and evaluated for each production mode for the following impact categories: eutrophication, climate change, acidification, terrestrial toxicity, energy use, land use and pesticide use. Two functional units (FU) were used: impacts were expressed per kilo of pig produced and per hectare. The choice of the FU strongly affects results. We propose that the choice of the FU be adapted to the impact category: one hectare for regional impacts and one kilo of pig for global impacts. Expressing results this way, the organic scenario appears better for regional impacts (except for terrestrial toxicity for which it is equivalent) and the GAP scenario is better with respect to global impacts. LCA allows to identify “hot-spots” for each system. Systems using straw litter based housing, such as organic and LR, are worse as regards climate change (3.38 kg CO2-eq/kg of pig for LR, 3.94 for organic versus 2.3 for GAP). Acidification is one of the major drawbacks of the GAP scenario (80.1 kg SO2-eq/ha for GAP versus 36.7 for LR and 38.2 for organic). Pesticide use is a common disadvantage of GAP and LR. Additionally, all the scenarios contribute to heavy metal accumulation in the soil. Finally, the use of favourable and unfavourable scenarios appears to be an effective way to estimate the general uncertainty of LCA results.

Keywords: Life Cycle Assessment, organic agriculture, pig production, quality label, uncertainty.

Introduction

In Brittany (France), the successful development of intensive pig production since World War II has led to severe degradation of the environment. The multiplication of pig production units with historically limited access to land has led to a saturation of the territory, linked with a major imbalance between manure production and spreading possibilities. Adding to this the hydrological sensitivity of Brittany, the first identification of environment degradation was confirmed during the 1980’s. Water is polluted by high nitrate concentration (Cahart et al., 999; Aminot et al., 2001), phosphorous, heavy metals (Trolard et al., 2002) and pesticides. Soils have been affected by accumulation of phosphorous (Schvartz et al., 1997; Coppenet et al., 1993), and heavy metals (Trolard et al., 2002; Daumer et al., 2001) and by a reduction of organic matter content (Walter et al., 1995). The air is polluted too: Brittany produces 16% of the national emission of ammonia

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(Fontelle et al., 1994) on 6% of the national agricultural surface and pigs are responsible for more than 35% of this emission (Le Droff, 2000). Hence, the current pig production model is in crisis. Although alternative and more prospective farming systems are favourably considered by society, none of these have yet been assessed for their environmental impact as far as pig production is concerned. An evaluation of current and prospective farming systems should include an estimation of the uncertainty of the main results in order to allow an assessment of its significance by political and technical stakeholders (Huijbregts et al., 2001; Guinée et al., 2002). However, in practice very few LCA studies include an uncertainty analysis (Ross et al., 2002) and there is a need to develop simplified methods to allow practitioners to take it into account. Among environmental assessment approaches, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been identified as a valuable tool for the environmental evaluation of farming systems (van der Werf & Petit, 2002). According to this approach, the potential environmental impacts of a product are assessed by quantifying and evaluating the resources consumed and the emissions to the environment at all stages of its life cycle, from the extraction of resources, through the production of materials, product parts and the product itself, and the use of the product to its reuse, recycling or final disposal (Guinée et al., 2002). The objectives of this study are to explore the diversity of pig farming systems using LCA with a prospective view and to assess the robustness of the results. We are facing the following methodological issues: • How should the studied field be covered? • How should contrasting farming systems with different degrees of optimisation be described

and how should an environmental inventory be carried out?• How should the uncertainty of final results be assessed? This paper proposes a scenario-based approach for the environmental assessment of contrasting farming systems including an estimation of the uncertainty of the results.

Materials and methods

Evaluation methodology

This study only deals with the processes up to the farm, and production on the farm. Two functional units (FU) will be used to express results: one kilo of pig produced and one hectare.

Farming system scenarios

Two future production modes have been identified by experts of the pig processing industry: one for facing a very competitive world market and the other for responding to the social demand for more respect of the environment and animal welfare. An optimised conventional scenario represents the first case. For this scenario we assume that farm production practices correspond to good agricultural practice (GAP). Two alternatives are proposed for the second case: an optimised organic scenario and a French quality label called “Label Rouge” (LR), intermediate between GAP and organic. The organic system respects the French version of European rules for organic animal production (CC-REPAB-F, August 28th 2000) and the European rules for organic crop production (CEE n° 2092/91 – Council of June 24th 1991). In the GAP scenario, pigs are raised at high density in a slatted-floored confinement building. In the organic and LR scenarios, pigs are born and raised outdoors until weaning, and in an open-front straw-litter building at low animal density after weaning. The three scenarios strongly differ with respect to their intensification degree (feed efficiency, age at slaughter, surface per pig) and their management options (Table 1).

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Data acquisition

Data on crop production, feed composition and system performance are based on statistics, estimates by experts and data from growers’ associations. Ammonia emissions due to the application of ammonium nitrate fertiliser are estimated according to ECETOC (1994). Estimations of ammonia emission after slurry application are from Morvan and Leterme (2001) and those of ammonia emission after the application of solid manure are adapted from United Nations (1999). Ammonia emission after compost application is neglected (Piorr & Werner, 1998). Nitrous oxide emissions (for crops and outdoor paddocks) are estimated according to Mosier et al. (1998). Emission of NOx-N (with x = 1 or 2) and emission of PO4-P as run-off in surface water (for crops and outdoor paddocks) are estimated according to Rossier (1998). Losses of NO3-N to groundwater have been estimated according to the risk analysis methodology proposed by Cattin et al. (2002), adapted to regional conditions in Brittany. The production of excreta for each system was quantified with the simplified Corpen balance model (CORPEN, 2003), based on the feed to gain ratio and the protein content of feed. Ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions from slurry in pig buildings are from IPCC (1996) and UNECE (1999). For LR and organic, ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions from the straw litter system are based on recent experimental data (Robin, 2002). Methane emissions due to enteric fermentation and housing type are from IPCC (1996). Nitrogen losses and ammonia emissions during compost production are adapted from Texier and Levasseur (2001) and Ekinci et al. (2000). Nitrous oxide and methane emissions during composting are adapted from Paillat (2002) and Tricot et al. (2000). Ammonia and nitrate emissions for outdoor paddocks are adapted from Anonymous (1995) and Barré (2001). We assumed that 50% of nitrogen and phosphorus of sow faeces was taken up by the meadow, the remaining 50% by the following crop (maize or meadow without animals).

Impact assessment

The environmental impact categories considered in this study are: eutrophication (in kg PO4-eq), climate change (in kg CO2-eq), acidification (in kg SO2-eq), terrestrial toxicity (due to heavy metal accumulation) (in kg 1.4-dichlorobenzene-eq), energy use (in MJ Low Heating Value (LHV)-eq),

Table 1. Characteristics of GAP, LR and organic pig farming systems. GAP LR Organic Weaned piglet production Housing Slatted floor Outdoor Outdoor Weaned piglet/productive sow/year 25.5 22.6 20.3 Weaning age, days 25. 28 42 Surface per sow, m2 <4 000 1 000 Feed per sow (boar included), kg/year 33 1 490 695 Finished piglet and porker production Housing Slatted floor Straw litter Straw litter Minimum surface per porker, m2 0.85 2.6 2.3 Weaning to slaughtering feed: gain ratio

2.7 (2.56 – 2.86) 2.9 (2.7 – 3.1)2 3.2 (2.96 – 3.37)

Slaughter age, days 4 190 95 Slaughter weight, kg 110 5 120

Averages of upper and lower thirds of the conventional population (ITP, 2001). 2Expert judgement (producers’ organisation).

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land use (in m2/year) and pesticide use (in kg of active ingredient). Eutrophication, acidification, and terrestrial ecotoxicity potentials were calculated using characterisation factors by Guinée et al. (2002). Global Warming Potential for a 100 year time horizon (GWP100) was calculated according to the GWP100 factors by IPCC (Houghton et al., 1996). Energy use was calculated using the Lower Heating Value proposed in the SIMAPRO 1.1 method (PRé Consultants, 1997).

Uncertainty analysis

Based on expert judgement and bibliographic references, key parameters of technical performance (weaning to slaughtering feed to gain ratio, crop yield) and emissions (emission of NH3 and N2O from buildings, storage and composting, and emissions of NH3 and NO3 at the field level) were identified. For each of these parameters, high and low values were defined in addition to the default reference value. High and low values were chosen to reflect realistic rather than extreme values, so that the uncertainty interval defined by these values would contain 60% to 70% of the variability for the parameter concerned. The values corresponding to better technical performance (e.g. higher yield) and lower emissions were labelled “favourable”; conversely, values reflecting poorer performance and higher emissions were labelled “unfavourable”. By combining on the one hand all “favourable” values for key-parameters in a “favourable” scenario, and on the other hand all “unfavourable” values in an “unfavourable” scenario, we obtained two sub-scenarios (“favourable” and “unfavourable”) for each farming system, in addition to the result for the main scenario (use of reference values for the key parameters). These two variants are proposed as indicators of the overall uncertainty of each scenario.

Results

Per kg of pig, eutrophication is less for LR (0.0162 kg PO4-eq) than for GAP (0.0208) and organic (0.0215) but this difference does not seem to be very significant when taking into account uncertainty intervals (Figure 1). When expressed per ha, the organic scenario leads to a 40% reduction of eutrophication in comparison to GAP. Expressed per kg of pig and integrating uncertainty intervals, climate change for LR and organic is high (3.38 kg CO2-eq and 3.94 respectively) compared to GAP (2.3). Per ha climate change is larger for LR than for GAP and organic. Acidification per kg of pig is almost equal for GAP and organic (0.0435 and 0.0372 kg SO2-eq respectively) and significantly higher than for LR (0.0223). When expressed per ha, acidification is similar for LR and organic and significantly lower (divided by two) than for GAP (38.2 kg SO2-Eq/ha for organic, 38.4 for LR versus 80.1 for GAP). The GAP scenario thus presents a clear “hot-spot” for acidification. When expressed per kg of pig, terrestrial toxicity ranges from 0.0165 kg 1.4-dichlorobenzene-eq for GAP and 0.0175 for LR to 0.0297 for organic. Per ha, the three scenarios are similar for terrestrial toxicity. Indeed, copper and zinc are not banned in organic rules of production. The lowest energy use per kg of pig is for GAP (15.9 MJ), followed by LR (17.5) and organic (22). The energy use per ha is higher for GAP (29282 MJ/ha) and LR (28830) than for organic (22587). For land use, per kg of pig, a sizeable difference is found between GAP (5.43 m2/year) and LR (6.07) on the one hand, and organic (9.74) on the other hand. Land use is a clear “hot-spot” of the organic scenario due to lower crop yields and a higher feed to gain ratio. Both per kg of pig and per ha, pesticide use is less for organic than for GAP and LR. Pesticide use is not nil for organic because 10% of conventional ingredients can be used in organic feeds.

25

Discussion

Average results and estimated uncertainty differ according to FU (Functional Units, see section Evaluation methodology) and scenarios. The FU “kg of pig” favours the most productive systems, while the FU «hectare» favours the less intensive systems. When results are expressed per hectare, impacts for the organic scenario are generally similar to or lower than those for the other two scenarios. This is a valuable result for regional impacts such as eutrophication, acidification and pesticide use. Conversely, the GAP scenario presents better results for global impacts such as climate change, energy use and land use when results are expressed per kg of pig. If we consider that the choice of the FU should be linked with the impact category (one ha for regional impacts and one kilo of pig for global impacts), the organic scenario seems better for regional impacts and the GAP scenario better for global impacts. None of the scenarios is globally better or worse for all impacts. Straw litter housing systems as used in the organic and LR scenarios present a handicap with respect to climate change linked with N2O emission, a very potent gas for climate change. A major handicap of the GAP scenario is its contribution to acidification. Ammonia emission from buildings and fields contributes almost equally to this situation (results not shown) despite the fact that the applications of slurry were optimised in comparison to current practice. All three scenarios contribute to heavy metal accumulation in the soil. The use of favourable and unfavourable scenarios based on realistic but not extreme values for key parameters appears to be an interesting approach for estimating the uncertainty of LCA results. However, it implies using qualified estimates by experts, or adapted references, to define favourable and unfavourable values for key parameters.

References

Anonymous, 1995. Mesure de l’impact des élevages de truies plein air sur l’environnement et recommandations de conduite d’élevage. Chambre d’Agriculture de la Mayenne, DDAF de la Mayenne.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O G L O

Reference Unfav. Fav.

Eutrophication Climatechange

Acidification Terrestrial toxicicty

Energyuse

Landuse

Pesticideuse

kg ha

G= Good Agricultural Practice; L= Label Rouge; O=Organic

kg kg kg kgha ha ha kg kgha ha

Figure 1. LCA results and estimated uncertainty expressed per kg of pig and per ha (in percent of average results for GAP) for three contrasting scenarios of pig farming systems.

26

Aminot, A., C. Belin, A. Chapelle, J.F. Guillaud, M. Joanny, A. Lefebvre, A. Ménesguen, M. Merceron, J.Y. Piriou and P. Souchu, 2001. L’eutrophisation des eaux marines et saumâtres en Europe, en particulier en France. Rapport IFREMER DEL/EC/01.02 pour la Commission Européenne, DG.ENV.B1.

Barré, C., 2001. Devenir de l’azote des pissats de vache émis sur une prairie pâturée. Thèse de doctorat Biologie et Agronomie, Ecole Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Rennes.

Cahart, P., L.R. Burgard, A. Joly, C. Rogeau, J.J. Benetiere, A. Gravaud, P. Le Bail and J.P. Vogler, 1999. Rapport d’évaluation sur la gestion et le bilan du programme de maîtrise des pollutions d’origine agricole. Tome 1. Rapport de synthèse. Ministère de l’Economie, des Finances et de l’Industrie, Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’Environnement, Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche, Paris, France.

Cattin, G., L. Guichard, Ph. Jannot, E. Justes, F. Laurent and J.M. Machet, 2002. Lessivage des nitrates en systèmes de cultures annuelles. Diagnostic du risque et propositions de gestion de l’interculture. COMIFER, Groupe Azote, 41 pp.

Coppenet, M., J. Golven, J.C. Simon, L. Le Corre and M. Le Roy, 1993. Evolution chimique des sols en exploitations d’élevage intensif: exemple du Finistère. Agronomie 13: p. 77-83.

CORPEN, 2003. Estimation des rejets d’azote, phosphore, potassium, cuivre et zinc des porcs. Influence de la conduite alimentaire et du mode de logement des animaux sur la nature et la gestion des déjections produites.

Daumer, M.L., P. Peu and J. Martinez, 2001. Les apports de métaux et d’éléments traces par les effluents d’élevage et leur devenir. In: Les Nouveaux défis de la fertilisation raisonnée, G. Thevenet and A. Joubert (editors), COMIFER, GEMAS.

ECETOC, 1994. Ammonia emissions to air in western Europe. European Chemical Industry Ecology & Toxicology Centre, Brussels, Belgium, Technical report 62.

Ekinci, K., H.M. Keener and D.L. Elwell, 2000. Composting short paper fiber with broiler litter and additives. Part : effects of initial pH and carbon/nitrogen ratio on ammonia emission. Compost Sciences and Utilization 82: p. 160-172.

Fontelle, J.P., N. Audoux and J.P. Chang, 1994. CORINAIR France 1990. Estimation des émissions de polluants atmoshériques (SO2, NOx, COVNM, CH4, CO, CO2, N2O, NH3). CITEPA, Service de l’environnement industriel du Ministère de l’Environnement.

Guinée, J.B., M. Gorrée, R. Heijungs, G. Huppes, R. Kleijn, A. de Koning, L. van Oers, A. Wegener Sleeswijk, S. Suh, H.A. Udo de Haes, H. de Bruijn, R. van Duin and M.A.J. Huijbregts, 2002. Life cycle assessment. An operational guide to the ISO standards. Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg and K. Maskell, 1996. Climate change 1995: the science of climate change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Huijbregts, M.A.J., G. Norris, R. Bretz, A. Ciroth, B. Maurice, B. von Bahr, B. Weidema and A.S.H. de Beaufort, 2001. Framework for modelling data uncertainty in life cycle inventories. Int. J. LCA 6: p. 127-132.

IPCC, 1996. Intergovernmental panel on climate change. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Reference Manual. Document.

ITP, 2001. Résultats Gestion Technico-économique, ITP, Paris, France.Le Drof, E., 2000. Bilan global des émissions d’azote gazeux d’origine agricole en Bretagne.

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Mosier, A., C. Kroeze, C. Nevison, O. Oenema, S. Seitzinger and O. van Cleemput, 1998. Closing the global N2O budget: nitrous oxide emissions through the agricultural nitrogen cycle. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 52: p. 225-248.

Paillat, J.M., 2002. Rapport d’avancement action AC42c: effet du compostage d’effluents porcins sur les émissions gazeuses et les teneurs en éléments polluants. Programme porcherie verte.

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Robin, P., 2002. Maîtrise des émissions gazeuses en bâtiments sur litière. Validation en élevages des résultats acquis en station expérimentale. Rapport final première année, Convention DERF-INRA.

Ross, S., D. Evans and M. Webber, 2002. How LCA studies deal with uncertainty. Int. J. LCA : p. 4-52.

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Téxier, C. and P. Levasseur, 2001. Compostage des déjections des porcs à l’engrais élevés sur différents déchets ligneux: sciure, copeaux ou écorce. Techniporc 24: p. 23-30.

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29

Economic indicators in extensive sheep farms in the dehesa system in Spain

M. Escribano, A. Rodríguez de Ledesma, F. Mesías & F. Pulido

Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de Extremadura, Ctra. Caceres, s/n, 06071 Badajoz Spain

Summary

Animal production systems in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula are characterized by extensive livestock farming. Data for the present study were collected during a survey in the year 2000 from 96 dehesa (Semiarid rangelands in the southwest of Spain) sheep farms in Extremadura (region of SW Spain), following a randomized sampling design for a confidence level of 95%. We studied the stocking rate effects on a number of economic indicators for each farm. The sample involved a total of 96 093 sheep, in an area of 61 391 ha. The data were analysed for three stocking rate levels: low (<0.25 Livestock Units (LU)/ha), medium (0.25-0.5 LU/ha), and high (0.5 LU/ha). The differences were compared by analysis of variance, following the GLM procedure.

Keywords: rangeland, extensive farming, stocking rate, sheep, economic analysis.

Introduction

The dehesas are typical rangelands in the SW of Spain. They are characterized by semi-arid conditions, with annual rainfall between 400 and 600 mm, and by extensive farming management. These systems are conditioned considerably by pasture production, which is low both in quantity and quality. A suitable and sustainable management of livestock in these farms requires an adjustment of stocking rates to suit the orographic, edaphic, and climatic features of the farms. Sheep farming systems in Extremadura are usually linked to the exploitation of dehesa pastures, whether woodland or treeless land. Merino is the most common sheep breed, which together with other autochthonous livestock species is able to graze in semi-arid zones. Traditional systems present distinctive characteristics with respect to others, mainly in terms of high-quality livestock production capability. Dehesa systems should be mainly oriented towards high-quality products, as this is becoming an important consumer demand (Sañudo et al., 1998a, b). These systems must also provide a balance between the animals and the grazing resources. On the other hand, when the extensive sheep system maintains a balance with the natural environment, it becomes a sustainable method of production. Manure, for instance, improves the soil quality of the dehesa, and shrub grazing contributes to effective fire fighting. The stability of the system, however, is currently conditioned in extensive sheep farms by low profitability, seasonality of production, and the difficulties faced by the meat market. The sheep-and-goat Common Market Organization (CMO) reforms (1989 and 1992) led sheep farming systems to reduce their technical productive parameters, by increasing their dependence on European Union (EU) subsidies. Since Spain joined the EU, the behaviour of these systems has changed towards the intensification of production as a way of improving their competitiveness through stocking rate increases, because of subsidies per animal. One of the main obstacles when studying sheep farming systems is the lack of economic information about the structure of agroforestry systems in general, and of the dehesa in particular. This lack of information greatly determines

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the effects that the agrarian and environmental EU policy might have in dehesa ecosystems. The economic and forestry statistics concerning dehesas are deficient in global terms (Pulido & Escribano, 1995). Data on the technical characteristics and economics of farming systems in rural areas are important and essential for developing strategies (Schwalbach et al., 2001) and for studying the impact of different policies in animal production (Braker et al., 2002) The economic information available on dehesa sheep-farming is limited to a number of microeconomic territorial analyses for different years and study areas. These works, which analyse different dehesa systems, do however provide key information about their economic structure and management (Campos & Sesmero, 1987; Coelho, 1994; Prieto et al., 995; Pulido et al., 1998; Pérez et al., 1999). There is a clear conflict between the private sector, which focuses on immediate financial income, and the goal to improve the natural resources. The management of this heritage has to be based on the capacity to extract resources while maintaining the productive potentialities of the dehesa, without driving the system to irreversible deterioration or imposing unrealistic costs. In this paper we study the economic structure of dehesa systems by analysing a number of indicators of capital, production, and profitability for sheep farms in Extremadura. This paper is part of the Research Project “Study of the CAP Reform Impact on Extensive Livestock Farming in Extremadura”, financed by the Ist Extremaduran R&D Program.

Materials and methods

The method applied consisted of a survey on a sheep farm population following a random sampling design for a confidence level of 95%. The survey was carried out in the first semester of the year 2000. The effects of stocking rate levels on financial incomes are analysed. We used three stocking rate levels as a classification variable: low [<0.25 LU/ha of Useful Farming Surface (UFS)], medium (0.25-0.5 LU/ha UFS) and high (0.5 LU/ha UFS). These indicators refer UFS that includes pasture and crop land. Grouping variables generated in this study were based on criteria taken from technical-economic literature or from earlier studies (Campos, 1993; Martín et al., 2001; Prieto, 1995; Pulido & Escribano, 1995). The differences between stocking rate levels for each economic indicator were determined by means of analysis of variance following the GLM procedure. Group differences were measured by means of Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test.• Economic method. An economic analysis of the structure, composition, amount of stock, and

flows of resources involved in agribusinesses is the starting point to know how a territorial unit functions. The goal is the sustainable management of the system resources. The initial analysis is based on the application, at a microeconomic level, of the European system of Integrated Economic Accounts (SEC) and its subsequent development to agrarian systems, with particular reference to the agroforestry systems represented by the dehesas (Campos, 1993; Eurostat, 1995), and with the adjustments and the development of indicators carried out within the framework of the EU research project EEC, CAMAR CT 90-0028.

• Capital indicators. For the development of the present work we consider fixed capital (FKt) to be the monetary value of the long-term goods of the system. It was determined by inventories for each type of capital in the analysed farms. The fixed capital of an agrarian system can be classified into four types: land (FKld), infrastructure (FKif), machinery (FKm), and livestock (FKli), in accordance with the following formula (Campos, 1993):

FKt= FKld + FKif + FKm+ FKli = KFte + FKex. The fixed land capital consists of the value of the fertile soil, together with the value of the

improvements that have been made to it. The infrastructure capital consists of the goods and investments that do not constitute an increase in the production of vegetation. The infrastructure

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includes the installations, fencing, buildings, watering points, and tracks and roadways. These two types of capital are linked to the physical area of the farm and constitute the territorial capital (FKte). The machinery fixed capital consists of the vehicles, motors, sheepfolds, implements and tools that in the period (t) are considered to have a monetary value. The livestock fixed capital consists of the breeding stock. These two types of capital are easily modulated by management decisions, and constitute the exploitation capital (FKex).

• Flow indicators. The flows of goods and services of the system are made up of the current economic resources of the period studied. Several costs occur when performing a productive activity which generates economic utility. The total cost (TC) is made up of the current cost (CC) and the cost represented by the depreciation of the fixed capital as a consequence of its use during a given productive period, usually called annual amortization of the fixed capital (AK). Thus, the total cost is given by: TC= CC +AK. For the present work, we calculated the contribution to the current costs of the total costs of raw materials (RMt) and the part of this latter cost due to re-use (RMr), the labour costs (LC), and external services (EXS). In short, the current cost is made up of the re-used raw materials and the external current cost (ECC):

TC = RMr + ECC+ AK The gross product (GP) of an agrarian system is made up of the level of intermediate product

(IP), i.e. the product generated by one agrarian subsystem and used by another in the production phases in period t, and of the utilities generated corresponding to the final product (FP). In these systems, the final product basically consists of the sales of the production generated. GP= IP + FP

• Income structure. The generic term of farm net margin (NetM) expresses the difference between the gross product and the total costs incurred in a production period. This is a key indicator in measuring the direct effect of the farm management, without the external effects of market or income regulation, measuring the direct influence of the market on income. Agrarian productive activities, especially stockbreeding, receive subsidies (Sb) for income losses, which currently regulate their commercial activity. From this public regulation of commercial margins, the farm net surplus (NetS) is obtained. The annual income from productive activities, or annual net value added to the cost of the factors of production (NAVfc) is made up of the surpluses obtained by the owners and the income that is generated by work: NAVfc= NetS+LC. The farm profitability rate (Pr) is obtained as the ratio between the net surplus and the immobilized capital. This indicator, under equal conditions of management and with no major fluctuations in the market of productive utilities, is conditioned to a great degree by the fluctuations in land prices. It is also a useful indicator to distinguish between different management models of the dehesa. Pr = NetS/K * 100

Results and discussion

Table 1 gives details on the fixed capital of the analysed farms. The mean value is 4250 Euros/ha. It can be observed that 9.9% is territorial capital, with the mean land value being .4% of the total capital. Livestock represents only 5%, and farm capital 8.1%. These data on the fixed

Glossary of methodology:FKld=land fixed capital; FKif=infrastructure fixed capital; FKte = territorial fixed capital; FKli = livestock fixed capital; FKm = machinery fixed capital; KFex = exploitation capital; FKt = total fixed capital.RMr = re-used raw material cost; RMt = total raw material cost; EXS = external services cost; LC = labour costs; CC = current cost; TC = total cost; IP = intermediate product; GP = gross product; FPs = final production sales; NetS = farm net surplus; Sb = farm subsidies; NAVfc = net added value of productive activities.

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capital structure of Extremaduran sheep farms are in accordance with those found in other dehesa studies in the 1980s and 1990s (Campos, 1993; Coelho, 1994; Pulido et al., 1998; Prieto et al., 1995). Comparing the different stocking rate levels, it can be deduced that those farms with higher stocking rate levels show greater overall values of fixed capital due to infrastructure, machinery, and breeding stock. As the levels of stocking rate decrease, there is an increase in the percentage of the total capital corresponding to land capital. Therefore, farms with a high level of stocking rate, which would correspond a priori to those with a smaller territorial basis, modulate their fixed capital structure by management decisions aimed at achieving competitive levels of income, in an attempt to minimize the weight of the land value. It may be assumed that the great weight of the land capital item in the total fixed capital structure in these dehesa sheep farming systems has led, since the 1980s, to major capital gains as a consequence of the land price increases and, consequently, to very high rates of current profitability (Pulido & Escribano, 1994). Table 2 lists different flow indicators of costs, production, and monetary margins of the analysed farms. They are expressed in Euros/ha of UFS. It can be seen that raw material costs in systems with high levels of stocking rate reach 375 Euros/ha, double those of the farms with medium or low stocking rate levels. There is no significant difference between the medium (187 Euros/ha) and low (161 Euros/ha) stocking rate levels. The costs from external services have a similar behaviour. No significant differences were observed in relation to different stocking rate levels in labour costs (LC), which had a mean value of 72 Euros/ha. While the mean value of the total costs was 432 Euros/ha, significant differences were found (P<0.001) between groups, with the higher stocking rate values being twice those of the lower levels. There is a similar behaviour in the gross product values reached by the system: the mean value is 478 Euros/ha, and there are highly significant differences between groups. These differences are to a great extent due to the sales of the farm final product, but not to the intermediate product (re-use), which is independent of the stocking rate level. It can consequently be stated that the higher the stocking rate, the higher the value of the production that is generated per ha UFS. Low commercial margins and an increase in the farm net surplus can also be observed, basically due to the farm subsidies, which have a mean value of 108 Euros/ha. The farms with greater stocking rates receive the highest subsidies values (Sb). The owners of these farms try to compensate their higher production costs, mainly labour and feeding costs, through the subsidies per ewe. These differences in the level of subsidies affected the net added value behaviour among the different groups with a significance of P<0.05. Salaries were not significantly different among

Table 1. Fixed capital as a function of stocking rate levels.

Stocking rate levels (Euros/ha total surface area)

% Total fixed capital

Indicators High Medium Low Total Sig. High Medium Low Total Land 3,013 3,062 3,011 3,035 ns 63.8 2.4 78.7 .4 Infrastructure ,56a 866ab 610b 873 * 24.5 20.5 5.9 20.5 Territorial 4,170 3,928 3,620 3,907 ns 88.3 92.8 94. 9.9 Livestock 349a 92b c 23 *** .4 4.5 3. 5.0 Machinery 204a b 88b 130 ** 4.3 2.6 2.3 3. Exploitation capital 553a 303b 204c 343 ** . .2 5.3 8.1 Total fixed capital 4,23a 4,23b 3,825b 4,250 ** 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 *, **, and *** indicates significant differences at the 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 levels, respectively. NS = non-significant. Different letters in the superscripts of a given row indicate significant differences between groups.

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the three stocking rate levels. Consequently, the overall net added value mean was 226 Euros/ha, reaching 380 Euros/ha in the higher stocking rate group and 115 Euros/ha in the lower stocking rate group. The system seems to be more efficient (values of GP and NetS) when farms have stoking rate values over 0.5 LU/ha, despite their higher CC and TC values. It was also necessary to analyse in detail the farm structure, establishing income indicators and linking the cash flows to the immobilized capital in the productive processes. Although previously no significant differences had been found in the intermediate production levels, structurally (Table 2) these contribute decisively to the gross product generated at low stocking rate levels, which is about 4.%. This indicates that, as the livestock production systems are made more extensive, an increase in the re-use of materials takes place. Namely, there is less dependence on the external consumption of raw materials, mainly concentrates for feeding, making these systems more dependent on the grazing resources. Likewise, as the stocking rates increase, so do the RMt costs. No specific references are made to this fact in the bibliography dealing with the technical and economic analysis of dehesa systems, since the existing studies have been based on case analysis and methodological adjustments. Nonetheless, similar conclusions have been established in the case of Iberian swine (Pulido & Escribano, 1994,1995), in the analysis of the stocking rates in dehesas of the Pedroches Valley (Pérez & Porras, 1983), and in a simulation where the systems were subjected to a reduction in pasture production in dehesas of Salamanca (Prieto, 1995; Prieto & Martín, 1994). At the same time, the LC/TC ratio decreases as the stocking rate increases, falling from 20.92% to 11.85%, although one no significant differences are found in the monetary value of the Labour Cost.

Conclusions

In the sheep farms analysed, it was found that 91.9% of the fixed capital is territorial capital, with the mean value of the land fixed capital being 71.4% of the total. Farms with high levels of stocking

Table 2. Economic indicators as a function of stocking rate.

Stocking rate levels (Euros/ha UFS) Indicators High Medium Low Total Sig. Re-used raw material cost 42 43 44 43 ns Total raw material cost 35a 187b 6b 23 *** External services cost 6a 6b 36b 2 *** Labour costs 9 66 62 2 ns Current cost 583a 320b 259b 34 *** Total cost 662a 35b 300b 432 *** Intermediate product 42 43 44 43 ns Gross product a 44b 296b 478 *** Final production sales 66a 301b 226b 380 *** Farm net surplus 289 36 53 54 P<0.1 Farm subsidies 180a 9b 5b 108 *** Net added value of productive activities 380a 202ab 5b 226 *

*, **, and *** indicates significant differences at the 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 levels, respectively. NS = non-significant. Different letters in the superscripts of a given row indicate significant differences between groups.

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rate have lower surface and high overall values of fixed capital due to infrastructure, machinery, and breeding stock. Farm capital is very low with respect to territorial capital. Hence, business management practices have a low impact on the overall capital structure, which is highly conditioned by price variations of the land. It was observed that greater stocking rates correspond to greater values of the production generated per ha, and to greater costs in raw material and external services. The systems most strongly conditioned by the level of subsidies relative to income were those subjected to high stocking rates, and are also those that generate lower levels of income from work.

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Martin, M., M. Escribano, F.J. Mesías, A. Rodríguez de Ledesma and F. Pulido, 2001. Extensive systems in animal production. Arch. Zootec. 50: p. 465-489.

Pérez, F.J., M. Puerto, J.D. Vargas and M.A. Aparicio, 999. Componentes de las producciones y de los costes de los corderos en zonas adehesadas. Investigación Agraria, Serie Producción y Sanidad Animal, p.117-128.

Pérez, J.L. and J.C. Porras, 1983. Primer balance de la suplementación en las explotaciones de dehesas de Sierra Morena: datos globales. II Reunión Científica sobre Nuevas Fuentes de Alimentos para la Producción Animal. Publicaciones del Departamento de Economía y Sociología Agrarias, MAPA, INIA, Córdoba, Spain.

Prieto, A. and L. Martín, 994. Incidencia de la PAC en las rentas de sistemas agrosilvopastorales (dehesas) de Salamanca. IV Congreso de Economía Regional de Castilla y León, Burgos, Spain, p. 9-34.

Prieto, A., 995. Analysis of the technical and economic management of the dehesa system in the border region between Spain and Portugal. In: Environmental and land use issues in the Mediterranean Basin: an economic perspective, L.M. Albisu and C. Romero (editors), Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk, Kiel.

Prieto, A., F. Pulido and M. Escribano, 1995. El ecosistema dehesa en el contexto de la PAC. In: La competitividad del sistema agroalimentario ante la liberarización de los mercados, Valencia, Spain.

Pulido, F. and M. Escribano, 994. Análisis de los recursos de pastoreo aportados por el medio en dos dehesas características del SO de la provincia de Badajoz (Spain). Arch. Zootech. 43: p. 239-249.

Pulido, F. and M. Escribano, 995. The dehesa system. Analysis of typical dehesas of south west of Spain. In: Environmental and land use issues in the Mediterranean Basin: an economic perspective, L.M. Albisu and C. Romero (editors), Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk, Kiel, p. 463-473.

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Pulido, F., M. Escribano, F.J. Mesías and A. Rodríguez de Ledesma, 1998. Analysis of dehesas with multiple use. Physical and economic indexes of sustainable management. In: Basis of the quality of typical Mediterranean animal products, J.C. Flamant (editor), Wageningen Pers., EAAP Publication 90: p. 81-87.

Pulido, F., M. Escribano, F.J. Mesías and A. Rodríguez de Ledesma, 999. Use of energetic resources in sheep-pig farms in dehesas of south-west Extremadura. Options Méditerranéennes 39: p. 269-23.

Sañudo, C., G.R. Nute, M.N. Campo, G. María, A. Barker, I. Sierra, M.E. Ensener and J.D. Wood, 1998a. Assessment of commercial lamb meat quality by British and Spanish taste panels. Meat Sci. 48: p. 91-100.

Sañudo, C., A. Sánchez and M. Alfonso, 1998b. Small ruminants production systems and factors affecting lamb meat quality. Meat Sci. 49: p. 29-24.

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287

Sheep and goat farming practices in a hilly and mountainous area of South Greece (Messinia)

G. Zervas & M. Samouchos

Department of Animal Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, GR-11855, Athens, Greece

Summary

The objective of this work was to study the currently practiced dairy sheep and goat farming system, based on the utilization of extensive unimproved grazing lands, in a hilly and mountainous area of South Greece, and to underline its potential, trends and limitations. The extensive sheep and goat production systems applied in the studied area are based mainly on natural grazing, which provides a significant part of the animals’ energy and CP requirements. However, the stocking capacity and the stocking rate of these grasslands are low. There are also nutritional fluctuations throughout the year, which limit animal performance, due to seasonal production of natural vegetation. The state ownership of rangelands, which does not allow their rational management, reduces their sustainability in the long term.

Keywords: dairy sheep - goats, grazing land, upland areas, farming system.

Introduction

The studied prefecture of southern Greece, named Messinia, with a long history and tradition in

26.3% hilly and 37.3% mountainous, or into 45.6% cultivated, 27% grazing land and 20% forest. More precisely, 64% of the cultivated land is covered by olive tree grooves, 11.3% by fruit crops (mainly figs) and vegetables, and only 3% by crops (cereals and alfalfa) for feedstuffs production. The average farm size in the whole prefecture is 3.2 ha, whilst in the upland areas it is 8.3 to 15.4 ha, but of lower productivity. The great majority (74%) of the farms are involved in pure agriculture, whilst the rest 26% are mixed farms (livestock and crops, mainly olive trees). The main activity of the studied area is production of olive oil and Kalamatas’ (well known) olives of high quality (organic and conventional), followed by farming of 200,000 local dairy breeds of sheep and indigenous goats, 5,500 cattle, 15,000 pigs and 700,000 poultry. Sheep and goat milk is used by the 25 local cheese-making plants and transformed into “Feta” and “Sfela” cheeses. Furthermore, about 23% of the milk produced is processed into yoghurt and other milk-containing traditional products for self- and local consumption. Sfela cheese has a local connotation of origin and quality; it is made from non pasteurised sheep and/or goat milk, it is characterized as semi-hard white cheese and is kept in brine in wooden barrels to mature with an average chemical composition of 31% fat, 59% dry matter, 20.5% crude protein, 2.25% soluble protein and pH 4.74 (Anifantakis, 1993). The objective of this work was to study the practised sheep and goat farming systems in the prefecture in order to identify their potential, limitations, sustainability and contribution to landscape conservation.

animal husbandry, has 30,000 ha total land area, which is roughly classified into 36.4% lowland,

288

Materials and methods

A survey was conducted on 32 sheep and/or goat farms, selected at random among similar enterprises, which represent the studied area as widely as possible. The farmers were interviewed with an open answer questionnaire on inputs and outputs, production, management, economics and constraints of their farms. The stocking capacity of the grazing land was estimated after herbage production and herbage intake determination. Herbage production was measured as described by Zervas et al. (1999), by cutting in each grazing area ten quadrates (50x100 cm) at ground level with scalpels, at three harvest days: mid-March, mid-April and mid-May. Sward height was also determined as the average of 50 individual recordings with the HFRO Stick (Barthram, 1986) evenly distributed in each grazing area. Herbage intake of sheep was determined once a month, using the n-alkanes method (Dove and Mayes, 1991). Estimations with feed balance data were also carried out to calculate the contribution of home-grown or purchased feeds to the animals’ mean annual requirements in dry matter (DM), energy and crude protein (CP), by taking into account the actual performance data of the animals, like annual milk yield, prolificacy index, growth rate of lambs/kids etc.

Results and discussion

Sheep and goat production systems applied to the upland area of Messinia are extensive and nutrition is based on natural grazing and supplementary feeding. Rangelands consist mainly of grazelands and shrublands. Grazelands, which are mainly natural and of low quality, receive neither applications of artificial fertilizers nor agrochemicals, and no agricultural management other than grazing throughout the year. Grazing on olive grooves is also practised by some sheep farms after olive harvest and tree pruning in order to reduce the seasonal vegetation under the olive trees. The average herbage DM production was found at 2952 (se:191) kg·ha-, with a mean energy and CP content of 5.76 (se:0.09) MJ NEL·Kg- DM and 75 (se:1.1) g·kg- DM respectively. The average intake of herbage DM was calculated at 1.12 Kg DM·d-, with DM digestibility coefficient of 0.682. The stocking capacity was thus estimated to be 1.04 LU·ha- (se:0.1) (min 0.8 - max 1.58), whilst the actual stocking rate in the studied upland areas is about 0.65 LU·ha- at present. The average farm size is 157 (se:22) females with a mean annual milk yield of 113 (se:12) kg and prolificacy index of 1.17. The average suckling period of lambs and kids is 47 and 65 days respectively, with a daily growth rate of 295 and 207 g respectively. On an annual basis, the ingested forage from grazing provides on average 73.4 (se:2.4)% and 124.1 (se:2.2)% of the animals’ energy and CP requirements. Forages (alfalfa hay and straw) and concentrates (cereal grains, soybean meal, wheat bran, sugar beet pulp etc) are used for supplementary feeding. These forages covered 12.6% (se:1.9), 9.5% (se:1.5) and 21.3% (se:3) of the total DM, energy and CP animals requirements, whilst the corresponding values for the concentrates were 11.1 (se:1), 17.1% (se:1.4) and 16.4% (se:2.5). Furthermore, the great majority (~90%) of the supplementary feeds are purchased and only the rest 10% is home-grown. This is mainly due to the fact that a lot of sheep/goat farmers are landless. The seasonal production of natural vegetation, which limits the availability of fodder, makes farmers more dependent on conserved forage feeds and more reliant on supplementary feeding, which consequently makes it hard to achieve satisfactory economic performance (Zervas, 1998). The seasonal nutritional fluctuations, with regard to quantity and quality, also limit animal performance. The average gross revenue of those farms is distributed to milk by 54%, to meat by 32.6% and to subsidisers by 13.8%.

289

The main constraints of the sheep/goat sector are the existing farm structure, the low prices of animal products, the state ownership of rangelands which creates many problems to their rational management, the low productivity of the animals and the grazelands, the inadequate or unbalanced nutrition, the relatively limited use of advanced technology (e.g. machine milking) and the aging of the farmers, which is connected to the lack of interest of young people for succession. The combination of these constraints has negative effects on the biological, socio-economic and environmental sustainability of the whole production system.

Conclusion

The low-intensity livestock production systems described above, despite their constraints and limitations, should be maintained in the upland areas of Greece because they are responsible for the management of large areas of seminatural habitat of high nature conservation value. Their abandonment threatens their sustainability and therefore more incentives should be given to these farmers to encourage them to remain there and farm with nature. However, the management of rangelands should be improved in order to make the whole production system more viable and sustainable.

References

Anifantakis, E., 1993. Cheese Making. Agricultural University of Athens, 1st edition, p. 270-279.Barthram, G.T., 1986. Experimental techniques: the HFRO Sward Stick. In: HFRO Biennial

Report 1984, p. 29-30.Dove, H. and R.W. Mayer, 1991. The use of plant wax alkanes as marker substances in studies

of the nutrition of herbivores. A review. Austr. J. Agric. Res. 42: p. 93-952.Zervas, G., 1998. Quantifying and optimizing grazing regimes in Greek mountain systems. J.

Applied Ecology 35: p. 983-986.Zervas, G., J. Hadjigeorgiou, G. Zabeli, K. Koutsotolisand C. Tziala, 1999. Comparison of a

grazing - with an indoor - system of lamb fattening in Greece. Liv. Prod. Sci. 6: p. 245-25.

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Chapter 5: The search for local avenues for sustainable development of

livestock farming systems: trails and trials

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293

Diversity of dairy systems and products in France and in Europe: the assets of less favoured areas

A. Pflimlin, C. Perrot & P. Parguel

Institut de l’Elevage, rue de Bercy 149, 75595 Paris Cedex, France

Summary

The less favoured areas (LFA) of the EU-15 are mainly located in humid mountains and nearby grassland plains, as well as in the Mediterranean countries. Permanent grassland and rough grazing represent 75% of their AA (Agricultural Area) and are used by herbivore farming for milk and meat production. In 2000, about half of the dairy cows, two thirds of the suckler cows and 90% of the ewes and goats were found in these three livestock areas. Starting from the observation that many products, in particular the most famous cheeses, have been developed in these regions which are characterised by serious constraints related to soil and climate, the authors present the hypothesis that these harsh environments have favoured the diversity and maintenance of these “quality”, or at least differentiated, products. An analysis of the French case for the three dairy sectors (cow, goat and ewe) shows that quality products – grouping together PDO (Protected Designation of Origin), Organic and farmhouse products – concern 20, 50 and 90% of the dairy farmers respectively. As for their location, a good correspondence is found between the percentage of farmers in a quality sector and the proportion of land with a serious natural handicap, a fact that emphasises the importance of strategies developed by farmers to transform natural constraints into economic (making good use of natural resources) and commercial (recognition of the specific characteristics of the products) assets. In order to transform these specific features into commercial added value credible with the consumer, it is often necessary to create a synergy between a particular environment with characteristic forage resources and a breed and herd management adapted to this environment, so as to make cheese that expresses the special properties of the milk without minimising health requirements. These specific features must also be recognised and protected on the European and the world market, even if they are only small-volume niche markets. Finally, appropriate recognition and support from public authorities would be necessary for these regions and sectors, which fulfill all the prerequisites for sustainability and multi-functionality.

Keywords: dairy systems, quality products, less favoured areas, diversity, Europe.

Introduction

Until quotas were introduced in 1984, dairy production in Europe was highly developed in areas of arable plains on the Atlantic coast and the North Sea, at the expense of more traditional livestock areas, notably grassland areas in the plains and mountains. Since then, this evolution has slowed down considerably, even slightly reversed for some mountains which have succeeded in developing cheese industries of high added value and which have also benefited from specific political measures. This evolution meets two expectations:• Expectations by part of the consumers who are ever more demanding as to the product, its origin,

and the method and context of its production, including respect for the environment and animal well-being; consumers who have a high purchasing power, at least in Western Europe.

294

• Expectations of farmers in these less-favoured areas with recognised natural handicaps, who often have no alternative to livestock farming: they cannot risk direct competition from intensive flatland areas, led by a powerful dairy industry seeking cheap, standard raw material.

Starting from the observation that many of the most famous cheeses survived and developed in regions with serious constraints related to climate and soil, we will present in this article the hypothesis that it is difficult environments that have established their brand name and favoured the diversity and maintenance of these “quality products”, or at least differentiated products. In the first part, we will present the distribution of European dairy systems by major geographical areas, defined by the level of soil and climatic constraints and illustrated by typical cheese productions. This approach will be refined in the second part by a more precise presentation of French dairy systems and cattle, sheep or goat industries, and the corresponding value enhancement by cheese making. In the third part, we will discuss conditions for the potential development of these quality products, more particularly in the so-called less-favoured livestock rearing areas, often characterized by small structures. Which arguments and what kind of support should be developed in order to preserve these systems and their traditional know-how, and restore confidence in these livestock regions faced with intra-European and world competition?

Diversity in European dairy farming: importance and specific features of less favoured areas

Thirty-five years after the introduction of the Common Market, and in spite of a common agricultural policy favouring productivity, specialisation and standardised production methods - at least during the first twenty years - there is still a great diversity of herbivore farming systems at European level. This diversity survives, first of all, because herbivore systems are still very much linked to natural conditions, which themselves are very varied in terms of climate, soil, altitude, slopes etc. It is also the fruit of history and of the local socio-economic context, which has, or has not, been favourable to the development of quality product sectors. This is why physical geography and history will be our two main tools for understanding dairy farming systems. The physical geography of Europe has been shaped by two mountain chains, the Hercynian and the Alpine, which form a virtually continuous mountain backbone from the Sierra Nevada in the South of Spain to the Carpathians in Romania, with two offshoots, the Apennines and the Balkans. The Southern slope of this spine descends very rapidly to the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, whilst the North-West is markedly gentler, leaving room for wide, more or less fertile plains. Climate adds to this North-South divide by opposing Mediterranean Europe and its long summer drought to the rest of Europe which is relatively temperate. What is more, at country and regional scale, relief attenuates or amplifies the effects of climate and the type of soil, arable or not, and conditions the place of grassland and livestock farming (Limouzin, 1996). In this way, five major livestock areas can be identified: humid mountains, the Mediterranean area, lowland pastures, forage crops areas alternating with arable crops areas without livestock, and the Nordic regions (Pflimlin et al., 1997). A grouping of European administrative regions (NUTS 2 designation) according to some fairly limited criteria of environment and land use, makes it easier to define the relative importance of the different livestock areas and their principal features (Pflimlin & Todorov, 2003) (Table 1). This is still only a roughly defined grouping, as certain regions have both fertile plains and more or less steep mountains (Bavaria, Lombardy, etc.). It has recently been refined with departmental data (NUTS 3) crossed with the less favoured areas (Pflimlin et al., 2005). It can be noted that the first three areas (humid mountains, Mediterranean area and grassland area), contain 70% of the livestock farms, more than half of the dairy cows, 90% of the goats and

295

Tabl

e 1.

Dis

trib

utio

n of

live

stoc

k fa

rms,

land

are

as a

nd a

nim

als b

y ge

ogra

phic

al a

rea

in E

urop

e (E

U o

f 15

– 20

00).

To

tal E

urop

e (in

1,0

00) a

nd d

istr

ibut

ion

in %

.

Less

favo

ured

are

as

Are

as

Tota

l M

ount

ain

Oth

er

AA

Pe

rm. p

astu

re

Tem

p. p

astu

re +

fo

dder

cro

p D

airy

co

ws

Suck

ler c

ows

Ewes

G

oats

To

tal

(,0

00)

2,32

0 70

0 3

2 2

6,

3 44

,558

2

,930

20

,578

,95

69

,325

9,

387

Wet

m

ount

ains

2

42

2

3

2

2

4

Med

iterr

ane

an re

gion

s 30

45

25

35

30

4

2

18

50

83

Low

land

pa

stur

e 18

2

4

35

24

29

3

34

2

Fora

ge c

rop

area

s 25

30

28

4

39

40

2

9

Nor

dic

regi

ons

3 5

4 4

- 3

4

2 -

-

Cro

ps

regi

ons

2 -

6

2 4

3 4

2

Sour

ces:

Eur

osta

t – C

ensu

s, 20

00. N

UTS

2. P

roce

ssin

g In

stitu

t de

l’Ele

vage

, 200

2b.

296

ewes, as well as two thirds of the suckler cows! These three regions also use three quarters of the permanent grassland and land in less favoured areas in Europe, the two often being linked. This physical differentiation has also been modelled by the history of agrarian systems, as well as by regional, national and international policies. The present image of livestock systems is indeed the product of this construction in space and time, generating differentiation and inequalities among the rural areas. In the rest of the presentation we summarise the principal features of the environment and livestock systems in these first three livestock areas, with a few illustrations by well-known traditionally-made cheeses, often the fruit of a long history and a fortunate combination of man, land and herd.

An area of humid mountains with a strong cheese‑making tradition

This mountain area extends from the Cantabrian Mountains to the Pyrenees, continuing to the Massif Central and then to the Jura, the mountains of the Rhineland, and to the Alps chain that extends right into central Europe. Permanent pasture and dairy cattle farming dominate here. Grazing is often the only way of utilising extensive areas that cannot be reached by machines, although relatively productive and characterised by a high risk of invasion by the forest. It is in the Alps that the strongest cheese-making tradition and the majority of cheeses are to be found, cheeses that constituted an essential part of the diet in the past during the long winter months. Ease of storage and transport has made cheese an easy product to market. Nearly all the countries of the Alps have their mountain cheese: Bergkäse in Bavaria, Alpenkäse in the Austrian Tyrol, Gruyère in Switzerland and different types of cooked pressed cheeses with more or less holes (Maier-Waldburg & Ehlert, 1998). Some of these productions have almost disappeared due to more industrial production. In Algaü (South-West Bavaria) for example, in 1960, 180 cheese dairies were still using practically all the milk for Bergkäse, whereas only a dozen remain today.

A Mediterranean area with a great diversity of dairy products

This Mediterranean area of dry mountains and foothills includes the high plateaux of the Centre of Spain, the French Mediterranean foothills, the Centre and South of Italy and finally the South West of the Balkans, including most of Greece. In this dry area, farming involves mainly small ruminants, which use significant areas of more or less wooded rangeland. Productivity is relatively low, but there are numerous, very characteristic cheeses that are arousing a revived interest today. In Spain, however, where these farmhouse or traditional cheeses had been banned for health reasons, their revival is more recent and they are still of limited importance, except in the goat sector which is being rapidly restructured (Institut de l’Elevage, 2000). Conversely, in Central and Southern Italy and in Greece these regional products are numerous and are doing well enough both on local markets and in exports, thus arousing the interest of industrialists. However, very fertile wide valleys are also found in this area, capable of providing the major part of the milk and cheese production, as for example the Po valley in Italy (Institut de l’Elevage, 2001a). On the right bank of the Po, at the foot of the Apennines, one of the most prestigious cheeses and most important PDOs (Protected Designation of Origin) in Europe is produced: Parmesan. Although the main part of production is carried out in the plain, production specifications (hay, limitation of concentrates) and processing (raw milk, maturing for an average of 24 months) have made it possible to preserve traditions and quality. Parmesan therefore carries a much higher milk price than that for Grana, a cheese of the same type produced in a much vaster area and with more industrialised production and manufacturing conditions (de Roest, 2000).

29

An area of more or less intensive lowland pasture where the cheese‑making tradition has declined

North of the humid mountains of Continental Europe and before the great fertile plains devoted to crops, lie vast plateaux of grassland, difficult to plough, dominated by meadows and pastureland. These grassland areas are used by dairy and suckler herds in France, in the Belgian Ardennes, and in the British Isles. It has not been possible to draw any real profit from this dairy production based on grass, in spite of a true cheese-making tradition, such as in Normandy (Camembert) and in England (Cheddar or Chester with long maturing, etc.). Here too, dairy intensification and industrialisation caused many specialities to disappear, which are being rediscovered today with the revival of interest in regional products and in permanent grassland. Ireland, which had favoured the production of butter and powdered milk for export, is now attempting to reconvert to the production of industrial type Cheddar in competition with New Zealand (Institut de l’Elevage, 2001b). The other more intensive livestock areas are not studied here, even if they hold about half of the dairy cows and two thirds of European production (Pflimlin & Todorov, 2003), because this production is mainly transformed into products for mass consumption and industrial products (commodities). It will be noted, however, that products of high added value are also to be found here and that organic milk production has developed significantly, notably in Scandinavian countries, where it accounts for 5 to 8% of the milk produced (Pflimlin & Kempf, 2002). This rapid and incomplete overview supports our initial hypothesis that the diversity of dairy systems and traditional products was reduced even more where the soil and climate context encouraged forage and animal intensification, and that the freed land areas could be used by more financially rewarding productions (horticulture, pig farming, etc.). On the other hand, the less favoured areas have resisted the intensive model, more out of necessity than choice, but these regions and systems now have valuable assets for multi-functional, sustainable agriculture based on quality products. We will specify this by basing our observations on French experience, for which we have more complete information.

Location of “quality” dairy sectors in France

France, thanks to its geographical situation, has a large share of the soil and climate diversity of Western Europe, with three, very contrasting, major climatic types: oceanic, Mediterranean and continental, the latter intensified by altitude. It also has a great diversity of ruminant farming systems, adapted to this diversity of environments. It is often in environments with a low agronomic and forage potential that specific products have developed, by a fortunate combination of land, people and animals (Table 2). That is why a special place will be reserved for PDO cheeses, because of their economic importance and their strong link with the land and the forage system. In fact, in France PDOs represent 16% of the total cheese production in tonnage and 28% in monetary value (CIDIL, 2002). At the same time, in other regions with small structures the direct sale of farm products has managed to survive, even re-develop locally. Organic milk production, although limited in volume, is developing successfully in intensive areas, as a reaction to the dominant model, as well as in grassland areas where conversion is less risky. Consequently, in this presentation we group these three sectors together (PDO, organic and farmhouse) under the general term “quality products”, expressing a strong link with the soil or the “terroir”, a good image for consumers and a higher milk price for the producer.

298

In cow milk production, PDOs have most developed in mountain areas

Mountain grassland systems contribute only 10 % to the national quota, but about 30 % of producers are involved in PDO productions with particular specifications and increased milk value. But the mountains of the East must be distinguished from the mountains of the Massif Central. In the North Alps and the Jura, PDO cheeses provide a significant profit for producers, thanks to strict procedures in the entire industry, control of production and specifications negotiated by the farmers regulating the breed, self-sufficiency in feed, hay, raw milk, etc. In contrast, in the Massif Central, the PDO of Cantal, which has the largest tonnage of cheese in the region but no real specifications, provides little profit for producers, whilst Salers and Laguiole, two cheeses of the same type but with stricter specifications and lower tonnage, provide very satisfactory added value. This difference in the use of milk can be found in the income per farm and per worker. The results of the FADN (Farm Account Data Network) show that the income per family worker of all the dairy farms in the North Alps and the Jura is close to the national average. It is only 10% lower than that of intensive systems in the plain, the difference being due to the volume of direct aids, as premiums on cereals and maize in the plain are higher than those provided by the NHCA and the AEM2 in the mountains (Chatelier & Delattre, 2002). It is thus shown that a livestock system adapted to the elements of the environment and producing cheeses with characteristics recognised by consumers enables farmers to obtain a level of income comparable with that of other more intensive regions, even with a much lower quota.

Grassland systems in the plain have been reduced more quickly than the other types and represent less than 10% of national production

Although these regions have numerous assets (breeds, grasslands, traditional cheeses), the prospects for improving added value for milk seem limited. Only 3% of the farmers are involved in a PDO sector and 5% in Organic production. What is more, the proportion of farmers over 50 years of age, with no successor, is greater than that of the other groups in the plain or mountain. Even in Normandy, with very famous cheeses such as Camembert or Pont l’Evêque, PDOs represent only a low proportion of the milk processed. In the last ten years or so, a new PDO dynamic has been observed there, but the gap is still wide compared to the mountain areas. In this group, there is a minority of very dynamic young farmers, the so-called “new grasslanders”, who are seeking more economic and self-sufficient systems, and are often attracted by the Organic sector.

Dairy systems with maize silage account for ¾ of the national quota but very few products under a quality sign

In these regions and under these systems, farmers are looking more for reductions in production costs and improvements in working conditions, for want of any prospect of increase of the milk price. In fact, products under quality signs are rare here, with the exception of a few isolated examples in the East of the Paris Basin (Risoud & Parguel, 2002). Organic milk production still remains marginal. Similarly, direct sales of farmhouse products are falling all over the country except in the Nord – Pas-de-Calais region (Institut de l’Elevage, 2000).

NHCA: Natural Handicaps Compensatory Allowances.2AEM: Agri-Environmental Measures.

299

In sheep milk production, PDO production is predominant and located in the less favoured areas of the South

The dairy sheep farms are concentrated in three production basins, quite distinct as to their location and their production and processing characteristics. There are, however, a few points in common: their location in foothill or mountain areas, dry or humid, the very high proportion of the PDO sector (85 %), most often without farm processing, and the significant use of individual or collective grazing (Table 3). However, the very attractive price of milk favours the development of larger herds, with indoor feeding increasing at the expense of grazing. Generally speaking, for these 3 regions with serious climate and soil constraints farmers consider that the PDO is an essential element for the sustainaility of their production system. Farm products are not very well developed here, except in Corsica and part of the Pyrenees. Similarly, the production of organic ewe’s cheese is still marginal.

In goat milk production farmhouse cheeses far outstrip the PDO in pastoral areas

Goat farming systems can be grouped in 3 production areas, all of them situated south of the Loire (Table 4):• The Centre and Centre-West are areas of mixed crop-livestock farming, where goat farming is

often associated with cash crops. Herds are intensively managed indoors. The milk is mainly delivered to dairies in Poitou-Charentes and transformed into farmhouse cheeses in the Centre region.

Table 2. Dairy cattle systems, forage systems and quality products in France.

Intensive systems (plain)

Intermediate systems (plain) (10<%maize/F

A<30)

Grassland systems (plain)

Foothill systems

with maize

Grassland systems

(mountain)

% national quota 44 3 9 6 10 Averages per farm % maize/FA 4 2 3

Number of dairy cows 42 36 25 34 28

Milk/cow 6,100 5,500 4,800 5,200 4,400 Quota 255,000 198,000 2,000 9,000 26,000 % of farms involved

Direct sale (milk, butter, cheese,…) 8 2

Processing (cheeses,…) 3 4 8

Organic farming 0 5 0 2 PDO sector 3 2

% cows mixed breed 4 29 40 36 3

Not exclusive. Source: R.A., 2000 processing Institut de l'Elevage, 2002b.

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• A South crescent going from the North of Aquitaine and Midi-Pyrenees to the Rhone-Alps region. The structures are smaller and more specialised, using rangeland in about half of the farms and producing farmhouse cheese.

• The pastoral South-East including Languedoc, Provence and Corsica where structures are the smallest but use rangeland and have considerable farmhouse productions.

A large proportion of farmers are involved in farmhouse cheese-making (46 %). These productions, intended essentially for the local market, have less recourse than elsewhere to PDO recognition or Organic certification. Summarising the three French dairy sectors, it can be noted that the percentage of farmers involved in quality products is about 20% for cow’s milk, more than 50% for goat’s milk and more than 90% for ewe’s milk. This represents about 30,000 farms for the 3 sectors, out of 130,000 recorded in 2000. A good correspondence can also be observed between the percentage of farmers committed to quality sectors and the proportion of land with recognised natural handicaps, as illustrated by Figures 1 (PDO cheese location in France) and 2 (Less favoured areas in France). This rapid presentation of French dairy systems that have developed quality sectors, illustrates their capacity to adapt to restrictive climate and soil contexts. It underlines the importance of the strategies developed by people who have managed to turn these constraints into economic (valorisation of local resources) and commercial assets (recognition of the specific features of their products). To understand these strategies better, we should consider a wider view than just a simple comparison of environments, structures and products. Nevertheless, we can attempt to analyse these experiences in order to define points of agreement, present importance and prospects for development, at national and European level, illustrating with a few examples and enabling hypotheses to be reformulated and argued for later studies.

Table 3. Sheep milk systems, feed systems and PDO in France (2000).

Centre of production Roquefort

Region Atlantic Pyrenees Corsica

Total France

Percent of production Number of ewes/farm Percent of farms in PDO Percent of farms with - individual rangeland - collective rangeland

56 300 88

44 3

34 200 94

3 3

190 38

9 3

100 243 85

60 35

Source: R.A., 2000 processing Institut de l'Elevage, 2002b.

Table 4. Goat systems, feed systems and valorisation of milk. Centre (Feed system)

Centre West (forage)

South (intermediate)

South-East (pastoral)

Total

Percent total production Number of goats/farm Percent forage Area /AA Percent farms with grazing Percent PDO farms Percent farmhouse cheeses

52 130 39 -

4 25

2 78 83 44 3 5

8 64 6 3

100 96 50 33 3 46

Not exclusive. Source: R.A., 2000 processing Institut de l’Elevage, 2002b.

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Figure 2. Less favoured areas in France.

Figure 1. PDO cheese location in France.

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Prospects for dairy sectors directed towards quality products in so‑called less favoured areas

During the 20th century, traditional food products seriously declined due to industrial products developed by the food-processing industry and mass distribution. However, in spite of the importance of this development, in the last ten years there has been a notable revival of interest in traditional local products, farmhouse or organic, in particular after food and health crises and problems of pollution attributed to intensive agriculture. We will analyse the relevance of this revival of interest under its three main aspects, the specific features of production, market expectations and the role of the public authorities as regulators.

The specific features of production

From the link with the soil to the concept of local “terroir”

For protected designation of origin as for organic products, the link with the soil is one of the basic principles, and the forage self-sufficiency level is generally defined in the specifications. The limitation of purchases outside the farm or the region anchors the farm to the territory, enabling to trace feed and control production volumes. For farmhouse production this link is more implicit, being part of its image, even if there is no formal guarantee. In these different cases, it is above all a question of favouring the agronomic consistency of the livestock system as well as the ecological recycling of animal waste. However, as regards labels of origin this link with the soil is extended towards the notion of local tradition, including not only climate and vegetation, but also human endeavour in the creation of a particular product. This procedure for characterising local tradition has been developed mainly for vineyards and wine, with the success we all know. But it seems equally promising to differentiate dairy products according to production conditions, notably the type of grassland (Salette, 1998). Of course, the system appears to be more complex, and the parallel between types of vine and grassland deserves to be discussed, as the herd forms an additional filter and the cheese-maker’s expertise seems preponderant. But, as it has already been demonstrated that vintage cheeses can be linked to grassland areas (Monnet & Gaiffe, 1998), we will extend the analysis by discussing the 3 levels of human intervention which act as filters, i.e. grassland management, herd management and the way cheese is made.

Can we speak of grassland “terroirs”?

In the previous parts we presented the considerable diversity of environments in major geographical areas, moving from the Arctic Circle to regions with a very marked Mediterranean climate. This diversity of environments is expressed by an even greater diversity of forage resources. For permanent grassland, grazing land and summer pastures, flora is the outcome of long adaptation to soil and climate conditions, farming and pastoral practices. In EU-15, permanent grassland covers about 45 million hectares, of which a third is rough grazing (not counting collective surfaces), i.e. more than 40% of the European AA (Eurostat, 2001). In a context of self-sufficiency in milk and meat production, these extensive areas have numerous assets as to the preservation of natural resources and biodiversity. And what is more, this could be better valorised with improved differentiation of animal products. A study carried out on Comté cheese from the plateaux of the Jura has emphasised “Comté vintages” by crossing cheeses made by a cheese dairy with the corresponding grassland sectors characterised by their physical components

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(soil, drainage, slope, aspect, etc.) and their flora (Monnet & Gaiffe, 1998). Other studies have revealed differences in the aroma and taste of cheeses from the Abondance breed, depending on the aspect of the highland pasture grazed (Coulon & Priolo, 2002). It is also in this context that a typology study of permanent grassland in Normandy has been undertaken to back up the PDO cheese specifications (Lecomte, 2002).As a result, if the grassland of a single region and the cheeses of a single PDO can be distinguished, there are even more reasons for being able to distinguish cheeses between regions or geographical areas. However, as these studies are very complex and costly, and the added value on the product is uncertain, they cannot be generalised, but serve rather as an argument to differentiate products from very different environments and production systems.

Breeds and herd management are also part of local tradition

Most of the great cheeses have a history of several centuries, during which breeders selected a type of animal that was well adapted to the environment and whose milk had good cheese-making aptitudes. In France we can quote the Normande breed for Camembert, the Montbéliarde for Comté, the Tarine for Beaufort, the Lacaune for Roquefort, etc. However, the desire for higher dairy performances has often meant the replacement of local breeds by the North American Holstein, selected for the quantity of milk and not its valorisation as cheese. In addition, this highly productive cow has brought about intensification in feed at the expense of permanent grassland and pasture, including seriously restricted regions such as the French Massif Central. This is also the case for Parmesan, where the Holstein has entirely replaced local breeds in the last thirty years, with the exception of only one small cheese dairy! In fact, the loss is generally twofold; genetic heritage (proportion and type of casein, speed of curd formation, etc.) and herd management, with the development of trough feeding and complete diet with high quantities of concentrates. This development is equally strong in certain dairy sheep and goat systems in several countries of Southern Europe. Recently, however, more consistent choices have been observed in other regions with considerable constraints, such as the Beaufort confirming its local breeds and the self limitation of production to 5 000 litres of milk per cow, two choices consistent with the stricter limitation of outside purchases of hay and concentrate.

Cheese making that expresses the differences of locally produced milk

Industrial manufacture aims at standardising the raw material to obtain homogeneous products all year round. Conversely, the objective of traditional manufacture of Comté or Parmesan, for example, is to preserve the special features of raw milk, from the twice-daily milking and collection to the differentiated maturing of the cheeses. This requires individual monitoring of each vat, therefore a high cheese-making expertise, requiring several years of apprenticeship and afterwards daily work to adjust production to the characteristics of the milk in the vat. This poses the real problem of replacing retired cheese-makers, with the risk of losing traditional know-how, an integral part of the local economic and cultural heritage. Summarising, the following three elements must be in line in order to ensure product credibility: a particular environment characterised by natural forage resources, a breed and herd management adapted to this environment and, cheese manufacture expressing the specific features of milk through the typicity of the products.

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Market expectations

Everyone agrees that the demand for quality products is growing at the European market level, but with considerable differences in pace, depending on the country or the sector; some could regress,while others increase quickly. This demand remains, however, extremely sensitive to the various types of crises: food (BSE) or health (foot and mouth disease) crises boost demand, notably for organic products, whilst the announcement of an economic crisis brings about a drop in demand. More generally, most consumers are not prepared to pay a large difference in price for this quality. What is more, consumer expectations differ from country to country, and generally from North to South. In Northern Europe, the consumer seems to give priority to the health aspect and respect for the environment and will thus move towards organic products as a reaction to intensive agriculture and “industrial farms” of these countries. This is the case in Denmark, where organic dairy production represents 9% of the production and 30% of the consumption of fresh milk. A Eurobaromètre 2002 survey confirms this growing environmental sensitivity in countries of the North, even in Sweden and Finland where problems of nitrates or pesticides in water are nevertheless more limited. In this context, there is relatively little room for the “positive and festive quality” of local traditional products and in particular for raw milk products. In Southern Europe, the consumer seems to look more for a “pleasure” product, regional and full of flavour; this is explained by a different gastronomic culture and by the greater availability of traditional products, with an important emphasis placed on cheeses made from raw ewe’s, goat’s and cow’s milk. The good image of these products and consumer confidence are explained in particular by the importance of small holdings, the traditional production processes and the commercialisation on local or regional markets. But these three “assets” could evolve quite quickly, favoured by considerable restructuring and industrialisation of production in several countries (Spain and Italy in particular). Furthermore, a recent French study (Agreste, 2003) shows that the raw milk cheese market, i.e. the majority of PDO and farmhouse products and some organic products are making markedly less progress than pasteurised milk cheeses that are considerably cheaper. Soft raw milk cheeses, in particular Camembert, have clearly dropped behind, whilst hard cheeses are keeping up better. This French example is undoubtedly not valid for other countries but it demonstrates that, even in one of the leading countries in the production and consumption of cheese, nothing is ever definitive and that the development of the quality sectors market is a long-term process. This market also depends on the attitude of the food-processing and distribution industry. The dairy industry and mass distribution have long favoured health safety, standardisation, and simplification of product ranges, and consequently a lower milk price and animal/forage intensification. Today, in spite of concentration in these two sectors, policies favourable to such quality products (Organic, PDO) are found in most countries, albeit cautious and limited. Mass distribution is still a major channel for dairy products, whereas creameries and specialised shops are still very marginal in most countries (1 % in France). Differences exist between countries as to this point too; French-style hypermarkets with a very wide range of products are more favourable to variety than the “hard discounts” that are in a position of strength in other countries. Finally, producers in the PDO sector must nevertheless remain vigilant as to quality and production volumes, in order not to lose consumer interest along with the characteristic nature of the products.

The role of European and national institutions

In 1989, the European Commission published a report on the Future of the Rural World which aimed at promoting the recognition and protection of the geographical origin of food products. This objective

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Table 5. Distribution of PDO and PGI cheese producers in the Europe of 15.

Number of products Es Fr El It Pt En Nl De At The other

6 countries Total PDO 3 32 9 30 8 4 4 6 5 32 PGI - 4 - - 3 - - - 3

Source: EU DG Agri, 2001.

was expressed in two decrees, one relative to organic farming in 99, complemented in 999 for animal productions, the other on the protection of geographical indications and PDO, which has also been modified several times. The regulations regarding PDO and PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) are not limited to proofs as to the origin of the product but also require that this origin attribute a distinctive quality on the product that is superior or specific. It is this interpretation that encourages most of the countries and PDO/PGI associations to review their specifications, from the delimitation of areas and the conditions of production to the maturing method and other characteristics of the cheeses. Consequently, the existing legal framework should open up good prospects for many local cheeses, beyond those already registered as labels of origin and presented in Table 5. Out of the 132 PDO cheeses registered at the level of EU-15, there are 105 (80 %) in the five countries of Southern Europe, a few in Germany, Austria, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, and none in the Scandinavian countries. However, this regulatory framework must not be idealised:• Some judge it too complex, too bureaucratic and therefore dissuasive for producers, without

providing any real guarantees for quality so as to win the consumer’s confidence (Péri & Gaeta, 2000). It would thus leave hardly any chance of integration for the numerous traditional cheeses registered (502 for EU-12) in a preliminary list drawn up on the initiative of the European Commission, called Euroterroirs (Froc, 1996).

• It is also thought that this regulatory framework remains very fragile because of some ill-defined requirements related to WTO (World Trade Organisation) negotiations, whilst the reference to origin alone would be sufficient and indisputable (Péri-Gaeta, 2000).

• It must also be remembered that this quality sign is not a guarantee of commercial success, nor of a better remuneration for producers, as has been shown earlier for Cantal cheese.

National regulations also play an important role in the development or disappearance of traditional products. A look back over the history of dairy industries during the 20th century should allow a better comprehension of the present situation in different countries, and a better definition of heritage that has been forgotten, badly developed or condemned by health regulations, concerning raw milk products in particular. The numerous personal experiences heard at a FROMAGORA symposium (Institut de l’Elevage et al., 1996) on farmhouse and traditional cheeses are eloquent as to the attitude of public authorities and the dairy industry in most of the European countries concerning raw milk products, whatever the type of product, fresh or mature. It has to be recognised, however, that the majority of consumers demand “zero risk”, so public authorities are tempted to favour food health safety at the expense of diversity and taste. In these sectors, more inspections are required at the different stages to provide the maximum of guarantees to consumers.

An incentive role via rural development

Since the reform of 992 with product quality and environmental protection as priorities, and following the CAP reforms of 2000 and 2003 placing these priorities in the framework of Rural

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Development, awareness is growing rapidly, even if the essential part of aid still remains linked to historical production volumes, and therefore to the most fertile regions. Based on the concepts of sustainable development and multi-functional agriculture, we are moving towards a new type of contract between society and livestock farmers, more precisely farmers in areas that are called less-favoured at agronomic level, but which often have a rich heritage and potential for tourism. Political measures are being taken at European, national and regional level, which make it possible to propose means of support to favour the emergence or consolidation of projects aimed at developing quality products, in the framework of the Rural Development plan. But like in any local development initiative, those involved in quality sectors have to be able to rely on people, jobs and very different skills, all motivated by the same project and sharing a certain number of common values. It is essential for this type of approach to be formalised for the PDO, but it would equally be very useful to give a more territorial foothold to organic and farmhouse producers. It could also be useful to work out collective messages for consumers outside the PDO areas, with the support of regional authorities, as is the case in Bavaria for example. The authorities are becoming increasingly aware that these quality sectors, even on a fairly modest scale, can be both the basic nucleus for other rural employment related to the cheese creamery or farmer markets, and a display case for local tourism. It is these livestock regions in difficult areas, with a heritage of traditional know-how that has long been ignored, that should be encouraged as a priority. These different sectors (PDO, Organic, farmhouse) do not have the same development prospects in the different major livestock areas. They do not target the same consumer expectations either. Consequently, they are much more complementary than competing with each other. In Table 6, we have simplified the relative importance of these sectors per major livestock area. This presentation, too simplified out of necessity, has no other ambition than to illustrate the proposition and clarify the challenges. Globally, these three sectors cover about 10% of dairy production in Europe, but in many regions in less favoured areas they concern the majority of livestock farmers and cheese transformation, thus constituting the pivot of local economy. This is particularly true for humid mountain areas where the PDO (in France) or Organic (in Austria) or both sectors (in Switzerland) are particularly well-developed, contributing to the limitation of migration of milk to the valleys, even reconquering high mountain pastures and limiting the advance of the forest.

Table 6. Relative importance of the quality dairy sectors per livestock area in Europe.

Sectors Livestock areas (Type of milk)

PDO Organic Farmhouse products

Wet mountain (Cows)

high (Fr, CH)

low to high (At, CH)

average (De)

Mediterranean area (Cows, ewes, goats)

high (It, Es, El, Pt)

very low

average (Es, El, Fr, It)

Grassland areas (Cows)

low (Fr, UK)

low/average (Fr, UK)

low (Be)

Forage crop areas (Cows, goats)

low (Fr )

low/average (Dk)

low

North Scandinavia (Cows)

nil average (Fi, Se, Norway)

low

Present importance: nil or very low; low; average; high. Most involved countries: designated by the first two letters (+ Switzerland = CH).

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Undoubtedly more diversity will be found in the Mediterranean areas where small ruminants farming is often in competition for the best lands with very intensive crops of cereals, fruit or vegetables. Traditionally, these herds of ewes and goats make use of wide expanses of more or less wooded rangelands, which are increasingly abandoned, causing fire risks every summer. In these regions, products that are highly typical still find a good added value on local markets. However, for lack of appropriate measures, the evolution towards livestock systems with permanent housing, including small ruminants, is progressing rapidly, making unjustified use of the good image of pastoral systems. But it is for grassland areas, where the rearing of herbivores is still the only alternative to the forest, that the potential for development of quality products seems the greatest, given the specific features and assets previously developed. The example of Normandy already mentioned is a good illustration of this awareness of a seam that has not been exploited for its PDO products and grasslands. On the other hand, in areas of forage crops, with a large proportion of maize silage or cereals for grain or silage to feed Holstein cows in permanent housing, there is little room for differentiated products, except for products from organic farming, as shown by the example of Denmark and the other Scandinavian countries. For these different dairy sectors associated with the local environment and the locality, it is more a question of preserving the present heritage than of encouraging a large development which would not be in phase with the market. The experience of the Organic dairy sector in the years 2000-2003, when encouragement to conversion brought about an excess of milk in relation to slow market growth, is quite a severe lesson that ought not to be forgotten.

Conclusions

Livestock areas with significant natural constraints represent about half the European farming territory and about two thirds of farms that rear herbivores. Dairy systems are the most numerous and most diverse in size, products and sectors. These livestock systems often result from a long adaptation process that has enabled them to survive a harsh natural environment and a post-war technical and economic productivist context, as well as the industrialisation of dairy industries and cheap mass products. Since the CAP reform of 1992, stressing product quality and environmental protection among its priorities, and following the reform of 2000 and 2003 placing these two priorities within Rural Development with slightly more significant financial inducements, awareness has accelerated. In this presentation we have demonstrated the territorial importance of the less favoured areas of plains and mountains, where farming with dairy ruminants plays a major role, without any other real alternative. Europe cannot allow the concentration and intensification of livestock to continue in the more fertile areas with all the environmental risks associated with it, leaving about half of its territory in economic set-aside. It concerns not only the durability of milk and meat industries, but also rural life and tourism, and therefore the whole regional economy. What is more, these regions are also subject to major natural hazards such as fires, avalanches or land slips, thus requiring careful maintenance and monitoring that can be guaranteed better by these dairy sectors. At the same time, these regions have often developed very characteristic local products, which ought to be considered as being part of the cultural, biological and gastronomic heritage. This heritage deserves to be preserved with the same determination as the biodiversity of flora and fauna in the region. It is these livestock regions of so-called less favoured areas, with a strong local identity and a heritage of traditional know-how, both of them impossible to disassociate from their locality, which should be encouraged as a matter of priority. In order to speed up this belated awareness, it would

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be useful to encourage the exchange of experience between regions whose history and natural surroundings have a certain number of common or complementary features at European level, based on even rudimentary zonings like the one presented in this paper.

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rapport aux autres massifs montagneux. Renc. Rech. Rum. 9.CIDIL, 2002. France Terre de Lait.Coulon, J.B. and A. Priolo, 2002. Influence of forage feeding on the composition and organoleptic

properties of meat and dairy products: bases for a « terroir » effect. In: Multi-fontion grasslands, EGF 7: p. 513-524.

De Roest, K., 2000. The production of Parmigiano Reggiano Cheese, the force of an artisanal system in an industrial world. Wageningen University.

Froc, J., 1996. La fromagerie traditionnelle dans l’union européenne. Note 3/6/96 DGAL Euroterroirs, INRA/CNAC-DGAL.

Institut de l’Elevage, FNEC, Bergerie Nationale de Rambouillet, 1996. Le fromage fermier et artisanal en Europe. Actes du Colloque Fromagora, 6èmes Rencontres Internationales, Rambouillet, France.

Institut de l’Elevage, 2000. Les productions laitières fermières: une tradition qui se perd ou des systèmes d’avenir? Dossier Economie de l’Elevage 292.

Institut de l’Elevage, 2001a. La filière laitière en Italie. Dossier Economie de l’Elevage 302.Institut de l’Elevage, 2001b. Le marché mondial des produits laitiers. Dossier Economie de l’Elevage 301.Institut de l’Elevage, 2002a. Le lait au Danemark: la restructuration jusqu’où? Dossier Economie

de l’Elevage 314.Institut de l’Elevage, 2002b. L’élevage bovin, ovin et caprin: lait et viande au recensement agricole

de 2000. Dossier Economie de l’Elevage 318.Limouzin, P., 1996. Les agricultures de l’Union Européenne. Armand Colin, France.Maier-Waldburg, H. and F.W. Ehlert, 1998. Les fromages: connaître et cuisiner. Collection Larousse

Saveurs, Larousse, 253 pp.Onilait, 2001. Eléments de réflexion sur l’avenir de la production laitière française. Les cahiers de

l’Onilait 22.Péri-Gaeta, D., 2000. La nécessaire réforme de la réglementation européenne des dénominations de

qualité et d’origine. Economie Rurale 258: p. 42-53.Pflimlin, A., B. Buczinski and C. Perrot, 2005. Proposal for a division into zones in order to preserve

the diversity of ruminant rearing systems and of the European territories. Fourrages 182: p. 311-330.

Pflimlin, A. and M. Kempf, 2002. Evolution de la filière laitière Bio dans quelques pays d’Europe. Renc. Rech. Rum. 9: p. 215-218.

Pflimlin, A., C. Perrot, J.L. Rouquette and M. Kempf, 1997. Evolution des systèmes d’élevage et des systèmes fourragers en Europe. Renc. Rech. Rum. 4: p. 1-8.

Pflimlin, A. and N.A. Todorov, 2003. Trends in European forage systems for meat and milk production: facts and new concerns. Proceedings of the Symposium of the EGF on Optimal Forage Systems for Animal Production and the Environment, 26-28 May 2003, Pleven, Bulgaria.

Risoud, G. and P. Parguel, 2002. Renforcement des conditions de production laitière dans les AOC fromagères dites “de plaine”, le cas de l’Epoisses. Cahier d’Economie rurale.

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The impact of CAP changes on EU farming with special reference to cattle farming and Ireland

W. Dunne1 & J.J. O’Connell2

1Rural Economy, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Ireland 2Agribusiness and Rural Development, University College, Dublin 4, Ireland

Summary

For over four decades, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has been the major factor influencing food supply in Western Europe. In the cattle sector it encouraged intensive production methods which led to severe surpluses of beef at market level. In a subsequent change of policy, the MacSharry reforms of 1992, cattle ownership was subsidised. But, with no reference to quality criteria in the individual animal payments it did nothing to enhance the quality of production. Subsidisation of extensive production, also a part of that policy change, worked in the direction of reducing beef output. The policy change restricted the management autonomy of the farmer and tended to divorce the production process from the influence of market forces, both of which could be regarded as seriously negative outcomes. Changes in the mid-term review will provide much increased freedom to EU farmers in relation to products produced, stocking densities and quality of output while incorporating certain key aspects in relation to production methods which are desired by consumers. These have implications for the mix of resources used, the type and range of products produced, markets and marketing. To lead and support these changes, animal production scientists may have to adjust the type and scope of research and development they undertake.

Keywords: cap reform, cattle-farming, direct payments.

Introduction

When the CAP was conceived and developed in the post-war period, the primary objective was to increase food supply and thereby increase food security. The main policy instrument used to increase food supply was high product prices and these encouraged scientific advances and the application of new technology to intensify and increase scale of production. Eventually, this led to severe structural surpluses of most farm commodities which had to be removed from the EU market through intervention purchases and subsidised exports so as to maintain EU producer prices. By the late 1980s, intervention purchases accounted for a significant proportion of farm production and intervention criteria were significant drivers of farmers’ and processors’ production decisions. This was especially true in Ireland, with its predominantly livestock-based agriculture and its geographical position relative to the main European markets. In the process, livestock farmers and especially cattle farmers became increasingly isolated from market demands. The intensification of farming activities increased pressures on livestock, on the plants used to feed them, and on the overall biological diversity of the region where the production occurred (Dunne and O’Connell, 2000a). The new technology favoured increased scale of farming, which had both direct and indirect impacts on the environmental landscape, nutrient balances, and water quality of the region (Baldock et al., 2002). These negative impacts on the environment, animal welfare and food safety are normally referred to as “public costs,” since they do not directly affect the farmer.

310

These costs accrue to society as a whole and arise from the deterioration or even loss of the “public value” placed on these goods by society. But, for as long as food supply remained the primary EU priority, these external costs were undervalued or even ignored (Dunne & O’Connell, 2000a). In such circumstances, there were limited incentives for livestock farmers to use eco-friendly farming production systems. Since a major influence on production was the intervention system, which was of a general commodity nature, there was a corresponding lack of incentive to produce output based on local breeds or resources or to produce traditional, local and/or natural food products for supply to local cultural cuisine or specialised food markets. This effect was probably much more pronounced in a country like Ireland which consumes only 10% of its beef production in the domestic market than in Continental EU countries with relatively large domestic markets. However, the net effect was probably that this type of product differentiation was less than it otherwise would have been. As surpluses accumulated, additional volumes had to be exported from the EU with the aid of subsidies. Eventually, the escalating scale of subsidised EU exports created severe budgetary and international trade difficulties for the EU. By the early 1990s, all these factors had combined to precipitate a major revamping of the CAP itself. The first major reform of the CAP was that of 1992, the so-called MacSharry reform. The nature of this reform was such that, inter alia, it had the capacity to influence farm level decisions relating to output and resource use, decisions best left to the producers’ own initiative as influenced by market demands. The more recent policy changes, incorporated in the Fischler Mid-Term Review of 2003, remove such constraints and provide greater freedom to producers to respond to market forces. The following section briefly reviews EU policies in the cattle sector over the last three decades, discusses their likely effects and gives a welcome to the most recent changes incorporated in the mid-term review of the CAP.

CAP Reform

As the cost of the CAP was increasing throughout the 1980s, referred to above, societal awareness in the EU of the environmental degradation associated with intensive agriculture was also increasing. At the same time the ability of EU society to pay for better environmental characteristics was growing with greater affluence. These factors along with international trading partner pressures were the backdrop for a major reform of the CAP introduced for cereals and beef under Commissioner MacSharry in 1992. Official support prices were reduced by 35% for cereals and 15% for beef. To compensate producers for the planned lower product prices, farmers received direct payments (DPs) to maintain their incomes. But for supply control purposes, these payments were restricted to specific animal-based quotas for beef, and area-based quotas for cereals. Special payments for extensification were introduced for farmers with lower stocking density rates. Prior to this, in 1984, growth in milk supply had effectively been capped by the superlevy. This was essentially a quota system for milk and consequently a constraint on the size of the dairy cow-herd which is also the primary source of calves for beef production. The more recent Agenda 2000 agreement further deepened the reforms for beef and cereals and tentatively extended them to include milk. In addition, and perhaps significantly, the Agenda 2000 reform incorporated an element of decoupling, namely in relation to existing less-favoured areas. Headage payments for animals in these areas were decoupled from the animals but were linked to the achievement of environmental standards. Laurila (2000), stressed the importance of such payments in maintaining rural population in sparsely populated regions of the EU.

3

Economic implications for farming systems

These policy shifts had several interesting economic implications for cattle farmers. First, the reduction of product prices shifted the optimum economic production system towards lower levels of intensity. Second, additional beef production was constrained by a combination of quotas for products (milk) and quotas of DPs for specific animals. Third, the DPs for cattle farmers were based on the possession of certain types of animals rather than their performance or quality, and the animals had to be “farmed” within specified stocking density limits. Fourth, an additional payment was available for more extensive production systems, again defined by a limit on stocking density, and for organic production systems. Fifth, and possibly most important, the concept of “cross compliance” was introduced, whereby the DPs were increasingly made conditional on farming methods conforming to various other EU measures and regulations - for example, good husbandry and animal welfare practices and animal traceability. Farm income quickly became more dependent on the value of the DPs, especially in Ireland. But costs, and particularly DP-related compliance costs, increased due to the restricted supply of eligible animals and the additional land required to reduce stocking densities (Dunne & O’Connell, 2000a, b, 2002; Dunne et al., 2000, 2001). Furthermore, as enterprise margins declined, the financial attractiveness of other types of non-CAP reform direct payments to farmers, like agri-environmental measures, increased despite their somewhat restrictive compliance standards for production intensity and individual husbandry practices (Dunne & O’Connell, 2000b). It would seem that the main response of Irish farmers to the stocking density conditions was to seek extra land for their cattle rather than the alternative of reducing cattle numbers. With a fixed supply of land, prices and rents for land increased substantially. Farmers were thus impeded in their drive to reduce unit costs and increase incomes through increased scale of operation (Dunne & O’Connell, 2000b). Under the MacSharry policy, the income of cattle producers hinged on very detailed administrative calculations for individual animals and hectares. The extent of this administrative intrusion was such that cattle production systems were increasingly in an administrative straightjacket. In Ireland cattle farming is pervasive and this inevitably affected most farmers and other farm enterprises where they must co-exist (Dunne, 2000a). The entire operation led to “both economic and bureaucratic asphyxiation of cattle farming” (Dunne, 2000b).

Resource use and product orientation

From a resource use perspective, the DPs were unlikely to have fully compensated the very intensive producers i.e. those who have the greatest impact on the degradation of the value of public goods. However, when the price and the DP effects are combined, it is likely that there was an overall gain in the public cost-benefit balance, but its extent is difficult to quantify. There is evidence to support the view that much of the value of the direct payments was dissipated to the suppliers of land and young animals by way of higher prices for these (Dunne & O’Connell, 2002). Therefore, cattle farmers had less control of the margins obtained from their animals since so much of it came from the fixed direct payment. Despite this, farmers had to remain in beef production and had to maintain animal numbers to get access to direct payments. However, quality of output was not a major consideration as there were no quality conditions attached to the receipt of the DPs.

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Reorienting production

As the initial modes of CAP reform receded in time, a new justification was required for the continued use of the DPs for farmer income support. Dunne (1996) suggested that switching a significant proportion of farm income support from product prices to DPs provided an ideal opportunity to influence private behavior in the direction of incorporating the external costs of public goods into production technology. Once these payments were made conditional on supplying public goods the societal value of the DPs would be significantly enhanced. This would also increase the economic justification for the large expenditure on the DPs themselves, their acceptability to EU taxpayers, and provide justification for the DPs under WTO rules. It was suggested that such payments should be decoupled from current production. Dunne and O’Connell (1998, 2000a, b) suggested that a better approach to paying decoupled payments on an area basis might be a mix of payment per farmer and a reduced payment per hectare. This, they argued, would reduce the capitalisation process which had heretofore given rise to inflated land prices and rentals and would provide a stronger social dimension to meet local needs especially in the poorer regions of the EU. The process could be implemented on the basis of a once a year sample-based all-farm audit. In January 2003, the Commission adopted a package of proposals to reform the CAP. Inter alia, the reform included:• a payment or entitlement attached to the farmer who establishes it independent of current

production (‘decoupling’);• the entitlement is based on the average number of payments per hectare received in the base

period 2000-2002 and the number of hectares of land farmed, irrespective of its ownership, in 2000-2002;

• the payment to be conditional on a range of environmental, food safety, animal welfare and condition of farmland criteria, (public goods);

• major price cuts for dairy products;• stronger rural development policy;• farmers to receive a single yearly payment the value of which was based on the historically

established entitlements. In June 2003, modifications were agreed which gave EU states a degree of choice in the implementation of decoupling. The remainder of this paper is written on the assumption of full decoupling.

Likely effects of EU post‑2003 CAP policy

The negative impacts and costs of the CAP have been well documented by, amongst others, Borell and Hubbard (2000) and Tokarick et al. (2002). The post-2003 CAP begins to deal with some of these but is still a long way from eliminating them. The general thrust of the most recent CAP reform is to move towards having EU farm production decisions based on returns from the market rather than on political decisions and subsidy payments. An industry organised on a free-market basis can provide greater economic efficiencies in many respects compared with the alternatives. Lamb (2002) states “Consumers have benefited from loosening the beneficial forces of the market place in sector after sector of the US economy. What markets have done for so many other sectors of the economy, they can do for the food and farm system as well.”

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More specifically, as a result of the implementation of the mid-term review of the CAP it is likely that EU agricultural production and exports will decline and imports will increase. Long-term structural EU food surpluses will not be a problem. EU farm product prices may be more variable than in the past. Given that farm production is not tied down by the conditions attaching to receipt of DPs, farmers will be freer to engage in other activities both on and off-farm. It is likely that there will be more diversity in products and a growth in the commercial exploitation of geographic and localised factors through farmer branding and in other ways. More farmers will become available for off-farm work. EU taxpayers will not benefit, as there is no planned reduction in the EU agricultural budget. EU consumers will enjoy some reduction in food prices. However, given that EU farmers probably receive not more than 30% of the average consumer Euro spent on food, a relatively large farm-level price reduction of 20% will, of itself, result only in a 6% reduction in consumer food prices. While this is a real effect, it may not be wholly obvious to consumers as other effects, namely the continued addition of services to food raw materials by the marketing sector, and continued increase in marketing unit costs will tend to mask it. These effects will be driven as always by factors which are quite unrelated to agricultural costs, prices or farm incomes. Recent research on the effects of decoupling in Ireland (Matthews et al., 2003; FAPRI, 2003) showed that, in the medium term, beef and lamb production would decline and their prices would increase. Milk production would be largely unaffected and production of all other commodities would increase. Available projections are based on modelling exercises. Models are built on historic data. Decoupling is a totally new policy approach for which no historic data exist as to how producers might react. Projections therefore must be treated with great caution and there is urgent need to institute some good farm-level research to elicit likely production responses in the context of the proposed new policy environment. The decoupling policy will put downward pressure on prices for calves and feeder animals. This, of itself, will put downward pressure on the incomes of suckler farmers, dairy farmers, and others who did not receive DPs on such animals but who benefited through the capitalisation effect on the sale price. It will have the opposite effect for beef finishers. The effect on the agricultural land market and on scale of farming is more difficult to work out. The individual farmers’ ability to draw down their full EU entitlements under the new system will still be dependent on their continuing to hold their base period land area, irrespective of whether that land is owned or rented. This will act in the direction of pressurising many farmers to hold on to their 2000-2002 farmland area, thus curtailing an increase in market supply of land for restructuring or other uses. So, on the one hand the policy change puts pressure on farmers to increase scale for economic survival. On the other hand, this particular aspect of it will act as an impediment to increasing that scale. An alternative approach, which would at least reduce this problem, would have been to adopt the suggestion of Dunne and O’Connell (1998, 2000a, b) and pay a proportion of the entitlement to the farmer simply for being a farmer in the base period and allow the land market run free, or at least more free.

Beyond the mid‑term review

The outcome of the current WTO round of trade liberalisation negotiations, if and when it happens, will mean further reductions in EU agricultural prices and further reduction in trade restrictions. As a consequence, expenditure on farm inputs will fall to reflect the decline in animal and crop prices and the likely further decline in animal numbers. It will affect the overall market

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balance; it is likely that the need for subsidised food exports will be eliminated. As the intensity of input use declines in EU agriculture, the centre of gravity of mainstream EU agriculture will move closer to eco-friendly farming and the difference between mainstream farming and organic farming will be reduced. A policy framework of this type will clearly facilitate greater diversity of product mix. Policy will no longer be controlling farmers by way of economic pressures as to what products they produce. It will, however, determine aspects of production methods by virtue of the cross-compliance conditions relating to environmental aspects. The resulting products should be very suitable for eco-labelling and because the policy straightjacket has been loosened there should be increased opportunity for geographic labelling of what is expected to be a more diverse product mix. This would facilitate the economic exploitation of organoleptic and image-related attributes inherent in such products the latter being achieved through branding, denominated origin labels and other marketing techniques.

References

Baldock, D., J. Dwyer, J. Vinus and M. Sumpsi, 2002. Environmental integration and the CAP. A report to the European Commission, DG Agriculture, prepared by the Institute for European Environmental Policy.

Borell, B. and L. Hubbard, 2000. Global economic effects of the EU Common Agricultural Policy. Institute of Economic Affairs, Blackwell.

Commission of the European Communities, 2002. Mid-term review of the Common Agricultural Policy: communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. Council of Ministers, Brussels.

Commission of the European Communities, 2003. Proposals for Council Regulations. COM 23 final.

Dunne, W., 1996. Beef production: performance and prospects. Proceedings of the Agri-Food Economics Conference, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Ireland, p. 3-12.

Dunne, W., 2000a. Shaping a future in farming. To-day’s Farm, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Ireland, Jan.-Feb.: p. 6-8.

Dunne, W., 2000b. The drivers of change in farming. To-day’s Farm, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Ireland, March-Apr.: p. 40-41.

Dunne, W. and J.J. O’Connell, 1998. Consumer oriented direct payments for beef producers. Presented at EAAE Seminar on Long Term Prospects for the Beef Industry, Bercy-Expo, Paris.

Dunne, W. and J.J. O’Connell, 2000a. Public good issues in direct payments for livestock producers. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Livestock Farming Systems, EAAP Publication No. 97: p. 134-138.

Dunne, W. and J.J. O’Connell, 2000b. The main sources and components of farm incomes in the 2st century. Proceedings of the Agri-Food Economics Conference, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Ireland, p. 25-39.

Dunne, W. and J.J. O’Connell, 2002. A multicommodity EU policy framework incorporating public good criteria into the direct payment system in agriculture. Proceedings of the Congress of the European Association of Agricultural Economists (EAAE) on Exploring Diversity in the European Agri-food System, Zaragoza, Spain.

Dunne, W., U. Shanahan and J.J. O’Connell, 2000. Extensification: an analysis of national and competitive issues. In: Development of a strategic approach for a single EU beef market, Rural Economy, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Working paper No.6, 26 pp.

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Dunne, W., U. Shanahan and J.J. O’Connell, 2001. Extensification: implications of cattle farming in Ireland. In: Development of a strategic approach for a single EU beef market, Rural Economy, Teagasc, 19 Sandymount Avenue, Dublin 4, Working paper No. 7, 25 pp.

FAPRI, 2003. An analysis of the effects of decoupling direct payments from production in the beef, sheep and cereal sectors. Teagasc Rural Economy Research Centre, Jan. 2003, ISBN 1 84170 328 1.

Lamb, R.L., 2002. A market-forces policy for the new farm economy. Review of Agricultural Economics 24: p. 15-30.

Laurila, I.P., 2000. European model of agriculture. Agricultural Economics Research Institute, PO Box 3, FIN-00411 Helsinki, Finland, Research Reports 241: p. 59-75.

Matthews, A., R. O’Toole and J. Jensen, 2003. The IMAGE Model-Decision Making Tool for the Food Industry, Trinity College, Dublin.

Tokarick, S., B. Sutton and Y. Yang, 2002. How do industrial country agricultural policies affect developing countries. Essays on Trade and Finance: World Economic Outlook, International Monetary Fund.

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3

Partner Farms: experiences with livestock farming system research to support intersectoral cooperation in the Netherlands

J. de Wit, U. Prins & T. Baars

Louis Bolk Instituut, Hoofdstraat 24, 3972 LA Driebergen, The Netherlands

Summary

For more than five years, the Louis Bolk Institute has been developing Partner Farms in cooperation with a growing number of, now more than 50, organic farmers. The Partner Farm concept, mixed farming at a distance, is aiming at the utilization of several advantages of mixed farming while retaining the farmer’s autonomy and specialized farm structure. While farming in the Netherlands is highly specialized, increased intersectoral cooperation is essential in organic agriculture, as legislation concerning the use of inputs of non-organic origin is tightening up. Experiences of the participatory research developing the Partner Farm concept are summarized, particularly relating to the exchange value of organic manure and grass-clover production. It is shown that Partner Farms are a viable possibility to increase intersectoral cooperation, particularly exchanging grass-clover as ruminant feed from arable farms with increasing amounts of animal manure from livestock farms. Organic concentrate production at arable farms in the Netherlands is hardly an option, due to the low economic returns obtained, thus leaving organic pig and poultry farms few options other than producing animal manure mainly on imported feed. Also, grass-clover derived N did emerge as a realistic alternative to the limitedly available manure-derived N, with animal manure being hardly used on grassland but mainly on arable land. These development concepts are known in extensive Farming Systems but are unsusual patterns in intensive FS’s. It is argued that these development concepts were not merely devised, but that technical, economical, practical and ethical implications were explored, thus producing results that are not only technically sound but also acceptable and applicable in organic agriculture. This was possible due to the simultaneous use of various research methods, in which farmers were closely involved in all stages of the research.

Keywords: participatory research, organic, mixed farming, grass-clover, manure.

Introduction

Organic farming is an internationally defined and certified production method for quality products with a distinct market potential. Several principles and standards of organic farming are directly and indirectly promoting mixed farming (IFOAM, 2002). Mixed farming also has several advantages, e.g. closing nutrient cycles, widening crop rotations (Oomen et al. 1998; Van Keulen et al., 1998), but also reliability and traceability of input supply. Despite these advantages, agriculture in the Netherlands, as in many West-European countries, is highly specialized. In conventional farming this specialisation has led to narrow crop rotations with high use of external inputs of fertilizers, biocides and feedstuffs. In organic agriculture specialization is problematic as the utilization of non-certified organic inputs is increasingly restricted (see Anon., 1991). This legislative trend towards closing (nutrient) cycles originates partly from image problems (related to market potential) if the organic sector continues

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to grow on large inputs of manure and concentrate of non-organic origin. The tightening legislation necessitates increased intersectoral cooperation at some level in order to meet e.g. the manure demands of arable farmers and concentrate demands of livestock farmers. Intersectoral cooperation is possible at various levels:• The mixed farm. • Mixing independent farm enterprises at one location. • Cooperation between independent farms at different locations. • Free market exchange. Possibilities for mixing specialized farms at one location are limited in the Netherlands due to regional specialization (partly related to soil characteristics), high costs for achieving production quotas required for the main agricultural products, and social obstacles incurred (the tradition of ‘individualistic farmers’). Examples of (re)mixing are available in the Netherlands, e.g. independent vegetable farmers using / of the crop rotation of arable and mixed farms. Other examples concern dairy farms with sufficient land starting wheat and/or potato growing, but these remain exceptions. Direct trade between independent farms at different locations is an important option to obtain the necessary inputs, as markets of organic inputs like manure, feed and bedding material are small and not transparent. If farmers are willing to make long term arrangements and adjust e.g. crop rotation, manure application practice and feed ration, they are starting to act as Partner Farms, in which management, financial and legal liabilities remain separate but cooperation becomes a major feature. Since 1996, the Louis Bolk Institute is involved in research and development (R&D) projects together with an increasing number of organic Partner Farms who are aiming at utilizing some of the advantages of mixed farming while retaining their autonomy (Nauta et al., 1999). In this paper, two important R&D topics within the Partner Farm projects will be elaborated, concentrating on the benefits of a simultaneous and flexible application of different research methods.

Methodology

In several Partner Farm projects the contact between arable and livestock farmers was stimulated by group meetings and providing regional lists with supply and demand of organic inputs from specialized farms interested in direct trade. Simultaneously, various key problems of organic production were tackled, for example: the introduction of clover in grassland, crop production with reduced manure application and the utilization of grass-clover and alfalfa in arable crop rotations. These problems were mainly the subject of on-farm research but also several desk-studies were made on opportunity costs of manure, cost price of possible feed crops at arable farms and the identification of bottlenecks in the provision of organic inputs. Identification of these R&D topics originated both from group discussions and from discussions with individual farmers who opted for exploring the possibilities of the Partner Farm concept in practice. Finally, actions and experiences of Partner Farms were recorded, analysed and discussed with the farmers. In combination with the on-farm trials, farmers and researchers were often counterparts in a mutual research undertaking (experiential science; Baars, 2002). Thus, research methods used included both non-replicated and replicated experiments on participating farms, desk studies and observation of and reflection on innovative actions of farmers (including pattern recognition), all within a participatory approach in which researchers and farmers collaborated in all stages of the R&D process. Different research methods were mixed in time and place, partly because new Partner Farms joined the projects, partly because it was felt by scientists and/or farmers that a R&D topic had to be re-addressed under different conditions or with different research methods.

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Grass clover as N‑producer and the exchange value of manure

Organic manure availability under tightening regulation was a major discussion topic during all meetings and interviews. Most arable farmers were afraid that available manure from organic origin would be insufficient for economically feasible crop production. Desk study did indicate that current livestock management practices and average livestock density at organic land in the Netherlands result in an availability of collected organic manure representing only approximately 65 kg N (De Wit & Prins, 2002), implying highly reduced manure application levels if the utilization of non-organic manure is banned. Therefore, primary research topic was the management of grass-clover. The importance of legumes as a source of nitrogen for organic agriculture has been long recognized. Many experiences indicate that, with the modern large-leaved varieties of white clover available, it is possible to have sufficient high clover densities in nearly all types of grassland in the Netherlands if clover management and soil fertility are adequate (particularly crucial are potassium availability on sandy soils and phosphate on clay soils). Moreover, it is shown that grassland production is only marginally affected by reduced N-fertilization if sufficient clover is present (for on-station experiments validating these experiences see Baars, 2002; Schils et al., 1999), while increased soil-N pools can be used by subsequent arable crops (Van Eekeren et al., 2002). Thus, legume-derived N could be a realistic alternative to the limitedly available manure-derived N in organic agriculture. During the participatory research activities, a development concept emerged in which a large proportion of the collected manure is transported and used in arable production, while livestock farms use hardly any besides the non-collected manure droppings during grazing, and sustain their soil fertility with other certified sources such as clean compost. At present, however, a relatively small portion of the collected organic manure is used in arable production, just sufficient to attain the level of 20% of the applied manure at arable farms, as is presently prescribed in the Netherlands. Many livestock farmers involved in the Partner Farm projects complained that most arable farmers were offering hardly enough to pay for transportation. Desk calculations and subsequent group discussions with farmers have indicated that this might be due to alternative sources of N (particularly vinass of non-organic origin) that are (still) allowed in organic agriculture. The relatively low costs of these inputs (<1 Euro per kg N) reduce the “willingness-to-pay” of arable farmers for manure to such levels that are insufficient to meet the demand of livestock farmers (>9 Euros per ton slurry containing less than 4 kg N; this includes average transportation and application costs of 7.50 Euros). Among organic farmers it is generally thought that this situation will change significantly only if regulations on the use of organic inputs are further tightened and product prices are increased, as the cost of organic production will increase by banning non-certified inputs.

Feed production on arable farms

The production of animal feed on arable farms was listed as another R&D priority. The desk study did indicate that the production of feed is generally unattractive to arable farmers as the cost of production and transportation often exceeds 180 Euros per ton of dry matter for maize silage and 250 Euros for concentrate, which is often higher than the maximum price livestock farmers are willing to pay since market price of organic feed grain is around 230 Euros per ton. Main exception to this general picture is the production of grass-clover. Most dairy cattle and goat farmers indicate a level of 150 Euros per ton of dry matter as the maximum acceptable price of good grass-clover silage. For arable farmers

Current animal manure application levels are 130-170 kg N per hectare as being close to the maximum level under EEC legislation for organic production.

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this results in an unattractive net return on land (excluding subsidies) of only 200-400 Euros per hectare. However, an increasing number of organic arable farmers are willing to accept this because the production of grass-clover implies several benefits which are highly valued by arable farmers, e.g. N-fixation, organic matter production and weed suppression. Actual cropping patterns support these calculations as a small quantity of organic concentrate ingredients and maize silage is grown within the Netherlands on arable farms, except for farms in conversion to organic farming. During group discussions it was revealed that this might even diminish since organic grain production as such is under pressure (due to relatively high weed pressure which is not compensated by favourable margins). Likewise, many organic dairy cattle farmers indicate that they tend to decrease the level of concentrate feeding, and thus production per animal, if concentrate prices rise, a trend which is already visible at present. On the other hand, some dairy farms are becoming increasingly interested in producing their own feed grain, being relatively cheap as no manure is required for feed crops after ploughing grass-clover, while grain is an ideal preceding crop for grass-clover renewal. The role of organic pig and poultry farming within the Partner Farms is almost completely limited to the provision of organic manure to arable farms. The ingredients of organic pig and poultry feed originate increasingly from agro-industrial processing (e.g. whey) but grain and legumes are still mainly imported. This situation is unlikely to change dramatically as pig and poultry feed production on arable land in the Netherlands seems too expensive, being more costly than imported feed. Thus, a development concept emerges, with ruminants producing mainly on grass-clover, while the niche for organic pig and poultry farming seems to be limited to the utilization of organic by-products and/or imported feed concentrate ingredients. Such a development concept is well known in extensive farming systems but it surprised many participants for being relevant with Dutch intensive farming systems. Moreover, observations of the actual exchange of grass-clover between Partner Farms revealed some unexpected limitations. Firstly, many arable farmers fail to make grass-clover silage that meets the high quality desired by dairy farmers as they find it hard to choose the proper timing of harvesting. Management support of the livestock farmer to decide for the proper time of cutting is only practical if distance does not exceed approximately /2 hour driving. Secondly, it revealed that chopping is the cheapest harvesting method, even with subsequent large distance transportation of well over 40 km. Such distances often imply transportation by lorries via highways, resulting in an extra party involved (the transportation company) and traffic jams being regular but unpredictable phenomena. As a result, logistic management becomes complicated and total costs of silage making and transportation unpredictable, both hampering the cooperation between Partner Farms at large distance.

Discussion

During the development of the Partner Farm concept, many different research methods have been applied, for various reasons:• on-farm activities and experimentation. As also mentioned by Anderson (1992), this is not only

because specific management history and ecological conditions are not available on experimental stations (thus providing possibilities to test e.g. white clover under various conditions, including those with extreme soil fertility) but also because the effect of innovations on other parts of the (partner) farm is often unexpected and management itself is highly relevant (see the example of grass-clover harvesting);

• group discussions between farmers and researchers involved. These have been important to interpret the results of the desk studies, e.g. the implications of the calculated opportunity costs of manure in relation to the desired development of the regulations on organic agriculture (ethics).

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The group meetings were also used to facilitate interactive learning and to reflect more thoroughly on (likely) changes in farm lay-out and cropping patterns and their consequences;

• interdisciplinary desk research was required as inter-farm cooperation affects farm layout and possible development options were (far) outside current practice. However, the results of the (fairly simple) calculation models also proved essential in generating hypotheses ready for discussion.

The importance of using a wide range of research methods for different objectives and stages of a R&D program hase been long known and present in standard descriptions of farming system research methods (see Shaner et al., 1982 for an early example). Likewise, the importance of participation is also undebated, though implementation in R&D programs is often limited (excluding e.g. the setting of research priorities) and blurred with jargon (Pijnenburg, 2003). However, a strong impression is that results could be produced that are acceptable to and applicable in organic agriculture mainly because of the simultaneous and flexible application of all the different research methods within one R&D programme. The importance of applying a wide range research methods is also suggested by Davies and Gibbon (2004) who further argue that solving complex problems usually involves jumping back and forth between various stages within a research cycle, being very similar to the practice within Partner Farm projects. A limitation of such R&D approach is that it is highly demanding for the researchers involved, since the latter should be:• sufficiently trained scientists to implement and execute on farm research;• close observers of farmers’ actions and capable of participating meaningfully in contacts with

individual farmers and groups (implying sufficient knowledge of general farm characteristics, well developed social capacities as well a personal motivation acceptable by the farmers involved);

• able to integrate knowledge from different sources (including all types of traditional research as well as experiential knowledge).

The specialization of tasks within the R&D program proved to be possible only to a limited extend because each research method is applied in order to serve several objectives and because different research methods are highly interlinked, as argued earlier.

References

Anonymous, 1991. Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 of 24 June 1991 on organic agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs, including all amendments. Official Journal of the European Communities No L198, 22-7-1991.

Anderson, M.D., 1992. Reasons for new interest in on-farm research. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 8: p. 235-250.

Baars, T., 2002. Reconciling scientific approaches for organic farming research. Part I: Reflection on research methods in organic grassland and animal production at the Louis Bolk Institute, The Netherlands. Part II. Effect of manure types and white clover cultivars on the productivity of grass-clover mixtures grown on a humid sandy soil. PhD thesis, Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands, 346 pp.

Davies, G. and D. Gibbon, 2004. System thinking in organic research: does it happen? In: Organic farming: science and practice for profitable livestock and cropping, A. Hopkins (editor), Occasional Symposium 37, British Grassland Society, Reading, UK.

De Wit, J. and U. Prins, 2002. Does organic animal manure becomes worth a fortune? Wordt biologische mest goud waard ? Ekoland 22: p. 24-25.

IFOAM, 2002. IFOAM basis standards for organic production and processing. Victoria, Canada, August 2002 (www.ifoam.org/standard/norms).

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Nauta, W., G.J. van der Burgt and T. Baars, 1999. Partner Farms: a participatory approach to collaboration between specialised organic farms. In: Designing and testing crop rotations for organic farming, J.E. Oleson (editor), Proceedings of an international workshop, Borris Agricultural School, Denmark. Danish Research Centre of Organic Farming report 1/1999: p. 149-158.

Oomen, G.J.M., E.A. Lantinga, E.A. Goewie and K.W. van der Hoek, 1998. Mixed farming as a way towards a more efficient use of nitrogen in European Union agriculture. Environmental Pollution 102: p. s697-s704.

Pijnenburg, B.F.M., 2004. Keeping it vague. Discourses and practices of participation in rural Mozambique. PhD thesis, Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands, 238 pp.

Schils, R.L.M., Th.V. Vellinga and T. Kraak, 1999. Dry matter yield and herbage quality of a perennial ryegrass/white clover sward in a rotational grazing and cutting system. Grass and Forage Science 54: p. 9-29.

Shaner, W.W., P.F. Philipps and W.R. Schmehl, 1982. Farming systems research and development: a guideline for developing countries. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.

Van Eekeren, N., I. Hoving and J. de Wit, 2002. Manure application in a rotation of grass-clover and feed crops. Bemesten op het scherp van de snede. Ekoland 22: p. 26-27.

Van Keulen, H., E.A. Lantinga and H.H. van Laar, 1998. Mixed farming systems in Europe. Workshop proceedings. APMinderhouthoeve-reeks 2, Wageningen University, 231 pp.

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Cattle farming systems in the Peneda mountain: a tentative assessment of sustainability

J. Côrte-Real Santos

Direcção Regional de Agricultura Entre Douro e Minho, Rua Franca, 534 4800-875 S. Torcato, Portugal

Summary

Sustainable development, although recent as a concept, is used in several fields such as tourism, energy and transports, as well as in agriculture, namely in livestock farming at regional level. As livestock farming systems in the Peneda mountain are based on the shared use (common lands) of animals’ feeding areas, it becomes very difficult to assess each farmer’s share of responsibility in parameters like nitrogen or pesticides. We have carried out a survey and a follow-up for three years (from 2002 to 2004) in six farms chosen according to the typology built by Simões (2000, 2004). The main objective of the survey was to assess the farmers’ management practices towards achieving a better valorisation of their products under the existing constraints. We built indicators that can measure social, economic and environmental issues in order to assess the sustainable evolution of a small region. As a conclusion, we may say that it is possible to assess the evolution of local sustainable development by means of indicators built on information from a sample of farms, since these farms are representative of that region.

Keywords: sustainable development, indicators, cattle farming, Peneda mountain.

Introduction

Sustainable development, although a recent concept (Brundtland Report, 1987), is used in several fields such as tourism, energy and transport, as well as in agriculture, namely in livestock farming at a regional level. According to FAO, rural sustainable development should “conserve land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable”. The concept of sustainable development has gained public importance from a political as well as an economic point of view, as the EU Commission has been devoting since 1998 an important quota of its research budget to this issue (7% and 12% of the total budget in the 5th and 6th Framework Programmes respectively). Within the R&D Project “Valorisation of resources and quality products from multifunctional agriculture systems in mountains and valleys of Northwest Portugal”, an analysis of local farming systems was carried out. Traditional bovine systems in the Peneda mountain have been facing changes as regards the farmers’ family structure, markets, premiums, subsidies, etc. We have studied the farmers’ strategies in their efforts to adapt to these new conditions. Following other studies carried out within the same project, the farming sustainability issue was raised. We must point out that the area of study is a “protected area” where biodiversity (plants and animals, including wolves) and landscape protection are main goals. And as the Peneda landscape is a

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result of a relatively intense human occupation, protection measures must take into account the population’s traditional activities, with cattle production being the most important one. The set of indicators proposed by OECD (2001), although pointing out the results of the farmers’ management methods, was built to be used on national level. Apart from this, there are some trade-offs between different criteria, such as the use of more chemical fertilizers that can ensure a good balance but negatively affect the indicator of nutrient losses (de Wit et al., 1999). As livestock farming systems in the Peneda mountain are based on the shared use (common lands) of animals’ feeding areas, it becomes rather difficult to assess each farmer’s share of responsibility in parameters like nitrogen or pesticides for example. For this reason, the indicators proposed by Halberg (1999) are not suitable to our study. The correct evaluation of each farm’s exact share of responsibility in the value of some indicators, for instance N and pesticides (Halberg, 1999), water retaining capacity, and off farm sediment flow (OECD, 2001), is very difficult due to the overlapping effect between farms (de Wit et al., 1995). Taking these limitations into consideration, we tried to build some measurable indicators (de Wit et al., 1995), based on information collected at local and farm level, that could assess farming sustainability.

Presentation of the study area

The Peneda Mountain, located in the North-West of Portugal, has a rainy climate (on average more than 2,000 mm/year) and a large thermal amplitude (#T > 20ºC). This mountain has very steep slopes (about 20% of the territory has slopes greater than 30%) and an intense river network. It is composed of three parishes named Gavieira, Cabreiro and Sistelo. This study was carried out in Gavieira, the most important of the three parishes – with 5,763 hectares, 32% of total population, 65% of total animal population – and the only one located completely inside the protected area of the national park of Peneda-Gerês. Gavieira has 552 inhabitants (INE, 2001) living in five small villages. Population has been decreasing since the sixties but the decline has been sharper in the last two decades (Figure 1), with important changes in the population’s age pyramid (Figure 2).

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1864 1878 1890 1900 1911 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1981 1991 2001

Figure 1. Evolution of the population of the Gavieira parish (number of inhabitants).

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Common lands represent 96.4% of Gavieira’s total area, where bovines graze free from February until December (hot weather) at an altitude of 1,000 to 1,400 m. From December until February (cold weather), animals spend the night in sheds and in the morning grazing takes place in private natural pastures, while in the afternoon animals graze on common lands near the village. The potentially cultivable private land is divided into parcels of an average of 2,100 m2 each (Pires, 2000). The farmers’ parcels are splitted not only within the village (600 m high) but also along the middle mountain (1,000 m high). The natural permanent grasslands are harvested in May and June in order to produce hay. The commercial farm product is calf, weaned at 4-8 months of age, with an average live weight of 130 kg, producing a carcass of 70-80 kg.

Materials and methods

We have carried out a survey and a follow-up for three years (from 2002 to 2004) in six farms (Table 1) chosen according to the typology built by Simões (2000). The main objective of the survey was to assess the farmers’ management practices for achieving a better valorisation of their products under the existing constraints. Regarding the indicators used, we can classify the first four as “potentialities of the region” (the three parishes), as we are dealing with people and land structure: age evolution as an indicator not only regarding the ageing of farmers but also related to their working ability; number of cows per farmer under 65 years of age and number of cows per farmer above 65 years of age as more precise indicators of working ability; number of total bovines and number of farms as indicators for an overall assessment of the farming potential in the Peneda mountain. Under “economic indicators”, we present the following three indicators, built on the basis of local farm information; they indirectly measure the economic results of the farms: bovine system productivity (number of calves sold/100 adult females) as an indicator of the overall technical skills of the farmers; calves’ death rate until 12 months of age and growing period in days for the calves born in the farm, as indicators of constraints to the potential economic results of the farms. Under the “environmental” umbrella we have built the last three indicators, always based on local farm information: the ratio, expressed in dry matter (DM), between herbaceous intake consumption by animals (goats, horses and cattle) and herbaceous availability in common lands. The herbaceous availability was obtained with the cage method (Barros et al., 2000). This is an indicator of grazing impact on vegetal availability. Herbaceous species consumption by

681

313

429

566

369

255

193

237

558

462

0-4

5-24

25-44

45-64

> 65

age classes

1981 2001

Figure 2. Recent change in the structure of Gavieira population (INE, 1981, 2001).

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cattle was measured by Balent and Gibon’s method (Santos et al., 2002). Regarding herbaceous species consumption by goats, data were taken from Meuret et al. (1985), while for horses data were taken from Tisserand (1986). As land use indicator we used the ratio between hectares of arable land and permanent crops. This indicator illustrates the farmers’ production strategies. Finally, we present the number of bovines belonging to local breeds threatened by extinction, as an indirect indicator of landscape and wildlife conservation.

Results

In order to have an assessment related to the farmers’ working ability, we present (Figure 1) a twenty-year change in the age structure of the inhabitants of the Peneda mountain (the three parishes). Table 2 presents the indicators related with the potentialities of the region (the three parishes). Table 3 presents the economic indicators built on the information collected during the follow-up. Table 4 presents the environmental indicators.

Discussion

The ageing of the population is worrying (Machado, 2000; OECD, 2001): the population under 44 years of age has been halved, while that above 65 years of age has increased by 60%. The ageing phenomenon brought about the problem of less labour force: as farmers are getting older, the number of cows raised decreases (Table 2), like the value of the al/pc indicator (Table 4). However, still 40% of the population is under 44 years old, which is a sign that it is still possible to reverse or, at least, stop this trend. In the last ten years, there has been an increase in the number of cows in this mountain while there has been a decrease in the number of farms; the latter is in line with regional and national trends (Silva & Fragata, 2004), and also with EU trends (OECD, 2001). The bovine systems’ productivity (Table 3) and the calves’ growth period have been constant, despite their natural fluctuations, which shows that the farmers and the system may have managed to adapt to the socio-economic evolution (Silva & Fragata, 2004). The calves’ death rate has

Table 1. Gavieira typology.

Types Farms Bovines Instruction Family Age Land use Product A (0) 2 0 0 -2 >66 Support None B (1) -4 25% r&w,

20% 0 90% 1-2 10% 4

65 Support & animal feeding

Calves

C (2) 20 5-9 0 >2 62 Support Calves D (1) 18 10- 2-4 >2 50 Potato, rye Calves,

sheep E (2) 6 > 18 4 >4 43 Potato, wine,

hay Calves,sh

eep F (0) 8 goats 0-40 2-3 53 Potato, hay Goat kids

Legend: FARMS – number of farms. BOVINES – number of animals. INSTRUCTION-number of years in school, r&w-can read and write. FAMILY-number of persons living in the house of family. AGE-average age of the farmers. LAND USE-cultures in soil, support-self consumption agriculture. PRODUCTS-products for sale. In brackets the number of farms of our sample. Source: Simões, 2000.

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Table 2. Potentialities of region indicators. Year cpu65 cpa65 nTB nF 1989 53 353 994 9.0 r 5. r 32 r 5 r 99 10 s 2.9 s 252 r 56r 999 4.6 6.5 1819 306

Legend: cpu65=number of cows per farmer less than 65 years old; Cpa65 = number of cows per farmer more or equal than 65 years old; nTB = number of total bovines in Peneda’s mountain; nF = number of farms in Peneda’s mountain. Source: r=Santos, 2000. s=Simões, 2000. INE (RGA, 1989 and 1999). Table 3. Economic indicators. Year SP CDR GP 999 50% 4% 264 2000 38% 20% 220 2001 4% 3% 210 2002 60% 3% 6 2003 68% 29% 54

Legend: SP = bovines system productivity; CDR = calves death-rate until 12 months of age; GP = growing period in days. Table 4. Land-use indicators.

Bovines belonging to local breeds Year hc vs. af al/pc Young animals Adult animals 1989 85.6% 994 22 887 99 85% 1998 98 343 999 5.5% 225 526 2001 6% 55

Legend: hc vs af = ratio in DM between domestic animal herbaceous consumption and herbaceous availability on fallow; al/pc = ratio between hectares of arable land and permanent crops. Source of information for al/pc: INE (RGA 1989 and 1999). Source of information for animals 1994=Santos (2000); 1998, 1999, 2001-Programa nacional de melhoramento animal.

largely increased because the study area is located in a protected zone where the population of wolves is increasing. It is interesting to note that 80% of calves’ deaths are due to wolf attacks, according to unpublished official reports. As regards land use (Table 4), the indicators clearly show that the impact of grazing is not the cause of the diminishing availability of vegetation. The greatly diminishing ratio between arable land and permanent crops is a consequence of the ageing of the farmers, who did not abandon their land but instead shifted its use towards natural permanent pastures. The increase in the number of wolves is well known but there are no available figures. In fact, the death rate of calves is an indirect indicator. On other hand, there is also an increase of bovines belonging to local breeds (Cachena and Barrosão) (Table 4), which are threatened by extinction. In the Peneda mountain area, only 52% of the total bovine population belongs to pure breeds threatened by extinction; the rest of the bovine population is a result of crossbreeding between these two.

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Conclusion

In this paper we assess local sustainable development by means of indicators, part of which were built on information from a sample of farms. These farms include the most representative conditions of the region. Nevertheless, we are aware that in order to have a more precise assessment of the farming sustainability in the Peneda mountain, we need to have a bigger gap time in data and a wider range of farms. Although emigration and ageing are matters of concern, with the appropriate policies it is still possible to reverse this trend, ensuring the continuity of this system.

Acknowledgments

We are most grateful to the scientific coordinator of this project, Dr Laura Larcher Graça, for the effectiveness and efficient supervision in reviewing this paper. This project, which began in July 2002 and finished in November 2004, was held by PARLE (Programa de Apoio à Renovação dos Laboratórios do Estado – Programme to support the renovation of public laboratories).

References

Barros, M.M.N.M., F. Fernandes, R. Amaro, D. Xavier and J.C.R. Santos, 2000. Proceedings of the III Reunião Ibérica de pastagens e forragens, III: p. 67-72.

Halberg, N., 999. Indicators of resource use and environmental impact for use in a decision aid for Danish livestock farmers. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 76: p. 17-30.

INE, 1981 and INE, 2001. Censos da população 1981 e 2001.INE, 1979, INE, 1989 and INE, 1999. Recenseamento geral agrícola de 1979, 1989 e 1999.Machado, C., 2000. Dinâmica e Estrutura Populacional. In: Cadernos da Montanha I, L. Graça

and H. Santos (editors), p. 40-47.Meuret, M., N. Bartiaux-Thill and A. Bourbouze, 1985. Evaluation de la consommation d’un

troupeau de chèvres laitières sur parcours forestier. Méthode d’observation directe des coups de dents et méthode du marquer oxyde chrome. Annales de zootechnie 34: p. 159-180.

OECD, 2001. Environmental indicators for Agriculture. Volume 3: Methods and Results. OECD publication.

Pires, C.B., 2000. Estrutura das explorações agrícolas de Cabreiro, Gavieira e Sistelo. In: Cadernos da Montanha I, L. Graça and H. Santos (editors), p. 48-57.

Santos, J.C.R., R.A.G. Pinheiro and M.M.N.M. Barros, 2002. Bovinos em pastoreio na Serra da Peneda: estudo da estratégia alimentar. Pastagens e Forragens 22: p. 11-18.

Silva, I. and A. Fragata, 2004. Tendências recentes na agricultura de Arcos de Valdevez: declínio geral e sinais de resistência nos bovinos de carne. Proceedings of the II Congresso de Estudos Ruaris “Periferias e Espaços Rurais”.

Simões, S., 2000. Tipologia das famílias-explorações da Serra da Peneda. In: Cadernos da Montanha I, L. Graça and H. Santos (editors), p. 58-69.

Tisserand, J.L., 1986. Alimentation du cheval. Chaire de zootecnhie et des productions animales. Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquées.

Wit (de), J., J.K. Oldenbroek, H. van Keulen and D. Zwart, 2000. Criteria for a sustainable livestock production: a proposal for implementation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 53: p. 29-229.

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References for implementation of an outdoor pig production system in the Basque Country (Spain)

R. Ruiz1, A. Domingo2 & L.M. Oregui1

1NEIKER A.B., Basque Inst. for Agric. Res. and Dev., Apdo. 48, 01080, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain 2Txerrizaleok Elkartea, Pza. Simon Labayen s/n, 20490, Albiztur, Guipúzcoa, Spain

Summary

At the request of a group of farmers and butchers, an R+D project was carried out in 1999 to design an outdoor pig production system adapted to the existing conditions and market in the Basque Country (Spain). Therefore, the interests of farmers, butchers and final consumers were taken into account. Five farms were available for fattening pigs with a cereal-based diet under a free-range system. Gilts and castrated males of 4 breeds were used: Ibérico (IB), Large White-Landrace x Duroc (LWLD), Dalland (Da), and Dalland x Pietrain (DaP). Collected information comprised quantitative data such as quantities of foodstuff provided, morbidity, morbility, live weight and carcass features (weight, conformation, fat plus skin thickness and muscle thickness). Subjective information was also requested to assess the level of satisfaction of butchers, by means of surveys (conformation, fat content, exudation, etc.), and that of consumers, by means of meat-tasting panels (tenderness, juiciness, colour, flavour, etc.). The LWLD breed seemed to be the best compromise between the objectives of farmers, butchers and consumers, and was chosen to develop an outdoor pig-fattening sector in the Basque Country. Farmers joined forces under the “Txerrizaleok elkartea” association, which now encompasses 15 farmers, producing and commercializing about 3 000 pigs/year.

Keywords: pig, outdoor, system, consumer, acceptance.

Introduction

Having noticed the increasing demand for high-quality meat products (mainly cattle) and the exceptional acceptance on the part of consumers towards home-grown pig meat, in 999 a group of farmers from the Basque Country, Spain, became interested in the production of pig meat under an outdoor production system. The initiative was welcomed by the local institutions, such as the local Associations of Agriculture in Mountainous Areas, who had been supporting initiatives pointed towards alternative activities for rural development. As a consequence, an R+D project was carried out to design an outdoor pig production system adapted to the local conditions of the farmers and the existing market. This involved taking into account the interests and opinions of everyone involved in the production and marketing chain: farmers, butchers and final consumers (Edwards & Casabianca, 1997). It requested gathering knowledge of every process involved: breed selection, nutrition, growing pattern, sale weight, commercialization, technical and economic results, etc. The present paper shows the most important results achieved and the implications for the local sector.

330

Materials and methods

Farms and facilities

For the purposes of the study, 5 farms were available. The characteristics of the land used ranged from natural grasslands in quite flat areas, to a mixture of stony patches and forest (Fagus, Quercus, Acer, Pinus, etc.) with a high degree of shrubby cover in sloping lands. Land was parcelled with electrical fences to allow keeping two different groups of animals. A minimum requirement of 200 m2/animal was agreed, and a shelter had to be built to provide the animals with dry and comfortable accommodation, and free access to food and water.

Animals and feeding management

Gilts and castrated males belonging to 4 breeds were used: 40 Ibérico pigs (IB), 40 Large White-Landrace x Duroc (LWLD), 30 Dalland (Da), and 60 Dalland x Pietrain (DaP). Piglets were purchased and transferred to the farms at 20-25 kg live weight (LW). They were individually identified with eartags and nose-ringed. Those farms in which 2 lots where placed, were divided in 2 different groups but managed under similar conditions (Table 1). Animals were introduced in the farms between st and 2th October 999 and slaughtered between st February and 2st March 2000, thus coinciding with the autumn and winter months (monthly average temperatures ranging from 10 to 14ºC, and rainfall from 145 to 170 mm). Fattening began when IB piglets had reached 14 weeks of age, while the following 8-9 weeks they were managed under a free-range system. A cereal-based diet was provided ad libitum, initially containing 3.1 Mcal/kg DM, 18% crude protein, 1% lysine, and 4.8% fibre. After having achieved 80 kg LW, protein was reduced to 15% and lysine to 0.7%. However, IB pigs received rationed feeding to avoid excessive fattening: they received 1.2 kg/day at the beginning, increasing by 0.1 kg every week during the first 6 weeks; on the th week, 2 kg/day were provided, plus the 0.1-kg weekly increase thereafter. Total absence of hormones, antibiotics, growth promoters, preventive medicines or products from animal origin was required. Periodical analyses of the provided foodstuff were held to guarantee compliance with these requirements. Farmers recorded any incidence related to morbidity and mortality, as well as the quantities of foodstuff consumed.

Survey and data collected

The experiment was designed to slaughter LWLD, DaP and Da at around either 100 kg or 120 kg, and IB pigs at either 80 or 100 kg. LW was periodically measured throughout the fattening period and before slaughter. Carcass was weighed (CW) including the head and killing out percentage (KOP = 100 x CW/LW) was estimated. Fat plus skin thickness (FT) and muscle thickness (MT) were measured on the mid-

Table 1. Farming conditions and lots characteristics. Farm Altitude Lot Lot 2 Slopes Grassland Forest 100 m 30 Da - High Yes Not available 2 550 m 20 DaP 20 IB Flat–medium No Fagus, Quercus, Castanea 3 450 m 20 IB - Flat–medium Yes Fagus, Quercus, Castanea 4 100 m 20 DaP 20 LWLD Medium-high No Quercus, Acer, Pinus 5 400 m 20 DaP 20 LWLD Flat–medium Yes Quercus, Castanea

Breeds: IB=Iberico; LWLD=Large White-Landrace x Duroc; Da=Dalland; DaP= Dalland x Pietrain.

33

line between the 3rd and the 4th last ribs to determine the percentage of lean content within the carcass (MCC) according to the equation of Gispert and Diestre (1996). Conformation was evaluated on the basis of the following pattern: AA, A, B and C. Each one was given 10, 7, 4, and 1 point respectively. Carcasses comprised between the reference classes were given +1 and –1 values around the most approximate one in order to obtain a continuous gradation, thus achieving a classification ranging between 0 and 11. Butchers involved in the study were requested to assess every carcass: their level of satisfaction in relation to conformation, fat content, colour, texture, general aspect, exudation and fat infiltration of meat and carcass was rated from 1 (very good) to 5 (very bad). Finally, meat-tasting panels formed by consumers unaware of the origin of the samples were carried out to rate meat samples from 1 (very good) to 5 (very bad). General appearance, colour and odour of raw and cooked meat, as well as flavour, tenderness and juiciness of cooked meat were assessed. Two samples were used per breed, in addition to other two coming from an intensive production system.

Results

LWLD pigs began to record higher LW quite early, which might suggest a better growth potential under this production system (Figure 1). Average daily weight gains (kg/d) obtained throughout the fattening process were 0.71 for LWLD, 0.67 for Da, 0.58 for DaP, and 0.42 for IB pigs. These figures were lower than those obtained under intensive systems, usually above 0.8 and sometimes even 1 kg/d (Tibau, 1996). No differences were observed between Da and DaP until the last months of fattening, when the pure breed showed slightly higher weights. The growth pattern of IB pigs was clearly lower and more late than the others, which is typical of this breed (Freitas, 1998; López-Bote et al., 2000). Despite their good adaptation to the local environment, such a growth pattern was considered to be a remarkable handicap in relation to the economic interests of the farmers. These data can be partly explained by the higher fodder consumption by LWLD, which resulted in the following average conversion indexes: 5.1 for IB pigs, 3.2 for LWLD, 2.9 for Da, and 2.47 for DaP. Comparing with the average conversion index achieved in intensive systems (2-2.5), these figures are very good for DaP, and quite acceptable for the rest. In this sense, an average deposition of 1 kg LW per 8-10 kg of acorn is usually estimated in extensive montanera systems of IB pigs in the south of Spain, which can be reduced to 7 when some supplementation is provided (Lopez-Bote et al., 2000).

Figure 1. Live weight (LW) and daily fodder consumption patterns throughout the fattening period according to the breed: IB (Iberico), LWLD (Large White – Landrace x Duroc), DaP (Dalland x Pietrain) and Da (Dalland).

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line between the 3rd and the 4th last ribs to determine the percentage of lean content within the carcass (MCC) according to the equation of Gispert and Diestre (1996). Conformation was evaluated on the basis of the following pattern: AA, A, B and C. Each one was given 10, 7, 4, and 1 point respectively. Carcasses comprised between the reference classes were given +1 and –1 values around the most approximate one in order to obtain a continuous gradation, thus achieving a classi cation ranging between 0 and 11. Butchers involved in the study were requested to assess every carcass: their level of satisfaction in relation to conformation, fat content, colour, texture, general aspect, exudation and fat in ltration of meat and carcass was rated from 1 (very good) to 5 (very bad). Finally, meat-tasting panels formed by consumers unaware of the origin of the samples were carried out to rate meat samples from 1 (very good) to 5 (very bad). General appearance, colour and odour of raw and cooked meat, as well as avour, tenderness and juiciness of cooked meat were assessed. Two samples were used per breed, in addition to other two coming from an intensive production system.

Results

LWLD pigs began to record higher LW quite early, which might suggest a better growth potential under this production system (Figure 1). Average daily weight gains (kg/d) obtained throughout the fattening process were 0.71 for LWLD, 0.67 for Da, 0.58 for DaP, and 0.42 for IB pigs. These gures were lower than those obtained under intensive systems, usually above 0.8 and sometimes even 1 kg/d (Tibau, 1996). No differences were observed between Da and DaP until the last months of fattening, when the pure breed showed slightly higher weights. The growth pattern of IB pigs was clearly lower and more late than the others, which is typical of this breed (Freitas, 1998; López-Bote et al., 2000). Despite their good adaptation to the local environment, such a growth pattern was considered to be a remarkable handicap in relation to the economic interests of the farmers. These data can be partly explained by the higher fodder consumption by LWLD, which resulted in the following average conversion indexes: 5.1 for IB pigs, 3.2 for LWLD, 2.9 for Da, and 2.47 for DaP. Comparing with the average conversion index achieved in intensive systems (2-2.5), these gures are very good for DaP, and quite acceptable for the rest. In this sense, an average deposition of 1 kg LW per 8-10 kg of acorn is usually estimated in extensive montanera systems of IB pigs in the south of Spain, which can be reduced to 7 when some supplementation is provided (Lopez-Bote et al., 2000).

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Age (Month)

Food

er c

onsu

mpt

ion

(kg/

d )

IB LWLD DaP Da0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Age (Month)

LW (k

g)

IB LWLD DaP Da

Figure 1. Live weight (LW) and daily fodder consumption patterns throughout the fattening period according to the breed: IB (Iberico), LWLD (Large White – Landrace x Duroc), DaP (Dalland x Pietrain) and Da (Dalland).

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However, these figures are bound to be underestimated as the effect of grazing could not be estimated due to the conditions of the study. In fact, one of the DaP lots had a significant availability of nuts (acorns, chestnuts, etc.), shrubs and grass in the patch where it was placed. Grazing should have decreased fodder intake considerably, which could explain the growth and conversion indexes previously discussed. IB pigs rating was localized to one of the two extreme points of the range in terms of carcass features at the slaughterhouse (Table 2) with lower KOP and MCC, worse carcass conformation and higher FT; DaP and Da were localized to the other extreme point (higher KOP, conformation and MCC), while LWLD were in an intermediate position. Regarding these data, two elements have to be pointed out: first, the scale used to evaluate carcass conformation was initially designed for high-growth-potential breeds coming from intensive systems; second, butchers had expressed their interest for carcasses and meat with higher fat contents. Indeed, when assessing IB carcasses and meat, butchers pointed towards this breed as the most interesting one in terms of fat content, infiltration, colour, texture and exudation (Figure 2). Although generally speaking no differences were found between the remaining breeds, DaP and Da tended to receive worse rating, and once again LWLD appeared in an intermediate position. As far as the meat panels are concerned (Figure 3), neither raw meat evaluation nor appreciation of cooked meat colour/odour demonstrated a clear trend. However, consumers showed a better acceptance of the meat coming from LWLD, followed by IB, in terms of tenderness, juiciness, flavour, and thus LWLD was given the highest score. These traits are known to be related to palatability and to determine meat quality for the consumers (Ellis & McKeith, 1993). On the one hand, several authors have related Duroc sired pigs to improved fresh meat quality (Steane, 1986; McGloughlin et al., 1988; Oliver et al., 1994), arguing less sensitivity to stress syndrome, higher level of intramuscular fat, etc.

Figure 2. Carcass and meat assessment by butchers (1=very good, 5 = very bad).

Carcass

0

1

2

3

4

5

Conform Fat Infiltration Color Texture Exudation Aspect

Va

lora

tion

Ib LW/LD/D Da/P Da

Meat

0

1

2

3

4

5

Fat Infiltration Color Texture Exudation Aspect

Va

lora

tion

Ib LW/LD/D Da/P Da

Table 2. Average live weight at slaughter and main features of the carcass.

LW-sl (kg)

CW (kg)

KOP (%)

Conformation (Points) (Type)

FT (mm)

MCC (%)

IB 92.6 75.0 80.9 2.6 C+/B- 45 5. LWLD 108.6 90.4 81.7 5.9 A- 3 59.0 DaP 106.3 90.0 82.2 8.7 AA- 29 59.2 Da 106.6 87.5 82.1 .3 A 28 59.2

LW-sl: Live weight at slaughter; CW: Carcass weight; KOP: Killing out percentage; FT: Fat and skin thickness;

MCC:MeagrecontentofthecarcassaccordingtotheequationofGispertandDiestre(1996).

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On the other hand, the differentiated quality of the IB breed has been widely recognised and justifies most of the high-quality pig meat sector in Spain (Dobao et al., 1988, Serra et al., 1998). Da and DaP were not so well accepted by the consumers in comparison to the other breeds. However, a remarkable result was that the standard meat currently commercialized in the local butcheries, mainly obtained by means of intensive systems, received the worse scores. Consumers thus seemed to appreciate the differentiated quality of the final product achieved by an outdoor pig production system, independently of the breed used. Open-air conditions and exercise are bound to play a leading role in such differentiation, which Lázaro et al. (2002) have related to an improvement in protein accumulation by reducing protein breakdown.

Current situation

As a consequence of the results obtained in the project, the LWLD breed seemed to offer the best compromise between the objectives of farmers, butchers and consumers, and was thus chosen for an outdoor pig production system. Farmers united in the “Txerrizaleok elkartea” association, which nowadays comprises 15 farmers. They produce and commercialize an average of 3,000 pigs per year, which are slaughtered nowadays at 140-150 kg LW in order to increase the fat content of meat and carcass, and achieve a higher differentiation from those coming from intensive systems. Before joining the association, land resources availability is evaluated by a technician working for the association. Standard facilities were agreed in order to provide better conditions for the pigs. Basically they consist of an open shelter, well ventilated, at least 2 m. high, offering a minimum of 0.8 m2 per animal. Concrete floor must be placed in and out, at least 3 cm. taller than the feeding and watering areas to avoid mud formation. Land must be managed in differentiated patches adequately fenced to allow producing several lots. Farmers must be able to produce every year up to 4 lots of 50-60 animals each, depending on the conditions of the farm. A minimum availability of 300 m2 land per animal must be guaranteed and at least 5 months of fattening is expected. Once a lot is slaughtered, the patches must remain free of animals until optimal conditions are recovered. Together with the achievement of a differentiated meat product, this system type is better perceived by consumers in terms of animal welfare, allows making use of natural resources in forested sloping areas, and offers a part-time livestock activity to rural areas. Further research is needed, specially focussed on the importance of the grazing activity, N excretion, determination of optimal stocking rates and definition of rotation practices.

Raw meat

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

Appearance Colour Odor

Val

orat

ion

Ib LW D/P D Industrial

Cooked meat

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Colour Odor Tendern. Juicin. Flavour Score

Va

lora

tion

Ib LW D/P D Industrial

Figure 3. Raw and cooked meat assessment by consumers (1=very good, 5 = very bad). Score was rated from 0 (worst) to 10 (best).

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Basque Government for the financial support, and the Kalitatea Fundazioa, Gipuzkoako Mendi Nekazaritza Elkarteak, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaries (IRTA, Lleida) as well as the farmers involved, for their support and involvement in the study. Thanks are also expressed to the two anonymous referees who helped to improve the quality of the paper.

References

Dobao, M.T., J. Rodrigañez, L. Silió and M.A. Toro, 1988. Iberian pig production in Spain. Pig News Information 9: p. 277-282.

Edwards, S.A. and F. Casabianca, 1997. Perception and reality of product quality from outdoor pig systems in Northern and Southern Europe. In: Livestock Farming Systems: more than food production, EAAP Publication 89: p. 145-156.

Ellis, M. and F.K. McKeith,1993. Factors affecting the eating quality of pork. In: Growth of the pig, G.R. Hollis (editor), Wallingford, Cab International, p. 215-239.

Gispert, M. and A. Diestre, 1996. Harmonización de los métodos de clasificación de canales porcinas en la UE. Eurocarne 51: p. 45-50.

Lázaro, R., F. Toldra, J.M. Ferrer, L. Silió, M.C. Rodríguez and C.J. López-Bote, 2002. Effect of exercise on the activity of proteolytic enzymes in skeletal muscle and carcass quality of Iberian pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 80: p. s214.

López-Bote, C., G. Fructuoso and G.G. Mateos, 2000. Sistemas de producción porcina y calidad de la carne. El cerdo ibérico. XVI Curso de Especialización FEDNA, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, 35 pp.

McGloughlin, P., T. Allen, P.V. Tarrant and R.L. Joseph, 1988. Growth and carcass quality of crossbred pigs sired by Duroc, Landrace and Large White boars. Livest. Prod. Sci. 18: p. 275-288.

Oliver, M.A., P. Gou, M. Gispert, A. Diestre, J. Arnau, J.L. Noguera and A. Blasco, 1994. Comparison of five types of pig crosses. II. Fresh meat quality and sensory characteristics of dry cured ham. Livest. Prod. Sci. 40: p. 179-185.

SAS, 1990. SAS/STAT User’s Guide. Release 6.03. Statistical Analisis System, SAS Institute, Cary NC.Serra, X., F. Gil, M. Perez-Enciso, M.A. Oliver, J.M. Vázquez, M. Gispert, I. Díaz, F. Moreno,

R. Latorre and J.L. Noguera, 1998. A comparison of carcass, meat quality and histochemical characteristics of Iberian (Guayerbas line) and Landrace pigs. Livest. Prod. Sci. 56: p. 215-223.

Steane, D.E., 1986. The potencial of Duroc breed of pigs. Res. Dev. Agric. 3: p. 153-157.Tibau, J., 1996. El ganado porcino y la mejora genética. In: Porcinocultura intensiva y extensiva,

Zootecnia y Bases de producción animal, Tomo VI, C. Buxadé (editor), Ed. Mundi-Prensa, Madrid, p. 65-80.

335

Development of a methodology for assessing sustainable development in egg production

H. Mollenhorst & I.J.M. de Boer

Animal Production Systems Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research Center, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands

Summary

During the last decades several new housing systems for laying hens have been developed. Large-scale introduction of these systems, however, may not be based on animal welfare only. That was one of the reasons to start research with the aim of developing a methodology to assess the contribution of various animal-friendly production systems to sustainable development. An interactive process with stakeholders resulted in the following issues: welfare and health, environment, quality, ergonomics, economy, specialisation, consumer concerns, laws and regulations, and innovation. For these issues, suitable indicators were selected. In the end, weighing factors for different issues have to be assessed by individuals or groups, because it is impossible to make a general judgement.

Keywords: egg production systems, animal welfare, stakeholder analysis.

Introduction

During the last decades several new housing systems for laying hens have been developed. The main focus in developing these systems was improvement of animal welfare. In the end, a legislative ban on battery cages in the European Union was enforced (Council of the European Union, 1999). However, there has been so much focus on increasing space allowance and environmental enrichment, that many other aspects were neglected. Large-scale introduction of ‘new’ housing systems, however, may not be based on animal welfare only (de Boer & Cornelissen, 2002). That was one of the reasons to start research with the aim of developing a methodology to assess the contribution of various animal-friendly production systems to sustainable development (SusD), based on the combined economic, ecological and societal performance of these systems. The egg production sector is used as an illustration of this methodology.

Methodology

The assessment of the contribution of egg production systems to SusD includes four steps (e.g., Bell & Morse, 1999; de Boer & Cornelissen, 2002):1. Description of the (problem) situation.2. Identification and definition of relevant economic, ecological, and societal (EES) issues.3. Selection and quantification of suitable sustainability indicators (SIs).4. Aggregation of indicator information into an overall contribution to SusD.

336

Ad 1. Description of the (problem) situation

Johnson and Scholes (1997) define stakeholders as “those individuals or groups who depend on the organization to fulfil their own goals, and on whom, in turn, the organization depends. Typically, they include shareholders, customers, suppliers, banks, employees and the community at large.” In order to get insight into relevant stakeholders, the production system together with all its in- and outputs was first depicted in a flowchart. For every element, one or more relevant stakeholders were invited for a workshop.

Ad 2. Identification and definition of relevant EES issues

The first part of the workshop was a brainstorming session. During this session all stakeholders could name all relevant aspects for SusD of egg production systems. After the brainstorming session, aspects were clustered to structure the discussion during the rest of the workshop. These clusters, also called issues, were the starting point for a SWOT analysis (Balamuralikrishna & Dugger, 1995) of the current situation of egg production in the Netherlands. This method was used as a tool to structure the discussion. In a SWOT analysis the subject of study is analyzed for its internal Strengths and Weaknesses, and external Opportunities and Threats (Balamuralikrishna & Dugger, 1995). After the workshop, some experts were consulted and literature was reviewed in order to clarify some of the issues. The final result of this phase is a list of relevant sustainability issues.

Ad 3. Selection and quantification of suitable SIs

Relevant sustainability issues have to be converted into suitable SIs. Characteristics of a suitable SI are (Mitchel et al., 1995; de Boer & Cornelissen, 2002):. It is relevant, i.e. it measures what it is supposed to measure; both local and spatial effects of an

issue, if relevant, should be included in the indicator.2. It is simple, i.e. easy to understand, even by non experts.3. It is sensitive and reliable, i.e. sensitive with respect to changes in the system (changes over time

and across space), and reliable, or in other words, repeatable.4. It is possible to define a trend or target value for the indicator.5. Data are accessible. Data are already collected consistently, and if not, the collection of required

data is technically and financially feasible. Within this project, this means that the selected indicators must be suitable for on-farm assessment.

Ad 4. Aggregation of indicator information into an overall contribution to SusD

Collected data of all SIs are presented and compared. In theory, it is possible to aggregate all information into an overall contribution to SusD, but it is very difficult, or even impossible, to determine the correct weighing factors. Depending on the group of people, different issues will get priority. Therefore, a clear presentation of the differences between the housing systems from all aspects will be the result, followed by a discussion on the consequences of decisions based on different priorities.

Results and discussion

During the SWOT analysis all issues were thoroughly discussed and, after literature review and expert consultation, a final list of issues was produced (Figure 1). In the following sections, these issues are discussed and SIs are identified based on the above-mentioned criteria.

33

Animal health and welfare

The most relevant indicator for animal health would be disease incidence, but there are no available data. Looking for (general) symptoms or behavior (passive) is a method that is used by farmers and veterinarians when observing a flock. This method is quite subjective and cannot be used when observing only once. One of the conclusions from a pilot study was that there are no general symptoms representing the most common diseases, so it is difficult to make this method more objective. Clinical observations, combined with analysis of blood and/or manure samples, would give the most objective indicator. However, in a large-scale on-farm project it is impossible to slaughter a representative group of animals from each flock. Use of veterinary medicine is less relevant, because it depends to a large extent on the management of the farmer. This disadvantage, however, becomes less relevant, because medicines are rarely used on laying hens, due to the risk of residues (Rougoor et al., 1994). The main conclusion from the pilot study was that there are no simple indicators for on-farm assessment, except average mortality rate. This, however, is quite a final state of animal health problems, which makes it less relevant, and is also not very sensitive. One of the recommendations was that deviations in mortality curves, or even in production curves, could be more sensitive. It still has the disadvantage that the indicator is not specific for animal health, because it can also be influenced by other calamities, e.g. climatic problems. Another pilot study showed that the TGI (Tiergerechtheitsindex or Animal Needs Index; Sundrum et al., 1994) can be used to distinguish between production systems on the issue of animal welfare. The TGI, however, cannot distinguish between farms within a housing system. When analyzed over different housing systems, good correlations are found between TGI scores, feather condition score (Bilcik & Keeling, 1999) and behavioral observations.

Environmental impact

One of the most promising methods to assess the environmental impact of different production systems is LCA (Life Cycle Assessment). Possible impact categories are acidification, eutrophication, global

Figure 1. Outline of interactive process.

338

warming, fossil energy use, and land use, which will be used as indicators for environmental impact (de Boer, 2003). In this project, the “cradle to farm-gate” principle will be applied, which means that every input, on-farm or off-farm, necessary to produce eggs ready for transport from the farm will be taken into account.

Egg quality

Egg quality encompasses three main aspects: external egg quality; internal egg quality, which includes food safety; and ‘emotional’ quality. Emotional quality refers to feelings and thoughts of consumers about the product. Because it deals with consumers, it is not possible to assess this indicator on-farm. External quality characteristics are egg shape, shell strength, percentage of ridged and cracked eggs, and cleanliness. The percentage of second quality eggs is a good indicator. Internal quality characteristics are food safety, yolk color, albumen, smell and taste, and blood and meat spots. The most important one is food safety, where the biggest risks regard microbiological contamination and residues from feed or medicine. The biggest issues are Salmonella and dioxin. Since the end of 99, Salmonella is monitored in laying hens nine weeks before slaughter, so this issue can be easily assessed. Dioxin contamination, however, is more difficult to assess, because analysis is very expensive.

Ergonomics

Ergonomics of egg production systems means that they must be constructed so that the farmer or worker can work in a safe, healthy, welfare-friendly, and efficient way (van Scheijndel and Voskamp, 2000). From the workshop and consecutive expert consultations it became clear that the most important factors include ambient conditions, e.g. dust and endotoxins, and working posture.

Economic performance

In the short term, a farmer needs to earn enough money from the farm to support the family. Net farm income (NFI) is the most appropriate indicator to monitor economic performance of agricultural systems. For a proper comparison between farms, this indicator has to be expressed per FTE (full-time equivalent) family labor. In the long term, farm continuity has to be guaranteed. This means that the equity capital has to grow or at least remain equal. Money left from the NFI after family expenditures can be used to increase equity capital. When NFI is too low to support the family, the farmer will dip into the equity capital. It can be concluded that NFI is the best indicator for economic performance, because it incorporates both short-term income from the farm and long-term solvability.

Specialization

The degree of specialization can be measured by calculating the percentage of nge’s (Nederlandse Grootte Eenheid, the Dutch equivalent of the European Size Unit) of the laying hens within the whole farm. The Dutch and European Size Units are based on the Standard Gross Margins (SGMs), as defined by the European Commission (1985). The SGM is the balance between the standard value of production and standard value of certain specific costs. This indicator, however, gets a low score on ‘trend or target value’, because it is difficult to interpret with respect to SusD. Therefore, the level of specialization is incorporated in this project to characterize the farms, not as SI.

339

Knowledge and innovation

Measuring the level of knowledge or innovation is difficult, if not impossible. It is possible, however, to ask the farmer whether he thinks he can get enough information. For the characterization of information flows, a question about resources of knowledge can be added.

Off‑farm issues

The other issues presented in Figure , consumer concerns and laws/regulations cannot be determined on farm level and are therefore characterized as off-farm issues. Because this project is directed at on-farm assessment of SusD, they are not taken into account.

Conclusions

In order to assess the contribution of various systems to the sustainable development of egg production, not only welfare, but also a wide variety of economic, ecological and societal issues have to be considered. After selection of relevant EES issues, suitable SIs are defined for on-farm assessment, namely: deviations from standard production curves; medicine use; mortality rate; Animal Needs Index (TGI); land and energy use per kg of eggs produced; global warming, acidification and eutrophication potential per kg of eggs produced; total % of 2nd quality eggs; Salmonella (Se/St) contamination; % of farmers experiencing respiratory or back problems; working hours; net farm income per FTE; availability of knowledge. In the last phase, weighing factors for different issues have to be assessed by individuals or groups, because it is impossible to make a general judgement.

References

Balamuralikrishna, R. and J. C. Dugger, 1995. SWOT analysis: a management tool for initiating new programs in vocational schools. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education 12:, http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JVTE/v12n1/Balamuralikrishna.html. Accessed Apr. 2003.

Bilcik, B. and L.J. Keeling, 1999. Changes in feather condition in relation to feather pecking and aggressive behaviour in laying hens. British Poultry Science 40: p. 444-451.

Commission of the European Communities, 1985. Commission decision No. 85/377/EEC of 7 June 1985 establishing a Community typology for agricultural holdings. Official Journal of the European Communities, L 220: p. 1-32.

Council of the European Union, 1999. Council Directive 1999/74/EC of 19 July 1999 laying down minimum standards for the protection of laying hens. Official Journal of the European Communities L 203: p. 53-57.

de Boer, I.J.M., 2003. Environmental impact assessment of conventional and organic milk production. Livestock Production Science 80: p. 69-77.

de Boer, I.J.M. and A.M.G. Cornelissen, 2002. A method using sustainability indicators to compare conventional and animal-friendly egg production systems. Poult. Sci. 81: p.173-181.

Johnson, G. and K. Scholes, 1997. Exploring corporate strategy. 4th ed, Prentice Hall, London, UK.Mitchell, G., A. May and A. McDonald, 1995. PICABUE: a methodological framework for the

development of indicators of sustainable development. International Journal of Sustainable Development of World Ecology 2: p. 104-123.

Rougoor, C.W., W.H.M. Baltussen and J.M. van Leeuwen, 1994. Animal health and use of veterinary medicines in pig and poultry husbandry. ID-DLO, Lelystad, The Netherlands. (in Dutch)

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Sundrum, A., R. Andersson and G. Postler, 1994. Tiergerechtheitsindex - 200, 1994: ein Leitfaden zur Beurteilung von Haltungssystemen, Koellen, Bonn, Germany.

van Scheijndel, P. and P. Voskamp, 2000. System-ergonomic designing. In: Handbook of Ergonomics, P. Voskamp (editor), Samson, Alphen aan de Rijn, The Netherlands, p. 15-24. (in Dutch)

34

Diversity and sustainability in the pig industry in Guadeloupe

M.-F. Zebus1, G. Alexandre2, N. Dauphin1 & J.-L. Diman1

1INRA, Unité Agropédoclimatique de la Zone Caraïbe 2INRA, Unité de Recherches Zootechniques, Centre Antilles-Guyane, Domaine Duclos, 97170 Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe, France

Summary

In Guadeloupe, a French overseas department in the Caribbean, the dominant model in the pig sector introduced in the seventies was often in contrast to the so-called traditional pig units, completely neglected by policy makers. Taking advantage of a rapid field survey intended to build farm models, economists and animal production specialists decided to identify the main existing pig rearing systems, assuming that there were a wide variety of them and that most of the so-called “non-professional” pig production systems can play a significant role in terms of sustainable development. First, five main pig farming systems are described from a technical and economic perspective (herd structure, breeds used, reproduction management, feeding strategy, sanitation methods, marketing practices and results). These systems form the dominant model (more than 20 breeding sows, 2% of the units in Guadeloupe), while four small and medium sized unit (SMU) systems have been identified too. Next, the SMUs are shown to be more sustainable than the dominant model in various fields. The conclusion refers to the social and economic importance of these SMUs (40% of the supply in fresh meat) and the need to adapt the development and extension policies to this variety of pig farming systems.

Keywords: livestock farming systems, pig industry, sustainability, development policies, Caribbean.

Introduction

In Guadeloupe, a French overseas department in the Caribbean, the authorities and professional agricultural organisations considered that the only “real pig farming units” were those which fitted the model promoted on the island since the end of the seventies. This “modern”, “intensive”, “standard”, or “professional” type of unit was the result of a complete advisory package based on the type of piggery used in metropolitan France. It could be defined as the dominant model (DM) as it had monopolised the collective resources. This model, based on specialisation, maximization of labour and animal productivity, and large size, had led to the creation of new pig farming systems and a new context for the more traditional pig farming units. The latter still existed in Guadeloupe unlike metropolitan France. Nevertheless, because they were opposed to the official model as being “traditional livestock units”, they were left alone without support and did not serve as a basis for any other model. In order to build development and research policies based on the sustainability and multifunctionality of agriculture, there was a need to study this pig sector: observing the farmers’ practices, considering their diversity, assessing them according to the new goals of French agriculture. The study mainly aimed at characterising farmers’ production activities in order to build a farm model. Therefore, the first aim was the identification and a technical and economic evaluation of the existing pig farming systems through a rapid appraisal. The data collected generated a discussion about the sustainability of the systems. These are the two types of results presented. The consequences for development policies are presented in the conclusion.

342

Three main hypotheses were inspired by previous informal observations: there was a diversity of pig farming systems even outside the dominant model; these pig systems had evolved from the former traditional ones; most of them deserved public support.

Materials and methods

The population studied consisted of the 680 recent land reform settlers, the basis of the first version of the farm model. In 2000-2001, 105 farms were recorded with at least 1 pig. The survey was made on a sample of 20 farms (20%) chosen for their herd size, geographical location and the overall type of farming. The main points investigated during one or two visits were herd structure, breeds used, reproduction policy, feeding strategy, sanitation methods and marketing practices, referring to the two years before the survey. The data were analysed by agricultural economists and animal production specialists. All the results were discussed with the two technicians in charge of the French national technical network for Guadeloupe and incidentally interested in the smaller pig units. As to the dominant model (DM) farms, the consultation of the database of this technical network strengthened the survey, particularly for the extrapolation to the whole Guadeloupe. As the non-specialised pig farmers generally did not have any record about the pig activity, some data were recalculated. Data on two farms could not be used because of the instability of the pig unit or the poor quality of the answers. The land reform farms were particular: they had been created in a short period, with almost the same individual surface (twice the average), not on the whole of Guadeloupe, and the technical assistance for these farms was much higher than in the rest of the territory. As this population was far less heterogeneous than the whole population, any identification of diversity would be relevant for the whole territory, though the typology found could not be extrapolated to the whole territory.

Diversity of pig farming systems

In 2000, according to the national agricultural census published after the survey, in Guadeloupe there were 4,305 breeding sows in 1,933 pig farms (16% of the total). Less than 2% of the pig farms had more than 20 breeding sows (19% of the breeding sow herd), mainly farms belonging to the DM, according to the specialised technicians. Then, 90% of the farms had at most 3 breeding sows (57% of the herd). The remaining 8% had between 4 and 19 breeding sows (24% of the herd). This census validated the representativeness of the sample in terms of size structure. It confirmed two hypotheses: the numerical significance of the small pig units and the existence of medium-sized pig farms. The pig farm types identified are described mainly in the framework of the farm-modelling project (Table 1). Some indicators are not precise because of the lack of records or the variety of practices inside a type. However, they help to understand the functioning of the pig farm types. For instance, feeding is described in order to evaluate the degree of sophistication (use of concentrates, “no. of formulas”, “unit concerned”, etc), the amount of expenses, the dependence of the pig farm on other parts of the farm and the autonomy of the entire farm. As to the breeds used, there was the Creole breed and some specialised breeds, parts of the DM package. Three cases have been defined: specialised, Creole and mixed (mix of Creole and specialised, and/or crossbred animals between exotic and Creole). Six pig management systems were identified by the survey. In spite of a very clear distinction in terms of size and organisation between the large pig units and the small and medium-sized ones (SMUs), significant differences among the latter led to the characterisation of 4 types (Table 1). The dominant model of pig farms had been created with the promotion of pig farming in the seventies. They were breeders-fatteners with the highest rate of productivity. Their products were sold

343

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344

through formal channels (abattoir, etc). They were registered and benefited from technical advisory and financial support. The farmers were full-time farmers with relatively high technical knowledge; they also hired employees. These farms were the only ones having purpose-built and well equipped buildings. Their herds consisted exclusively of specialised breeds with a size exceeding 20 sows. Feed was essentially of commercial origin and differed according to the physiological stage of the animals. All the sanitary measures prescribed in the region were applied. The four SMU pig farming systems characterised are “intensive SMU”, “medium unit”, “very small unit” and “traditional fattener” (Table 1). The renting of service boar, undertaken as the main management system by 2 farmers surveyed, could not be defined because of lack of data. Most of the SMUs were completely informal (Zébus et al., 2004). Nevertheless, some of them were supported unofficially and occasionally by the specialised technicians. The SMUs’ main purposes were providing income and meat for home consumption and making use of crop residues. Most of the small and medium pig farmers were both breeders and fatteners. The fattening was very profitable since slaughter, butchery and sale all took place on the farm and the price of the meat was high (Table 1) and very stable (likewise for the black pudding). The investment was generally small and never required credit. There were various types of housing, rudimentary ones, from outdoor tethering to pens built with mutual help. Sanitation practices were basic. The “intensive SMUs” combined technical knowledge (from training or earlier experience in the DM) similar to that of the DM (the same 15 piglets weaned per productive sow per year but obtained using less selected sows) with the advantages of more traditional production: high prices, relatively low level of investment, multifunctionality, hardy crossbred animals. Most of the weaned piglets were fattened. The feeding combined average amounts of concentrates with rejects of feed grade bananas; sanitary conditions were average. The “medium units” sold more than half their piglets as weaned piglets. The diet was mixed but with smaller amounts of concentrates than in the “intensive SMUs”. The maximum herd size observed was 10 sows, maybe due to market limitations. Their technical capability seemed to limit their apparent objective as breeders to maximise their numerical productivity (6.8 piglets weaned/sow/year). The other breeders-fatteners had “very small units” with only 1 or 2 sows. The size and performances of each pig farm could vary according to available resources (labour and crop residues) and income requirements. The diet was mixed, sometimes including swill. The 4 pig farmers surveyed kept Creole pigs, undoubtedly for their hardiness, housed in very basic pens. The “traditional fatteners” type had evolved from the small household units where farm and kitchen by-products were transformed into meat for home consumption and sale; the latter had become the main output. They seemed to valorise mainly marginal labour, their income being lower than the minimum wage (cf. “Benefit”, Table 1). All the SMUs which practiced breeding had an added value per sow higher than that of the DM ones (Table 1). Moreover, the global added value provided by the “intensive SMU”, indeed by the “medium unit”, was close to that of the DM unit; the reason of their coexistence lay in other characteristics described above that limit the adoption or the growth of these SMU systems (Table 1). As always in the region (Diman et al., 2005), there was a continuum between two logics: pig farming for sale in search of the maximum income, and “piggybank” pig farming, where sales were conditioned by the farmer’s occasional needs for money and by available resources.

Sustainability of different pig farming systems

Sustainability is analysed through some main criteria defined in the last French national law for agriculture (1999): environmental impact, biodiversity, employment, territorial development. In order to take into account developing countries, the case of Guadeloupe agriculture being close to such, the issue of food security is considered. The major differences were between the DM and the SMUs.

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In the absence of a specific conclusion, the issue of environmental impact of the pig farms can only be treated in terms of possible risks (Cabidoche et al., 2001). Only two pig farmers out of the 20 surveyed thoroughly treated the effluent, one DM and one SMU. According to the technicians, examples of complete treatment of effluent were rare throughout the territory, including DMs. Experts consider that there is a serious risk of pollution from large intensive pig farms with a high animal density and that there is no need to worry about the SMUs instead, because of their dispersion and low size (Cabidoche et al., 2001). Concerning biodiversity, the evolution of the Guadeloupean pig farming systems tends to endanger the local Creole breed through numerous crossings (Despois et al., 1997) aimed at improving fattening and reproductive qualities. This Creole breed is characterised by its meat qualities and its adaptation to the environment that gives the breed great hardiness as regards diet, climate etc., and good farrowing qualities (Rinaldo, 2000). The breed exists only in the SMUs (Table 1). One solution could be to promote it through a quality mark. The pig farming systems identified helped to maintain or create employment and income. In the DM, there was often a well-trained breeder and an employee. Although not large, the SMUs contributed to the maintenance of farmers’ and non-farmers’ standards of living. The DM was often defined as an organised industry, but the existence and maintenance of networks were essential to the SMUs. For instance, the direct retail sale of meat required a minimum social organisation. Informal information on other selling methods in other parts of Guadeloupe suggested some real organisational innovations. This situation suggests some hypotheses to be validated about the role of this social organisation in social cohesion, in the maintenance of the link between town and country and between production and consumption, and in the cultural and technical heritage. The point of food security was addressed through the characteristics of the supply. We have estimated the local meat production at 1,100 T, between 25 and 31 % of the apparent consumption of the department and the main source of fresh meat. The proportions of the DM and SMUs were approximately 630 T and 450 T respectively. However, the DM pig farms were very fragile because of financial fragility, dependence on the other segments of the DM subsector, and recurrent problems in organising this industry. On the contrary, the SMUs strengthened the systems of activities with their high added value per sow and their high flexibility.

Consequences for development and research policies

This rapid evaluation confirmed the diversity existing among the pig farms in terms of size, functioning, performances and insertion in the global pig sector. If the major differences were between the DM and the SMUs, 4 pig systems were characterised as part of the latter. The SMUs evolved particularly under the influence of the DM system itself. At a higher level, the SMU “sub-sector” appeared to be significant economically and socially (81% of the sow herd, 98% of the pig farms, 40% of the local supply, durability). All the above definitely prevented it from being described as a relict of the past. Regarding sustainability, the DM showed the highest environmental risk; the SMUs had been so far the only means of defence of biodiversity; both of them supplied most of the domestic market with fresh meat and contributed to the maintenance of employment. The individual and collective advantages of the SMUs speak in favour of their integration in the development policy. A further step would be to manage diversity by building adapted technical models and extension policies. Although these first results have to be improved by monitoring a sample of pig farms, they contribute to the promotion of adapted development policies.

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Acknowledgments

This study was mainly carried out through two INRA research programs, “Mica” and “Valorisation of local breeds”, with the financial support of the European Union (Feoga) and the Regional Council of Guadeloupe.

References

Cabidoche, Y.M., M. Dorel, J.M. Paillat and P. Robin, 2001. Gestion de l’azote dans les D.O.M. insulaires. Etat des lieux, besoins de recherche (Expertise pour le Ministère de l’écologie et Développement Durable), Inra APC, Petit-Bourg (Guadeloupe).

Despois, E. and E. Phaëton, 1997. Contribution de SOS PIG (Sauvegarde Organisée et Sélection des Porcs Indigènes de la Guadeloupe). In: Séminaire sur le soutien de l’élevage paysan, Cafipoc and Fondation Cimarron (editors), (Dominican Rep.).

Diman, J.L., M. Naves, G. Alexandre and M.F. Zébus, 2005. The diversity of ruminant rearing systems in Guadeloupe: positions within the industry and its sanitary regulations. In: Livestock farming systems: product quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability, R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 118: p. 355-360.

Rinaldo, D., 2000. Le porc créole en Guadeloupe. Proceedings of V Congreso Iberoamericano de Razas Autoctonas y Criollas, Ciudad Habana, Cuba, p. 250-256.

Zébus, M.F., G. Alexandre, J.L. Diman, E. Despois and A. Xandé, 2004. Activités informelles, normalisation et développement. L’élevage porcin en Guadeloupe. Cahiers Agricultures 13: p. 263-270.

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Animal production systems distribution in Mexico City

J. Vieyra1, H. Losada1, A.Castillo2, J. Cortes1, R. Soriano1 & G. Alonso1

1Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, Area de Investigación de Desarrollo agropecuario sustentable 2División de Ciencias Básicas e Ingeniería, Departamento de Matemáticas, Av. San Rafael Atlixco 186 Col. Vicentina Iztapalapa, México, D.F. CP 09340

Summary

Mexico City (Distrito Federal) is a megapolis that has been growing in the last 70 years and has become one of the most populated cities in the world, with approximately 22 million inhabitants in a surface of 1,479 km2 (INEGI, 1991a; Losada et al., 1997). Population growth in the vicinity of the city has been boosted by people from the poor rural areas who moved to the city with the hope to find a better way of life. These areas in the vicinity of Mexico city are called conurban municipalities of the city and belong to the Estado de Mexico which has actually been included as part of the metropolitan area of Mexico City, with a surface of 8,000 km2 (INEGI, 1991b). However, despite the urbanization of the area, this new city has kept its cultural traditions and methods of animal production, adapting them to the conditions prevailing in a city environment.

Keywords: urban agricultural, land use, environment, sustainability.

Introduction

Mexico City is a megapolis that has experienced quick growth in the last 70 years, due to migration from small cities and rural areas since the evolution towards centralism led to the concentration of most of the national economic activities in the capital. With the urban development of Mexico City and the industrial development that generated employment opportunities for the immigrants, the need for new urbanized spaces was evident. New industrial complexes and residential developments displaced animal production systems, although many of these are being adapted to the new conditions of the city. At the moment, the urban sprawl has an approximate surface of 1,400 Km2 and concentrates 22 million inhabitants (INEGI, 2001). The city has 16 political delegations, which have been classified by the city government into urban (10) and rural (6) ones, in the context of a development strategy (Diario Oficial de la Federación, 1996). However, animal production systems can be found in all of them. This study, dealing with their geographical distribution, aims to identify the areas of the city in which animal production systems are still significant.

Methodology

A questionnaire of 47 questions was prepared in order to conduct a survey on urban producers in the different delegations of Mexico City and in three conurban municipalities. The sample was taken in the so-called agricultural delegations and in the other areas where the National Institute of Geography and Statistics (INEGI, 1995) had identified the presence of animals. A

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total of 1,000 questionnaires were collected. The survey was carried out by trained staff, fully authorized by personal identification.

Results

In Mexico City and its conurban municipalities different systems of animal production can be found, in most of the cases the producer rearing more than one species. The distribution of cattle production observed in households with animal production, and the type of animals they grow, is reported in Table : cattle are stabled and only in some cases the animals are taken to graze to the green areas of the city (streets and gardens). Beef cattle were fed the leftovers of the food industry (bakery, brewery, markets, etc) and small amounts of corn flower, bran or commercial balance food were supplied as a supplement. The reproduction method commonly used is natural mating, while artificial insemination is applied in those delegations and municipalities where the producers are organized in cattle associations that facilitate the transfer of technology, as in the Iztapalapa Delegation (Losada et al., 1996). The minor species that are most frequently observed in the majority of the delegations and municipalities were sheep and pigs (Table 2). These two species are important because of their easy handling, economic value and quick commercialization. It is noticeable that pigs were present in those delegations with the major urban and industrial development, where the large number of restaurants, tortillerias and household kitchens generates a great source of food for these species. Birds species are the animals that are the most frequently reared in the city and in conurban areas of many delegations and municipalities. The variety of species observed included turkeys, ducks, geese, partridge, poultry, etc., the most abundant production being poultry, with laying hens, fattening chickens, roosters, etc. (Table 3). The main ingredients of the poultry diet were leftovers from household kitchens and neighbouring stores (hard tortilla, bread, food, fruit, green vegetables), complemented with corn, bran and in some cases with a minimal amount of commercial balanced food. In the delegations and municipalities with agricultural land areas, a minor proportion of draught animals was found such as horses, donkeys and mules. These species are still used for transporting hand-farming equipment and harvested by-products.

Table 1. Distribution of dairy and beef cattle. Dairy cattle Beef cattle Delegation % producers % animals % producers % animals Azcapotzalco 2.5 0.2 0 0 Atizapan 0 0 0 0 Coacalco 2.3 .6 0 0 Cuajimalpa 2 0.01 0.64 0.78 Chimalhuacan 2.8 0.01 4.48 28.3 Ecatepec 5. 30 3.84 .2 Huixquilucan 4.4 5.6 3.34 2.9 Iztapalapa 12.98 4. 32 6.48 Magdalena C. 9.6 .6 4.48 9.2 Milpa Alta 4. 3 .69 2.4 Texcoco .5 3 10.2 5.6 Tlahuac 39.4 33.28 9.32 10

N=1 000.

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Table 2. Distribution of sheep and pigs. Sheep Pigs Delegation % producers % animals % producers % animals Azcapotzalco 0 0 .9 Atizapan 0.88 0.9 3.6 .5 Coacalco 4.4 4.3 3.6 0.5 Cuajimalpa . 0.8 4.3 4.5 Chimalhuacan 3.96 2 4.5 5.5 Ecatepec 2.2 2 2.3 52. Huixquilucan .26 .3 2.2 4.6 Iztapalapa 22 9. 5.2 6. Magdalena C. 5.3 2.6 3.2 2 Milpa Alta 2 8.8 3.6 2.2 Texcoco 4.4 4.3 5.5 3.9 Tlahuac 2.5 41.8 5.8 3.5 Tlalpan 4.4 2. 9.2 5.

N=1 000. Table 3. Distribution of diverse birds and poultry. Birds Poultry Delegation % producers % animals % producers % animals Azcapotzalco 5.5 2.3 2.9 0.5 Atizapan 4.6 10.2 3.8 Coacalco 0 0 3 .2 Cuajimalpa 5.3 8.2 10 5.4 Chimalhuacan 18.4 20 10.8 2.6 Ecatepec 2.3 4.8 8 3.8 Huixquilucan 2. .3 3.3 4.4 Iztapalapa 9.4 25.8 18 8 Magdalena C. 4. 4 6 2.5 Milpa Alta 0 0 3.8 3.2 Texcoco 9.2 8 64.6 Tlahuac .4 3.5 .3 2.3 Tlalpan 23.3 4. 5. 0.5

N=1 000.

Discussion

Animal production systems in Mexico City represent an option for ensuring household food and family business. They also fulfil a very important function by increasing social and cultural bonds in the family and in society and promoting the traditions that maintain the identity of their inhabitants (food production for self-sufficiency and traditional medicine). Animal producers adapted their management practices to the new conditions of an urbanized environment and animal production systems have thus survived successfully. Innovations in production methods were introduced in all delegations and municipalities with outstanding features such as the use of organic wastes from markets, companies and households for animal feeding. This contributes to decreased pollution levels and lower waste production. Social networks are also strengthened by the relationships it induces in these communities, and social

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economy benefits too: housewives obtain a source of income by selling their kitchen leftovers to animal producers.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, the farmers and FAO for financing this work.

References

Diario Oficial de la Federación, 1996. Decree Urban Development and Ecologic of the Distrito Federal, December 13 1996, Mexico.

INEGI, 1991a. Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografia e Informatica, XI Censo General de Población y Vivienda, México.

INEGI, 1991b. Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografia e Informatica, Distrito Federal, Panorama Agropecuario, VII Censo Agropecuario, México.

INEGI, 1995. Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografia e Informatica, Conteo de Población y Vivienda, México.

INEGI, 2001. Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografia e Informatica, Distrito Federal, Censo General de Población y Vivienda.

Losada, H., R. Bennet, R. Soriano, J. Vieyra and J. Cortes, 2000. Urban agriculture in México City: function provided by use of spaces for dairy based livelihoods. Cities Vol. 17: p. 419-431.

Losada, H., J. Cortes, D. Grande, R. Soriano, J. Vieyra, A. Fierro and L. Arias, 1996. The production of milk from dairy hers in the suburban conditions of México City I. The case of Iztapalapa. Livestock Reseach for Rural Development 8: p. 53-56.

Losada, H., J. Vieyra, J. Cortes, R. Pealing, H. Martinez, M. Lopez, L. Arias, A. Zamudio and G. Martinez, 1997. Urban agriculture and livestock in the city of Mexico: an option for a sustainable future. Urban Agriculture Notes, City Farmer, Canada’s Office of Urban Agriculture.

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A study of the animal production in the municipality of Nezahualcoyotl City, State of Mexico

J.Vieyra1, H. Losada1, A. Castillo2, J. Cortes1, R. Soriano1 & G. Alonso1

1Biología de la Reproducción, Área de Investigación de Desarrollo Agropecuario Sustentable 2División de Ciencias Básicas e Ingeniería, Departamento de Matemáticas, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, Departamento Av San Rafael Atlixco 186 Col Vicentina, Iztapalapa, D.F. C.P. 09340. Apdo. Postal 55535, México

Summary

Nezahualcoyotl city is a suburban municipality located in the eastern part of Mexico City. This community integrates immigrants of the southern part of the country, mainly from the State of Oaxaca (INEGI, 1998). They have conserved their traditions and adapted their agricultural production management practices to the urban demands, establishing their production systems as a means of cultural expression and food-sufficiency insurance for their community. The animal production systems developed in the area make advantage of any available space, due to the important role of animals for meeting these objectives.

Keywords: sustainable development, environment, food production.

Introduction

Mexican immigrants from Mexico City, looking for better living conditions, founded Nezahualcoyotl City in 1963. Many of them, arriving from several municipalities of the Oaxaca State and considering Mexico City houses too expensive, occupied rural areas near Mexico City that belong to the State of Mexico. The first inhabitants lived in wood or wallboard buildings. Subsequently, with the introduction of services like drinkable water, electric energy and drainage, this area was transformed in a great city. The inhabitants, with the culture and tradition of their ancestors, have made of this region one of the most populated surroundings of Mexico City, with more than 3,000,000 inhabitants (INEGI, 2001). We find that on average 4 families (20 persons) live in a house of 160m2, with small spaces used for production. The presence of animals in the household has been a characteristic of human society since ancient times, with animals used for food (milk, meat, eggs, etc.) or economic purposes, such as transportation, work, etc. (Losada et al., 1992). This is the predominant model in the rural environment, in urban spaces, as well as in Mexico City and the metropolitan area, where domestic species have found a proper place thanks to the great availability of feed coming from residues of the industry and from household leftovers. Nezahualcoyotl city is a “new” city, founded in 1963 (The municipalities of the State of México, 1988) to the east of México City, originating from the irregular settlement of people who moved from the country to the city in search of employment. The municipality has a surface of 65 Km2 and 3.5 million inhabitants, and it is therefore considered as one of the most populated (INEGI, 2001). Due to the importance of the animals for society, this study explains biological diversity and the way in which it is linked with the population.

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Methodology

A survey, containing 4 questions, was carried out in order to obtain information by 32 producers about their animal production systems, management methods and the space they occupy, given the density of human population in the area. The survey was carried out by trained staff, specially dressed and provided with identification card.

Results

The different animal species of zootechnical interest found in the production systems of Neza City are shown in Table 1. Minor species such as poultry, rabbits, pigs, sheep and goats, which are all very common in other areas of Mexico City (Losada et al., 2001) were also found the more frequent, in relation with space restriction. However, it appears important to stress the presence of dairy cattle which play an important role in family economics: since they constitute a source of income thanks to the sale of milk and at the same time provide high-quality milk for family consumption, especially for children and elders. Household size ranged from 60 to 200 m2. However, producers having taken advantage of all the available spaces, mixed animal production systems could be observed. Most of them included rabbits and birds species, whilst pigs occupied .5 to 25 m2 of the household area, sometimes in alternative spaces such as the roof of the house. Space for milk production ranges from 20 - 200 m2. Poultry (30% of the producers) and rabbits (26% of the producers) occupy the smallest spaces (1.5 m2) without facilities, in outdoor passages between houses, 0.30 m wide and 5 m deep. The little species were kept inside houses, in patios, dressing rooms and roofs, for a total area of almost 25 m2. In these production conditions, rabbits, hens, turkeys, gamecock and ducks were kept together in the same space, always in the smallest areas. Pigs which are one of the most common species (23% of the producers) used to be kept in roofs, backyards and bedrooms. Pigs which represent an investment because of their high commercial value are also used in sacrifices and as food in family or popular festivities. Milk production (5% of the producers) is carried out in the backyard of the house, in facilities made of diverse materials like remains of wood, concrete, cardboard, etc. The producers are grouped in associations and a large part of their production is aimed at sale. Only a small quantity is reserved for family consumption. If the milk can not be sold, it is transformed into cheese. The production of different animal species carries economic benefits for the families of Neza City, benefits similar to those found in other delegations of Mexico City, such as Iztapalapa, Xochimilco, etc. (Losada et al., 1992). The diet of the animals is based on industrial, market and household remains, supplemented in some cases with grain for bird species and pigs, and alfalfa for bovines. Activities related with animal production are distributed between men and women as shown in Table 2. As regards the gender distribution of these activities, women represented the biggest percent (46%). In general, men (48%) carried out other activities like workmen, taxi drivers, employees, or other professional activities. When both men and women participated in animal production, they were also both involved in other activities. These production systems are strongly bound to the population’s cultural traditions which used to produce part of their food allowances by themselves. They take advantage of all household kitchen waste, any space available and any kind of recycling material that can be used for housing the species mentioned in table .

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Table 1. Present species, producers that raise them (%) and animals per species (%). % producers % animals Dairy cattle 5 4 Sheep 2 Pigs 23 6 Fight roosters, Geese, Ducks, Turkeys 9 8 Hens and chickens 30 30 Equine 2 0.5 Rabbits 26 30 Goats 3 0.5

N=132. Table 2. Distribution of the work in the production systems. % Men 42 Women 48 Both 20

N=132.

Conclusions

Nezahualcoyotl City is considered as one of the municipalities with the biggest population density in Mexico. The relationship between man and animals is nevertheless important for the inhabitants of this municipality because of its role in guaranteeing food sufficiency and economic income. The sale of animals also plays an important role as an immediate source of cash in case of emergency for coping with a variety of problems.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the authorities of the Autonomous Metropolitan University for the facilities provided, FAO for the financial support, and the producers for their collaboration.

References

INEGI, 1998. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática, Cuaderno Estadístico Municipal, Nezahualcoyotl Estado de México.

INEGI, 2001. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática, Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda.

Losada, H., J. Cortes, D. Grande, G. Hernández, 1992. La producción animal en Iztapalapa. Iztapalapa Revista de ciencias sociales y humanidades, año 12, núm. 25, Enero-Junio 1992.

Losada, H., J. Vieyra, J. Cortes, R. Pealing, H. Martinez, M. Lopez, L. Arias, A. Zamudio and G. Martinez, 2001. Urban agriculture and livestock in the city of Mexico: an option for a sustainable future. Urban Agriculture Notes, City Farmer, Canada’s Office of Urban Agriculture.

Los Municipios del Estado de México, 1988. Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México, Mexico, p. 32-3.

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355

The diversity of ruminant rearing systems in Guadeloupe: positions within the industry and its sanitary regulations

J.-L. Diman1, M. Naves2, G. Alexandre2 & M.-F. Zébus1

1INRA, Unité Agropédoclimatique de la Zone Caraïbe, Domaine Duclos, 97170 Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe 2INRA, Unité de Recherches Zootechniques, Domaine Duclos, 97170 Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe

Summary

In Guadeloupe, according to farmers, the recent crises in animal health and food security have had as a consequence a substantial increase in the demand for locally produced meat. The latter has the advantage of a distinctly innocuous image, undoubtedly encouraged by the spatial and cultural proximity existing in this small island territory, which is still very rural. The effectiveness of any intervention by the INRA Centre for the French West Indies and Guyana will depend on a better understanding of this reality. The study of ruminant rearing systems, whose results are presented in this paper, constitutes the first stage of a collaborative research involving the animal scientists and agricultural economists of the Centre. We characterised 5 cattle and 4 goat systems. The cattle and goat industries are characterised by the coexistence of a diversity of rearing systems and production strategies, resulting from a range of objectives such as income generation and maintenance of inheritance, including marketing and consumption practices. The description of the ruminant systems identified is followed by a hypothesis on the conditions for their existence and their possible evolution in the context of the recent strengthening of the application of French and European regulations.

Keywords: goat, beef, meat production systems, Guadeloupe.

Introduction

When considering livestock rearing, it is quite common to observe a contrast between traditional practices and modern techniques maximising productivity, and, in the same way, between trade based on the supply of surpluses from the peasant economy and commercial trade organised to respond to market demand. This comparison usually leads to the marginalisation of traditional practices and peasant industries in development schemes for animal production. These development schemes are based on very specialised models of rearing, very dependent on an optimal upward and downward organisation in the industry. In many countries these models have not in fact been able to completely replace the existing peasant sector. In Guadeloupe (French West Indies) as elsewhere, a very enduring meat production industry, born of the plantation economy (Bellande & Paul, 1994), is maintained in the margin of successive development plans introduced in the seventies. These peasant systems, that can be qualified as family rearing, represent the major part of the herds, as 95% of goat breeders own less than 20 heads accounting for 67% of the island’s flock, while 67% of cattle breeders own less than 10 heads and account for 44% of the island’s flock (SCEES, 2001). Moreover, from the rearing practice point of view, original practices can be found on the island, compared to conventional technical models. Hence, even according to the Chamber of Agriculture, 90% of the ruminants on the islands are kept tethered to stakes (Chambre d’Agriculture de la Guadeloupe, 2001).

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In view of their importance, the study of ruminant rearing systems in their diversity and distinctiveness cannot be ignored by anyone involved in Guadeloupean agriculture. A team from the INRA Centre for the West Indies and Guyana, composed of animal scientists and agricultural economists, has been working on this. Animal scientists need to identify suitable conditions for the innovations they propose to farmers, while economists are modelling the decision-making of farmers with the aim of constructing a public decision aid tool. At present, the study may gain particular interest as one can perceive an increase in the demand for locally produced meat, following the animal health scares regarding food security which have recently affected livestock production in Europe. However, the concomitant strengthening of national and European sanitary measures and their application in the FWI are intended to discourage many of the practices which are typical of, and above all account for, the current competitiveness of these industries.

Materials and methods

In the absence of satisfactory technical and economic references, the authors had to collect information to identify and characterise rearing methods. Firstly, the whole of the knowledge built up in the animal science unit during the last fifteen years on the rearing methods for Guadeloupean ruminants was assembled, requesting the help of animal scientists as experts on the subject. Then, a validation phase was organised to compare the information thus assembled with the knowledge of specialised technicians from the Local Livestock Office. As they didn’t use to manage economic data of the rearing systems, we made use of the existing databases on goat and cattle systems: a “goat” survey carried out in 1999 (Gau et al., 2000) on 68 breeders (about 3% of Guadeloupean breeders), and another one on cattle in 1993 (Naves et al., 1998) on 324 farms. The main objective of these two surveys was to point out the relationships between genetics and breeding strategies and other elements of the rearing system such as pasture management, general feeding practices and mainly the farmer’s production goals (production frequency and volume). The economic aspects and production issues (slaughtering, carving, buyers...) were slightly touched on, such as man-hours evaluation, so we enhanced these issues with about 30 more recent surveys specifically concerned with the technical and economic characteristics of bovine rearing systems (Diman et al., 2001). This last survey enabled to differentiate cattle rearing systems, firstly by their productive goal and selling strategy, under the postulate that the farmer’s final objective quite determines the allocation of inputs (land, man-hours, finances) and finally the organization and function of the system. However, as Guadeloupean farmers are not accustomed to record their practices, this kind of survey did not allow to have such precise information in order to understand the whole of the complexity of the systems; it is just the first step in the characterization of the ruminant rearing systems of the island.

Results

We characterized 5 cattle and 4 goat rearing systems. Concerning cattle rearing (Table 1), each technical and economic activity is defined by the pursued objective and the grazing method. 75% of the farmers regularly sell their animals with various production objectives (breeder, breeder-fattener, fattener), the numbers varying considerably from one farm to another depending on the size of the herd and its contribution to the farmer’s income (Diman et al., 2002). From the technical and economic point of view, the method of grazing management is the discriminating factor (Table 1). It combines, in terms of production costs and working hours (very rarely paid labour), tethering to stakes (T, 86% of the breeders surveyed) and free grazing (FG). Free grazing (either continuous or rotational) is only practised on large farms with more than 4 hectares of grazing area dedicated to cattle and more than 5 suckling cows (B2 and B4). The cost of production per

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hectare is noticeably higher than in the other systems due to fencing, higher stocking rate, bought-in feedstuffs, etc; on the other hand, labour input is proportionately less. The farmers surveyed (45%) are mostly breeder-fatteners, using tethering (B1) or free grazing (B2). 28% of the farmers surveyed are breeders, using tethering (B3) or free grazing (B4). The cattle rearing activity practised by the remaining 25% of the farmers is not really aimed at sales: hereditary rearing (B5), keeping of livestock as a form of wealth, small farms which also contribute to meat production but with an irregular frequency and volume, intended for the immediate food and cash needs of the household. This system, which is less risky, yields a gross margin similar to those of the other tethering systems, although the amounts sold are lower. Sales take place through informal channels, which by cutting out the middleman allow farmers to increase their income substantially while remaining competitive towards the consumer. As regards goat rearing (Table 2), 37% of the farmers questioned (C1) were strongly committed to highly productive methods (“intensive rearing”). The breeders plan their pasture management, mating control and veterinary treatment. Grazing consists in planted pastures, while supplements come from cheap materials such as rice flour and sugar cane. Treatments (de-ticking and worming) are carried out regularly by the breeders themselves, with the help of de-ticking technicians and the vet. The organisation of production and sales enables half of them to sell animals less than a year old to a varied clientele made up of individuals from the Indian community and local butchers. These breeders also sell fattened animals less regularly. Apart from intensive rearing, the other systems identified (about 2/3 of the sample) seem to have developed locally according to the availability of land and labour on the farms. From then on, the objectives seem to have depended on the fluctuating food and cash needs of the family rather than on the desire to maximise income. The farmers apply treatments themselves, more or less regularly. Extensive rearing (C2) is the least represented in the survey sample (10%), as probably all over the islands, owing to the conditions required to practise it. This is the system that is closer to the pastoral systems (Landais & Balent, 2001). Its main characteristic is free-range grazing of relatively large herds (Table 2), whose size is linked to the low and irregular frequency of slaughtering, very similar to the cattle patrimonial rearing system. Traditional rearing (C3) is practised by 22% of the farmers questioned. The latter have smaller herds, kept tethered while grazing. Family rearing (C4) applied to 31% of the farmers surveyed. This type of rearing, with small herds and no elaborate technical management, is usually observed as a group of animals crowded close to the family house. For the breeders who practise these three last activities, selling animals is not the main objective: livestock is sold only after family needs have been satisfied. The big demand which exists in Guadeloupe for goat meat puts these breeders in a favourable situation (Alexandre et al., 2005). Hence, some of them sell regularly either to individuals or butchers, while others more safely via the mass market channel.

Table 1. Technical and economic differentiation of cattle rearing systems in Guadeloupe. Cattle rearing systems (means) B B2 B3 B4 B5 B: breeder, BF : breeder-fattener, PR : patrimonial rearing BF BF B B PR T: tethering or FG: free grazing T FG T FG T Area under permanent grass (ha) 3. 5.2 4. 10. 6 .5 Herd size (heads) 4 45 Cows with calf, per hectare . 2.2 . 2 . Labour input, man-hours per hectare 150 90 170 50 160 Cost of production excluding labour (€ / ha) 200 750 350 450 130 Added value (€/ha) 790 940 780 870 750

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Discussion

Ruminant rearing systems’ position within the sector

Concerning goat farming, whichever the system considered, farmers seek many outlets in terms of types of products and clients. It seems clear that the demand for goat meat is so strong in Guadeloupe (cultural value) that even farmers with no special commercial organisation (C2, C3, C4) have no difficulty in selling their animals (Alexandre et al., 2005). The absence of any professional grouping to channel this strong demand is not unconnected with the growing amount of animal thefts, which is a risk to be considered in goat production, mainly for the intensive system (C1) which has the denser herd and higher cost of production (Table 2). As to sales channels for the products, the meat of goats slaughtered on the farm represented more than 75% of the local goat meat production in 1999 (Alexandre et al., 2005) and this share came mainly from C2, C3 and C4 activities (63% of our survey sample). Goat farming is the local animal production least involved in conventional marketing channels and controlled slaughter; therefore, its farming practices have probably been the least influenced by the global changes in consumption and purchasing habits. The C2 and C4 activities seem to be variants of the traditional C3 activity, due to particular system constraints (little work, plenty of land for C2; shortage of land, much work, strong risk aversion for C4). For cattle, patrimonial farming (B5) is undoubtedly the system which has best preserved the practices inherent in traditional livestock farming, where livestock are regarded primarily as a store of capital (Salas, 1989; Bellande & Paul, 1994). Tethering to stakes is the usual management method for the grazing herd and most of the animals are of the creole breed. Marginalised in terms of development policy, hereditary livestock farming is probably important as regards the number of practitioners: in more than 80% of the cases, the farms have less than 3 ha of pasture (SCEES, 2001). The other tethering systems (B1 and B3) are very similar to hereditary livestock farming from the economic and technical point of view. They seem to be an attempt to spread out the income from livestock farming, with regular sales throughout the year, by carrying on with the tethering technique already learned in the process of hereditary rearing. The farmer tries to stabilise the regularity of sales of these products, being thus obliged to practically abandon the informal slaughtering system which, although more remunerative, is illegal. To compensate, the farmer increases the volumes sold by increasing the numbers of saleable animals, altering either the stocking rate or the area reserved for livestock. (The size of herds ranges from 7 head for B5 to 11 for B1 and B3). The free grazing systems (B2 and B4) are implemented mostly by specialized farmers who need to get an important and regular part of their income from cattle rearing.

Table 2. Technical and economic differentiation of goat rearing systems in Guadeloupe. Goat rearing systems (means) Intensive Extensive Traditional Family (Effective percentage of sample) C1 (37%) C2 (10%) C3 (22%) C4 (31%) Area under permanent grass (ha) 5. . 4 .6 3.9 Herd size (head) 59 170 20 23 Mother goats per hectare 10.1 4. .9 5.9 Labour input, man-hours / ha 60 10 140 30 Cost of production excluding labour (€/ha) 900 250 100 250 Added value (€/ha) 7 500 1 900 800 2 100

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Ruminant systems’ position within the reinforcement of sanitary regulations

Nowadays, in view of the authorities’ concern to fully apply the national and European regulations on animal identification, sanitary control of slaughtering, and quality and traceability of meat food products in Guadeloupe, it seems hardly realistic to undertake a purely coercive campaign, especially in view of the role of unofficial supply channels for local meat to Guadeloupean households. According to Alexandre et al. (2005), uncontrolled fresh goat meat made up 52% of the total amount sold (360 tonnes of meat) in 1999. As for beef, government services estimate the percentage of animals slaughtered under unregulated conditions at 20% (1187 tonnes of meat). If it were confirmed that all the farm slaughtering of cattle is from patrimonial rearing (B5), this would mean that in 1999 this activity provided nearly 20% of the beef sold on the islands. It would be the main activity affected if the authorities were to strengthen the controls. In goat farming, the distribution of uncontrolled slaughtering is much more diffused: strict application of the regulations would affect C3 (traditional), but also, to a lesser extent, C2 (extensive) and C4 (family). The alternative would be to set up a real endogenous professional structure which could reduce the illegal practices encouraged by the present informal nature of the industry (Delcombel, 2004). However, for an initiative of this kind to be credible today, it would be necessary to abandon the development models supported up to now by the authorities, models that have suffered from setbacks since the beginning of the seventies. A collective initiative should be based on the present local livestock rearing system, from the top to the bottom of the corresponding supply chain in order for it to last.

Conclusion

These first elements of technical and economic characterisation reveal a mixture of practices resulting from diverse strategies pursued by Guadeloupean farmers. The traditional supply channels and the farming activities directed at them still prevail in terms of the number of farmers involved, the number of heads kept, and probably also the volume sold, and therefore constitute an inevitable component in possible actions for development. Given the limited information available, perfecting this work of characterisation, notably by the study of rearing practices, would be a necessary preliminary to any action towards sustainable development for ruminants, including possible restructuring of the profession. In the immediate future, for the research teams who began this study these first results should significantly improve the information available for modelling, at the same time providing guidance about the conditions required for the adoption of innovations resulting from research.

Acknowledgments

This study was implemented mainly through two research programs of INRA, “MICA” and “Valorization of local breeds”, with the financial support of the European Union (FEOGA) and the Regional Council of Guadeloupe.

References

Alexandre, G., S. Asselin de Beauville, E. Shitalou and M.F. Zébus, 2005. Traditional use of goat and goat products in the Guadeloupean society. In: Livestock farming systems: product quality based on local resources leading to improved sustainability, R. Rubino, L. Sepe, A. Dimitriadou and A. Gibon (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Publication 118: p. 183-188.

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Bellande, A. and J.-L. Paul, 1994. Paysans, systèmes et crise. Travaux sur l’agraire haïtien. Vol. 3. SACAD, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, FAMV, Université d’Etat d’Haïti, Port-au-Prince, Haïti, 476 pp.

Chambre d’Agriculture de la Guadeloupe, 2001. Programme de développement des productions bovines et caprines de la Guadeloupe 2002-2006, 25 pp.

Delcombel, E., 2004. Organisation de l’action collective et rôle de la puissance publique pour le développement de l’agriculture guadeloupéenne. Thèse de doctorat, Economie rurale, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane, Département d’Agronomie Tropicale, Pointe-à-Pitre, Cirad-Tera, Montpellier, France.

Diman, J.L., K. Marquis and M. Naves, 2001. La crianza bovina: caracterización de su diversidad técnico-económica, un reto para contribuir a su desarrollo sostenible en un territorio insular del Caribe. ALPA, 20-23 November 2001, Havana, Cuba, p. 135.

Diman, J.L., M. Naves, K. Marquis, G. Alexandre and M.F. Zébus, 2002. Différenciation technico-économique des conduites d’élevage bovin viande en Guadeloupe. In: Rencontres autour des recherches sur les ruminants, INRA, Institut de l’Elevage, Paris, p.126.

Gau, D., M. Naves, G. Alexandre, E. Shitalou and N. Mandonnet, 2000. Systèmes de production et orientations génétiques en élevage caprin en Guadeloupe. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Goats, 14-20 May 2000, Tours, France, 1: p. 367-370.

Landais, E. and G. Balent, 2001. Introduction à l’étude des systèmes d’élevage extensifs. In: Pratiques d’élevage extensif: identifier, modéliser, évaluer. INRA SAD, Etudes et Recherches sur les Systèmes agraires et le Développement, 2nd Edition, 27: p.13-35.

Naves, M., P. Aliane, J. Fleury, P.U. Georges, J. Pensedent-Erblon and E. Shitalou, 1998. Sistemas de producción de carne y mejoramiento animal en ganado bovino en Guadalupe. IV Congreso Iberoamericano de Razas Autoctonas y Criollas, 23-27 November 1998, Tampico, Tamaulipas (Mexico), p. 311.

Salas, M., 1989. Systèmes d’élevage bovin allaitant en Guadeloupe: diagnostic et voies de développement. Thèse de doctorat, Université Paris XII, Paris, 340 pp.

SCEES, 2001. Recensement agricole 2000. L’Essentiel. Départements d’outre-mer. Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche, Paris.

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Organization of a local integrated chain for the production of natural goat products

D. Dinev & N. Todorov

Faculty of Agriculture, Thracian University, 6000, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

Summary

The aim of this study was to integrate a number of very small goat farmers in a remote and underdeveloped area for the production of organic milk and meat to be processed into traditional high-value products. This is the only way to decrease the very high levels of unemployment and migration and to preserve a culture and a husbandry practice that are well adapted to local constraints. A questionnaire study was carried out on 43 families keeping animals in a village. Goats are the most popular animals in the region and the best way to benefit wide, underutilized hilly pastures with bushes. Most households keep 2 to 12 does and sell uncooled milk at a very low price varying from 0.09 to 0.14 Euros/kg. Goat milk is mixed with other types of milk and processed into low-price cheese. An organization was established to integrate farmers in a special cooperative where the goats of all members are collected in one herd in the morning and come back in the evening during the grazing period, when not milked (until weaning of kids and after drying off). During the milking period (April to October) does stay in one herd and are milked in a cooperative parlour. Every day, cooled milk is sold to the integrated dairy and processed into a natural traditional product without being mixed with other types of milk. As a result, the selling price of milk was increased from 0.11 to 0.155 Euros/kilogram. Many social and economic benefits were achieved by integration, including the stimulation of older people to increase the number of goats kept and consequently the income of their families.

Keywords: goat farming, integration of small farms, traditional product, enhanced value of milk.

Introduction

The Elhovo region in Bulgaria, close to the Turkish border, has been neglected for a long time. Large part of the surface is hilly, with an elevation of 110 to 650 m above sea level, and covered with natural grasses, weeds and bushes. The latter provide good pasture, especially for sheep and goats. Arable lands have a low productivity. After the demolition of the former farm cooperatives (1993-1997), most of the arable land has been abandoned, weed and grasses growing on it. The region has been severely depopulated and, as a result, approximately 70% of the remaining people are over 55 years old. Unemployment is above 65% and most of the families keep to 2 goats or sheep to produce milk for self-consumption, in the form of fresh liquid milk and yogurt, or process milk domestically into white brined cheese, typical of the country. Very small households have been typical of Bulgaria in recent years (Dinev et al., 2003). Some farmers sell milk to processors, but at a very low price varying from 9 to 14 Euro cent per kilogram, due to poor milk quality and lack of cooling tanks. The existing subsistence farming is an income-supporting activity (Mishev, 1997). Many families with insufficient income sources have to survive based on their own production of food (Mishev & Kostov, 2000).

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With a very high unemployment and no real alternatives available, the integration of farmers and the existence of dairy production and meat production in the region is the only way of development (Pfimlin & Todorov, 2003). The conditions are suitable for transition to organic production - very low animal density, lack of fertilization and no use of herbicides, pesticides and any chemicals for the last 10-12 years, lack of polluting industries in the area, etc. It seems that, in this region, the transition to an environmentally friendly agriculture will be easy and not too expensive (Hristova, 2001). The aim of this study is to assess livestock production in the region and to organize an integrated chain of production to help the development of animal production and to enhance the value of animal products.

Materials and methods

All the families who keep animals (43 in total) in a village were visited and data were collected by filling in a special questionnaire. The questions included details about the family members and their occupation, land ownership and land production capacity (fertility categories), number of different species and categories of animals, feed production and purchase, productivity of animals, family income, plans for the future development of the farming activity and readiness for cooperation in production, processing or selling animal products. After analyzing the data collected from the questionnaires, meetings were organized in the village to decide on the best form of integration and to make a general decision on the establishment of a special cooperative. Taking into consideration the opinions of potential members, the status of the cooperative was developed and finally the cooperative was established. Results of the first year of operation were recorded and compared with some parameters recorded before the establishment of the cooperative.

Results and discussion

Some data collected in the village of Lesovo after visiting family households are given in Table . Only farms with goats are included in Table . It is evident that only a few families keep cattle or buffaloes. Goats are the most popular animals in the farm and every family owned an average of 8 goats approximately. Therefore, it is most reasonable to use goats as a source of income for the family. We come to this conclusion not only on the basis of the available animals, but also taking into consideration the existing underused pastures and abandoned, low-fertility arable lands. Details on goat farming are given in Table 2. Sixty per cent of the farmers owned 5 or less does and their does make up approximately 32% of the total number of does in the village. The biggest farmer owned 9 does, the second biggest had 3 does. Out of 43 farmers, 3 agreed to integrate, the number of their does being 238 out of a total number of 322 goats. Only smaller farmers refused to integrate. All farmers used old barns for keeping their goats, located close to their houses. All does are milked by hand and nobody has cooling equipment for milk. In the village most of the goats are joined into one herd for grazing on community pasture. A jointly hired shepherd is responsible for pasturing the goats. A few sheep are also included in the goat herd. Everybody can use community pastures free of charge. The same common pastures are used for cattle, buffaloes, horses, donkeys and sheep. There is no regulation for the utilization of the pastures. Goats go to pasture almost all year round. However, in case of snow cover (usually 14-35 days per year) or heavy and continuous rainfall, snowfall, storm or frost, goats do not go to pasture at all, or go only for a few hours after the weather has improved.

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At night the goats come back to the house where they are milked, fed and housed. The feedstuffs given to goats in addition to grazing are shown in Table 3. Not a single farm used any silage. The quality of the hay is usually medium or poor. In some farms hay and straw are cut, wetted with salty water and mixed with concentrates before given to goats. Concentrates consist mostly of barley (an average of 76%) maize, wheat bran and sunflower meal or expeller. The main problem in goat feeding is protein deficit. Feeds rich in protein are found in very small proportions in the rations (lucerne is approximately 9%, and sunflower meal/expeller is about 3% of the total dry matter of harvested feeds). In some farms, phosphorus, selenium and vitamin A deficit has been observed. Most of the farmers have no agricultural background, but possess practical skills in keeping animals. In any case, they are not in a position to balance animal rations.

Table 1. Property of farmers who own goats in the village of Lesovo, Elhovo region.

Total land or number of animals owned by a group of farmers Group of farmers, land, ha

Number of farmers

Land ha

Cattle no.

Buffalo no.

Sheep no.

Goats no.

Pigs no.

Hens no.

Horses no.

Donkey no.

<0.5 6 2.2 2 0 2 18 2 32 0 0 0.5- 9 6.4 3 0 50 4 56 0 2 -2 26.2 9 4 65 168 18 32 2 3 2-3 6 5.3 4 0 2 48 0 >3 5 9.9 0 0 5 29 4 52 0 2 Total 43 70.0 18 4 110 33 29 320 2 8 Av./farm - .63 0.42 0.09 2.56 7.84 0.67 .44 0.05 0.19

Table 2. Number of different categories of goats.

Total numbers in a group of farms No. of does/farm

No. of farms Does

Replacement kids Bucks

Total goats

Average per farm

<3 2 23 5 0 28 2.3 3-5 4 58 2 5.5 5-10 9 2 18 2 102 .3 >10 8 9 23 10 130 6.3 Total 43 250 58 29 33 7.8

Table 3. Harvested feeds used per goat for one year.

Doe Replacement kid/yearlings Feed stuffs Average From To Average From To Lucerne hay 2 0 2 18 9 32 Meadow / range hay 102 45 190 69 23 Oat hay 2 0 3 4 0 34 Oat-pea mix hay 28 0 50 9 0 4 Straw 34 0 58 5 0 32 Dry oak branches 2 0 3 8 0 20 Concentrates (total) 86 56 45 60 43 9 Total 310 - - 203 - -

Note: Average for all farms and variations in kilograms.

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Most of the farmers sell at least part of the milk they get from goats. The rest of the milk is used by suckling kids (usually 50-80 days) and for direct home consumption or home processing into white brined goat cheese. Most of the male kids are sold for slaughtering at about 13-16 kg of live weight. Prices for both milk and kids for slaughtering are very low and hardly cover the costs of production. The low quality of the milk and the lack of cooling tanks lead to these low prices, which are about 60-70% of the prices paid to larger farmers with cooling tanks. Some data about sales are provided in Table 4. Not a single farm included in the study sells plant products, but some sell sheep or cow milk, calves and lambs. However, the income derived from other animal species is very small. Therefore, goat milk and meat are the main source of income. In order to improve the existing situation, a cooperative has been established with the aim of building a milking parlour, purchasing a cooling tank, and selling milk. Milking is now done in a cooperative milking parlor. During the milking period goats stay in the common herd, without returning to the owner’s house. Before weaning of kids and after drying-off, goats go to pasture in the common herd, but in the evening they return to the owner’s house. Therefore, land and animals remain the property of members, and only the milking parlour and the cooling tank belong to the cooperative. The cooperative buys some concentrate for supplementation of pasture, especially during the dry months when the growing grass is not enough to meet the feed requirements of the does. Each farmer pays, in proportion to the number of does, for common expenses: cost of concentrate, depreciation of milking equipment, salary of the milker and salary of the shepherd. Only selected bucks with good genetic qualities were used for breeding all does. Each farmer produces the necessary forages and feeds the goats at home during the winter period. Milk production of does is controlled every month and farmers are paid according to the milk yield of their does. As a consequence of pasture milking and immediate cooling of milk, the selling (farm gate) price of milk increased from 0.11 Euro to 0.155 Euro per kilogram. The cooperative contracted a dairy plant to process pure goat milk (previously, all dairies mixed cow and goat milk) into goat milk cheese for its members, and also to sell at a better price. The production of white brined cheese, called Kachack, and other traditional milk products started in the contracted dairy plant. To produce these valuable products, high quality milk is needed that was impossible to obtain from small farmers without machine milking and cooling tanks. Including a dairy in the integrated establishment makes it possible to increase the value of milk, to revive animal husbandry, to create sustainable farming, to improve the standard of living in this remote area, and to produce natural products with a special market niche. The next step will be the production of traditional goat meat products, such as Pastarma and Babeck, which is currently under study.

Table 4. Farm sale of goat products, year 2002.

Total sale for all farms in the group Size of farms, no. of does Milk, kg

Euros/kg milk

Slaughtering kids, kg

Euros/kg live weight

Replacement kids, no. €/head

<3 ,52 0.09 318 .42 0 0 3-5 6,090 0.10 928 .42 0 0 5-10 4,080 0.10 ,008 .43 0 0 >10 9,495 0.12 ,478 .46 26 52 Total 4, 0.11 3,32 .44 26 52 Income, € 4,529 5,34 ,352

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References

Dinev, D., N. Todorov, K. Koleva and G. Kostov, 2003. Case study of cattle farming systems in Bulgaria. In: Livestock Farming Systems in Central and Eastern Europe, A. Gibon and S. Mihina (editors), Wageningen Academic Publishers, EAAP Technical Series 3: p. 25-56.

Hristova, M.K., 2001. Need for an agri-environmental policy in Bulgaria. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. 7: p. 549-558.

Mishev, P., 1997. Financial support schemes for Bulgarian agriculture. Working Paper, World Bank Project Review of Bulgarian Agriculture, Sofia.

Mishev, P. and Ph. Kostov, 2000. Subsistence farming in Bulgaria, Trends and prospects. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. 6: p. 65-4.

Pfimlin, M.P. and N.A. Todorov, 2003. Trends in European forage systems for meat and milk production. Facts and new concerns. In: Optimal Forage Systems for Animal Production and the Environment, A. Kirilov, N. Todorov and I. Katerov (editors), Proceedings of the 12th Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, 26-28 May 2003, Pleven, Bulgaria, p. 1-10.

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36

Herd dynamics of medium scale dairy farms under a mixed farming system in the Nile delta region

M.A. El-Wardani, T.H. Shalaby & F.E. El-Keraby

Animal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Dokki, Giza, Egypt

Summary

Herd dynamics were monitored monthly in forty-eight medium scale dairy farms for two years. The objective of this work was to describe the changes in herd dynamics of medium scale dairy farms under a mixed farming system in the Nile delta region in Egypt. Semi-structured interviews with questionnaires were designed to achieve the objectives of the monitoring program. Animals are kept under the traditional system of feeding and management adopted by the Egyptian farmers. Monthly data for 484 milking cows, 129 heifers, 399 growing females, 382 growing males and 152 fattening males were available throughout the monitoring period. Detailed information was collected about each animal in the herd: breed, type, source (born and reared in the farm or purchased from the market or other farms), as well as farm policy with respect to reasons for culling or selling and purchase of animals. Results obtained from monitored farms indicated that buffaloes constituted about 4% of the herd’s composition followed by crossbreed cows (40%), while local (Baladi) cows constituted 12% and Friesian cows only 8% of the herd’s composition. Milking cows constituted 31% of total herd composition, heifers 8%, growing females 26%, growing males 25% and fattening males 10%. Total herd size tended to gradually increase slightly over the monitoring period. Herd dynamics are high due to the movement of purchased and sold animals. The majority of milking cows (46-63%) came from outside the farm. The opposite was observed for heifers and growing animals. The average of animals per farm was 14.7: milking cows were 6.0, heifers 0.8, growing females 3.5, growing males 3.1, and fattening males 1.4. The proportion of sold or culled animals tends to be one third of the herd (33%). Financial reasons represented 81% of the reasons for culling, while other reasons, such as fertility problems, low milk production, diseases or ill health, mortality, aging and fattening, represented the remaining 9%.

Keywords: farming systems, crops/livestock, medium scale, dairy farms, herd dynamics.

Introduction

Dairy farming is an important activity for many farmers in Egypt, where crop-livestock farming systems are traditionally practised. In recent decades, the role of animals as draught power has been restricted due to increasing agricultural mechanization. Therefore, animals in dairy farms under rural conditions are now kept mainly for milk and meat production and/or as a reservoir (sold when a large amount of cash is suddenly needed). Under rural conditions, reasons for culling or selling in dairy farms were mainly connected to financial reasons (El-Wardani et al., 2000). In normal conditions, the sale of aged or growing animals takes place mainly during the transitional period between hot and cold seasons, while productive adult animals are sold when they are pregnant or with calves at foot (Tabana, 2000).

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There is little information available in the literature regarding herd dynamics in dairy farms under rural conditions in Egypt, especially with respect to herd movement under village farming conditions. El-Wardani et al. (2000) showed that herd dynamics in small farms tended to be high. Tabana (2000) observed that on small-scale farms herd size gradually tends to decrease over the three-year monitoring period. However, for medium-scale farms no clear trend has yet emerged. The monthly monitoring allowed a number of useful analyses; the analysis on herd dynamics was intended to demonstrate changes of herd composition, structure and size over a period of two years. Forty-eight medium-scale dairy farms, all operating under traditional management systems typical of the Nile delta region, were observed month by month. This study aims to analyze and understand the changes of herd dynamics of medium-scale dairy farms under mixed farming systems and to contribute to the overall discussion on changes in the dairy/livestock sector.

Materials and methods

A preliminary survey was conducted in the beginning of this study in four governorates (Monoufeia, Dakahlia, Kafr El-Sheikh, Damiata) of the Nile delta region in order to identify the “medium-scale dairy farms”. Medium-scale dairy farms are market-oriented, i.e. they sell milk produced on the farm to the market, the average herd size normally exceeds five milking cows (buffaloes or cows), and they occupy more than five feddan (1 feddan is equal to 4,200 m2 and 1 hectare is equal to 2.4 feddan). Farmers were identified as ordinary farmers, representing the prevailing systems in Egypt: they own and operate mixed farming systems, with both animal raising and crop cultivation activities. Forty-eight medium-scale dairy farms were selected for the monthly monitoring program of the dairy system analysis unit of the Animal Production Research Institute. The monitoring program, supported by the EC-funded Food Sector Development Program (FSDP), covered a two-year period (Aug. 1998 - Aug. 2000). Animals in these farms are kept under the traditional system of feeding and management adopted by Egyptian farmers over decades. Animals were fed mainly on forages and crop residues produced on the farm. In winter and spring months (Oct. - Apr.) farmers fed their animals mainly on multi-cut berseem clover (Tofolium axlexndrium) as well as on variable quantities of concentrates - bran, wheat straw and corn silage. In summer and autumn months (May - Sep.) farmers fed their animals on wheat straw and concentrate (bran) and variable amounts of summer green fodder (mostly darawa). Animals were hand-milked twice daily in the early morning (before sunrise) and in the evening (before sunset). Breedable females were serviced by the bull available in the village or in an adjacent village, with the exception of a few cases of artificial insemination. During the night, animals were housed in traditional enclosures (stables) of various types, closed or semi-open, attached to the farmer’s house, while during the day animals were housed in open sheds nearby the house or in the field. Two extension officers in each governorate collected data from villages in the target area during monthly follow-up visits to the monitored farms, under the supervision of a field research officer from FSDP. A monthly pattern (semi-structured interviews with questionnaires) was designed to collect quantitative data on the farming system. The set of data collected for the purposes of the monitoring program includes data on herd, breeding, production, crop rotation, forage conservation, forage and feeds and products. Herd data included monthly, detailed information about each animal in the herd: breed, birth, type, sale, purchase, source (born and reared on the farm, or purchased in the market or from other farms), classification of animals as milking cows, heifers, growing females, growing males and fattening males, as well as farm policies with respect to culling or selling and purchase of

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animals. Animals were divided into five classes, milking cows (calving at least once), heifers (> 1 year), fattening males (>1 year), growing females (d” 1 year) and growing males (d” 1 year). Breeding animals were considered as having fertility problems when no pregnancy was recorded within the first year post-calving. Heifers were considered as having fertility problems if they reached more than 2 years and/or >350 kg body weight without conceiving. Milking cows were considered of low milk production when average daily milk yield was lower than 5 kg at the beginning of the lactation period.

Results and discussion

In the monitored farms there were buffaloes, local (Baladi) cows, crossbreed cows and purebred animals, predominantly Friesian. Buffaloes constituted about 41% of the herd’s composition, followed by crossbreed cows (40%), while Baladi cows constituted 12% and Friesian cows 8% of the herd’s composition as shown in Table 1. It is noteworthy that in the Monoufeia governorate preference was given to buffaloes and Baladi cows, while in the Damiata governorate crossbreed cows are predominant. In the Monoufeia governorate, El-Wardani et al. (2000) found that buffaloes represented 66% of herd composition, followed by Baladi cows (27%) and crossbreed cows (7%). In the Dakahlia and Kafr El-Sheikh governorates, Aboul-Ela et al. (2000) found that buffaloes constituted about 68% of the total large ruminants population owned. In a new reclaimed area, Ahamed et al. (2000) showed that 40% of the farmers kept buffaloes only, while 26% raised cows and 34% had mixed herds. Hathout et al. (1996) observed that small holders had large numbers of buffaloes, while medium farms had more cattle. Tabana (2000) noted that crossbreed cows as well as pure Friesian are preferred as milk animals on commercially-oriented farms. Therefore, the large percentage of crossbreed cows observed in this study in medium-scale dairy farms could be due to this reason.

Table 1. Herd composition of different breeds in the monitored farms.

Buffaloes Baladi-cows Crossbreed Friesian Items No % No % No % No % Monoufeia 59 52 45 4 4 -- -- Dakahlia 294 60 3 0.6 4 30 45 9 Damiata 58 6 2 0.6 25 69 52 4 Kafr El-Sheikh 120 3 3 8 209 54 26 Total 63 4 181 2 6 40 23 8

Table 2. Herd structure of different breeds in the monitored farms.

Buffaloes Baladi-cows Crossbreed Friesian Total Items No % No % No % No % No % Milking cows 99 32 5 32 198 32 30 24 484 3 Heifers 58 9 20 39 2 10 29 8 Growing females 65 26 38 2 64 2 32 26 399 26 Growing males 148 23 42 23 148 24 44 36 382 25 Fattening males 6 10 24 3 62 10 5 4 52 10

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Milking cows represented about one third of the herd, while growing animals (females and males) represented about half of the herd as shown in Table 2. Nigm et al. (1986), Aboul-Ela et al. (2000), El-Wardani et al. (2000) and Tabana (2000) observed similar herd structures. Fattening activities constituted part of farmers’ activities (10%) in medium-scale farms. Tabana (2000) noted that in small-scale farms a short period of fattening is practised for young males before slaughtering. In all studied areas, all farmers tend to breed or keep their own young stock in normal conditions as replacement for fattening or as a financial reserve, a “savings bank”, for facing emergency cases. In addition, the farmer may also sell adult animals in case of sudden and substantial cash requirements. Farmers who keep buffaloes and crossbreed cows do so mainly for breeding and milk producing purposes (fattening of males has a subsidiary role), whereas Baladi cows are kept in most cases for breeding and fattening of males (milk production has a subsidiary role). It is interesting to know why farmers keep or sell animals, in particular male buffalo and cattle calves. Most male cattle calves are kept for fattening in the future, while most male buffalo calves are sold at a younger age as veal calves (there is demand in the market for this kind of meat) to utilize more milk from buffalo cows. Tabana (2000) mentioned that in the areas located close to the urban centers (e.g. Monoufeia governorate), milk is generally sold as fresh milk through informal marketing channels or used for butter and cheese making. Monitoring herd size dynamics over two years (Figure 1) showed that total herd size gradually tended to increase slightly over the monitoring period. Although there was a slight increase in total herd size, there was a slight decrease in milking cows and a slight increase in growing animals, especially growing males. However, no clear trend has yet emerged over three years for medium-scale farms (Tabana, 2000). It is interesting to compare the attitude of farmers towards raising or keeping a smaller number of dairy cows for milk production during the monitoring period (24 months). Farmers changed their attitude due to the decrease of milk price during this period. An opposite trend was observed for growing males used for fattening purposes in comparison to the beginning of monitoring.

0,0

2,0

4,0

6,0

8,0

10,0

12,0

14,0

16,0

18,0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Aug./1998-Aug./2000

Her

d si

ze

Total herd size Milking cows Heifers

Growing females Growing males Fattening males

Figure 1. Monthly herd size of medium scale dairy farms over two years.

3

In all monitored farms, medium-scale dairy farms have the same attitude towards keeping or raising a limited number of animals within the herd, according to land (owned and rented), availability of feed, animal housing area and other considerations related to farmers’ policies. The monthly average of animal number±S.E was 14.73±2.25 head per farm: milking cows were 6.04±0.35, heifers 0.76±0.13, growing females 3.48±0.52, growing males 3.09±0.85, and fattening males 1.37±0.87. Herd size among individual medium-scale dairy farms fluctuated in a narrow range, i.e.apart from modifications in herd structure, limited changes were observed in herd size. In Egypt, Ahamed et al. (2000) found that the average herd size was 2.2 head per farm, while in canal irrigated districts of the Punjab herd size was 8.87 adult cow units per farm (Mir et al., 1988). Data on sold and purchased animals revealed that milking cows are largely purchased from the market or from other farms (born off-farm), while heifers and growing animals (males and females) are largely born and reared on the farm (born on-farm) as shown in Table 3. The situation for fattening males was different: most buffaloes and Friesian males for fattening purposes came from the farm (60%-61%). However, for Baladi and crossbreed cows the percentage of males that came from the farm for fattening purposes were only 35%-42%. This trend shows that, under village farming conditions, herd dynamics are high due to the movement of purchased and sold animals. Farmers tend to breed or keep their own female young stock as replacement animals (Tabana, 2000) and male young stock for fattening (El-Kaschab et al., 1984; Nigm et al., 1986; Aboul-Ela et al., 2000; El-Wardani et al., 2000; Tabana, 2000). Selling or culling animals from the herd in individual medium-scale dairy farms tends to amount to one third of the herd (Table 4). Culling of animals is done mainly for financial reasons (81%). Aboul-Ela et al. (2000) and El-Wardani et al. (2000) observed similar trends in the small farms. However, other reasons for culling were related to fertility problems, low milk production, diseases or bad health, mortality, aging, and fattening (19%). El-Wardani et al. (2000) found that in small farms 75% of the reasons

Table 3. Source of animals according to born on/off farm (%).

Milking cows Heifers Growing females

Growing males

Fattening males

Breed

Born on

farm

Born off

farm

Born on

farm

Born off

farm

Born on

farm

Born off

farm

Born on

farm

Born off

farm

Born on

farm

Born off

farm Buffalo 3 63 52 48 3 2 68 32 6 39 Baladi cows 39 6 90 10 92 8 86 4 42 58 Cross breed 54 46 62 38 90 10 5 25 35 65 Friesian 40 60 100 0 94 6 59 4 60 40

Table 4. Percentage of animals that kept in farm and those culled from farm.

Milking cows Heifers

Growing females

Growing males

Fattening males Total

Breed No % No % No % No % No % No % Kept in farm 484 70 29 64 399 68 282 60 52 6 ,546 6

Culled from farm 209 30 3 36 189 32 187 40 9 39 55 33

32

for culling related to financial reasons, while other reasons represented 25%. This finding revealed that, in the farms under study, livestock are kept as an investment and as a reservoir as well (sold when a large amount of cash is suddenly needed).

References

Aboul-Ela, M.B., M.A. El-Wardani and H. Almahdy, 2000. Characterization of management practices of buffaloes raised under traditional condition of small holdings. Animal Production in the 2st Century: Challenges and Prospects, 18-20 April 2000, Sakha, Kafr El-sheikh, Egypt, p. 335-344.

Ahamed, A.M., S. Abou-Bakr, R.R.Sadek and A.S. Abdel-Aziz, 2000. Appraisal of the current crop/livestock production system in a new reclaimed area operated by university graduates in Egypt. 3rd All Africa Conference on Animal Agriculture and 11th Conference of the Egyptian Society of Animal Production, 6-9 November 2000, Alexandria, Egypt, p. 629-633.

El-Kaschab, S., M.S. El-Dannasoury and S. Omer, 1984. Studies on some reproductive and productive traits of buffaloes in Egypt. Minufiya. Agricultural Research Journal 9: p. 211-237.

El-Wardani, M.A., H. Almahdy, A.S. Tabana and M.K. Hathout, 2000. Reproductive performance of the Baladi cows and buffaloes under traditional management system in Egyptian small holdings. Animal Production in the 2st Century: Challenges and Prospects, 18-20 April 2000, Sakha, Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt, p. 325-333.

Hathout, M.K., S.A. El-Saadany, A.S. Tabana, M.M. Ismail and I.M. Gomaa, 1996. Features of dairy farming under crop-livestock mixed system in the delta region, Egypt. Proceedings of International Symposium on Buffalo resources and production systems, 4- October 1996, Cairo, Egypt, p. 30-40.

Mir, F.A., S.K. Shah and R.H. Usmani, 1988. Production performance of sahiwal cattle at village level. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 8: p. 68-73.

Nigm, A.A., I. Soliman, M.K. Hamed and A.S. Abdel-Aziz, 1986. Milk production and reproductive performance of Egyptian cows and buffaloes in small livestock holdings. Proceeding of the th Conference on Animal Production, 16-18 September 1986, Cairo, Egypt, p. 290-304.

Tabana, A., H. van Keulen, S. Tamminga and I. Gomaa, 2000. Development of a decision support system for individual dairy farms in mixed irrigated farming systems in the Nile delta. Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

33

The concept of flexibility and the analysis of livestock farming systems: illustration using extensive beef cattle systems in Argentina

E. Chia¹, B. Dedieu² & R. Perez³

¹INRA LISTO ENESAD, 26 Bd du Docteur Petitjean, BP 87999, 21079 Dijon Cedex, France ²INRA SAD - URH Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France ³INTA CERBAS, Unidad Operativa Cuenca del Salado, Prov. Buenos Aires, Argentina

Summary

Livestock farmers are faced with increasingly serious and diverse uncertainties. The way in which farmers take these uncertainties into account for the management of their farms becomes an essential element in analyzing and evaluating farming systems. We suggest that the concept of flexibility, often used by economics and management sciences in the business world, provides useful keys to analyze the capacity of the farms to adapt to changes in the environment. We illustrate the interest of this concept by analyzing how beef cattle farmers in Argentina (Pampa Deprimida Region) face three types of uncertainties: health problems associated with summer grazing (Enteque seco), commercialization problems, and great disruptions in the economic balance of the farms.

Keywords: livestock farming systems, flexibility, health risk, economic risks.

Introduction

Beef cattle farmers are faced with increasingly serious and diverse uncertainties. Vagaries of climate have always been an essential part of the uncertainties farmers have to cope with when making their technical choices. The same applies for health problems associated with livestock farming (outbreaks of parasitism in sheep farms, and crises of diarrhea in calves, for example). However, new types of uncertainties have emerged, such as the BSE or foot-and-mouth disease crisis, followed by dramatic crises in consumption and markets: sectors become disorganized, product prices fluctuate much more than before, and some previously guaranteed outlets are now brought into question. Nevertheless, the EU has a sound intervention tradition which limits the scale of disruption. In most countries of the world, this safety net does not exist. And this is the case in Argentina, where beef cattle breeders have to confront the uncertainties of climate, health and the market, alone and unaided. The way in which farmers take these uncertainties into account for the management of their farms becomes an essential element in analyzing and evaluating farming systems. We suggest that the concept of flexibility, often used by economics and management sciences in the business world, provides useful keys to analyze the capacity of the farms to adapt to changes in the environment. We propose to illustrate and discuss this concept of flexibility on the basis of a study questioning the conditions for sustainability of small and medium-sized Argentinean beef cattle farms in the Pampa deprimida (Prov. Buenos Aires Sur) (Chia & Dedieu, 2002). By studying the diversity of livestock farming systems in twelve farms, we analyze the way in which the different forms of flexibility are combined with regard to three major uncertainties: 1) health risk associated with the disease called Enteque seco, occurring during the summer. This disease, linked to the accidental ingestion of toxic leaves from a bush that is very common near ponds, calcifies the blood tissues, causing loss of weight

34

and subsequently the death of the animal; 2) market uncertainties due to the fluctuations in the price of the animals; and 3) survival risks for the enterprise in the event of severe economic unbalance. The paper is divided into two parts: firstly, we propose some elements of use of the flexibility concept in economics and management science literature. We then present the methodology and results of the study in Argentina.

Elements concerning the flexibility concept

Research into flexibility is not new in economics (industrial economics in particular) and in management science. Although this notion is used above all to explain the adaptive behavior of companies, the term flexibility remains polysemic (Cohendet & Llerena, 1999). According to Reix (1997), “intuitively, the idea of flexibility evokes a capacity to adapt, an ability to accept circumstances easily”, therefore a way of facing up to uncertainty. In the literature, several types of flexibility can be distinguished:• Static vs. dynamic flexibility. Static flexibility refers to the existence of potentialities making it

possible to face up to events that are more or less likely to happen. It is a response to external and internal events. Companies that have this type of flexibility have developed reaction overcapacities. However, this type of flexibility refers to situations that are more or less predictable, in other words, to a relatively stable environment. Here, with regard to overcapacity, emerges the question of its cost. Dynamic flexibility is the company’s capacity to manage over time the appropriateness to the environment. There are two types of dynamic flexibility: - reactive, which allows continuous reaction to variations in the environment. The company

reacts once the changes in the environment are noticed;- pro-active, which consists in developing capacities for anticipation. In other words, to imagine

possible evolutions of the environment and set innovative measures in place, enabling practices, processes, products, relations, etc. to be modified before the events occur.

• Strategic vs. operational flexibility. Strategic flexibility refers to the capacity to modify the company structure so that it can adapt to changes in the environment or anticipate transformations. Operational flexibility should enable the company to produce a great diversity of products, to change and renew them rapidly, to adapt to variations in demand volume without creating excess stocks or delays, to adjust skills and change methods and adapt to unexpected variations in inputs from outside (Tarondeau, 1999). The latter distinguishes flexibility on products, on processes and on inputs (Table 1).

Flexibility of beef cattle breeding systems in Argentina

Pampa Deprimida is an area of cattle breeding farms based on natural grasslands. Livestock farming is of the extensive outdoor type with an average stocking rate between 0.5 and 1 LU per hectare (1 LU = 400 kg liveweight). Technical productivity is low (70 - 90 kg liveweight per ha per year). The land floods in the winter and dries out in the summer: soil and climate constraints are considerable. The diversity of small and medium cattle breeding systems of this region has been detailed by Cittadini et al. (2001), notably with the network of 2 cattle farms that served as a basis for this study. The monitoring method implemented was based on 3 to 4 interviews, the first investigating the farm history and structures, the others the present livestock system. It involves collecting and analyzing herd management practices and land use, marketing and financial practices and finally organizating the work. The farms studied have a surface area of between 310 and 1,300 ha, for a breeding herd of between 114 and 620 cows.

35

Four livestock farming systems have been identified:1. breeding and fattening systems, with complex livestock management (anticipated service for the

heifers, frequent batching operations, winter supplementation);2. “fat veals” systems, with early winter calvings, batching based on the age of the cows (primiparous,

old and intermediary cows) and the date of calving, sophisticated grass management;3. store calves systems with one winter calving session, simple batching, pastures of festuca for the

winter;4. breeding and fattening systems with simple management (one batch, calving all year around). Understanding the way in which farmers manage risks associated with the Enteque seco disease, gave rise to specific work in 6 of these farms, referring to the “fat veals” (n=2) and “store calves” (n=4) systems described above. It included a special characterization of the land pattern (maps showing the density of Enteque seco bushes, the study of practices involved and an estimation of the number of cases of the disease (Perez 1998). Our analysis grid of farmer practices focuses on the contribution of the concept of operational flexibility in dealing with problems associated with: i) Enteque seco (risks for the production process) and ii) prices and the possibilities of marketing the animals (uncertainties about products). The question of survival risks for the enterprise in case of a severe economic unbalance refers to strategic flexibility.

Results

Risks for the production process: the management of Enteque seco problems

The Enteque seco disease defines a period of risk: summer. The number of animals affected varies according to the year, probably because of climatic conditions, but it has a very significant impact on the region, with economic losses estimated in tens of millions of dollars (Crenovitch et al., 1994). The

Table 1. The operational flexibility of a company (Tarondeau, 1999). Type of flexibility Characteristic variable Definition

Products

Diversity of products

Renewal of products Modification of products

Capacity of a company to deal with a collection of products of a given diversity.

Capacity of a company to substitute new products for existing ones. Capacity of a company to modify existing products.

Organization Process Volume Capacity of a company to adjust the volume of resources to demand

Inputs

Method Specification

Capacity of a company to change the industrial process if required. Capacity of a company to adapt to variations in input specifications

36

Solanum glaucophylum (Sg) bush, whose toxic leaves are the cause of cattle health problems, is a bush found in wet lands according to two spatial modalities:1. “Concentrated”, notably around waterholes that are very much used in the summer.2. “Scattered”, with lower densities of bushes than the former, but spread out all over the plot. At present, there is no satisfactory cure for this disease, and no effective method for eradicating the bushes either chemically or mechanically. The control of the problem is thus based on preventive measures on the one hand, and monitoring the herd on the other hand. Within the farm sample, prevention consists in preventing animals from entering problem areas (“scattered” Sg) or parts of areas (parts to be enclosed; “concentrated” Sg). The exclusion modalities can take place i) none, ii) at the beginning of the risk period, iii) after the appearance of the first symptoms in animals, iv) after implementing the method proposed by Crenovitch et al. (1994), which consists in counting the number of leaves fallen to the ground. When more than 20 % of the Sg foliage is on the ground, then the animals have to be removed. The study of monitoring practices shows that there are two ways of monitoring sick animals: 1. With early diagnosis of the sick animals (difficulties to stand up or to start walking). Placed on a

field of good grazing land, the cow will return to health and will continue her productive life.2. With late diagnosis. The bad body condition is more pronounced and the animal can only be culled

and sooner or later sold. Three combinations of practices, regarding the risks of appearance of the Enteque seco disease, have been identified. We present them with reference to indicators of operational flexibility:• Type 1: no preventive measures (3 cases). Disease diagnosis is late in two cases out of three. The

system’s capacity to face up to the Enteque seco risk does not come under production process flexibility.

• Type 2 (2 cases): exclusion for the risk period of plots with heavy concentration of Sg; exclusion of plots with sparse distribution of Sg after the appearance of the first symptoms on the cows. The diagnosis of Enteque cases is early. The flexibility of the production process is of the “reactive dynamic” type.

• Type 3 (1 case): exclusion of plots with Sg, whatever their spatial distribution, after counting fallen leaves. Flexibility is of the dynamic, pro-active type.

The sample is very small to comment on any link between the type of livestock farming system and risk management. The 4 store calves system cases are spread in each flexibility type.

Uncertainties about marketing

Adaptation to fluctuations and uncertainties of prices involves three types of practices: • Diversification of products sold. Two farmers out of 12 produce a wide range of products from

the herd (fat calves, breeding heifers, steers, breeding bulls, cull cows and store calves). This wide range involves fine management of the diversity of animals in the herd according to different criteria (for example the fat calves, sold after 10 months suckling, are born first at the beginning of winter, from dams which are neither too young nor too old).

• Spread of sales. Apart from being less sensitive to pressures on only one type of product, the previous formulae also ensure a spread of sales favorable to the farm income, a spread which is also possible to obtain with one single type of animal and calving spread over the whole year (one case, with production of steers).

• Certification of products. Although in Argentina the issue of beef quality is not presented with as much force as in Europe, some farmers have begun to set up new ways of producing or certifying their products in response to new consumer requirements. This development is also expressed in a change in animal marketing methods: farmers establish relationships with butchers or supermarkets and hypermarkets.

3

Facing up to severe crises that endanger the farm: dismantling and rebuilding the herd as a strategic flexibility

During serious financial crises in farming households (drop in agricultural market prices, or economic losses in other activities), some farmers can only keep their farms if they sell their herd. They rent out their land to other farmers who themselves are in a phase of capitalizing or rebuilding their herd beyond their farm’s possibilities. Three farmers in the sample have faced such situations. This informal system, called capitalización, enables farmers in difficulty to continue to carry out their work (since they must monitor and manage a herd). The remuneration for this boarding-out formula depends on the herd’s productivity. As a general rule, it consists in keeping one calf out of two and receiving a percentage (variable) of the weight at departure of the adult animals. This system is of mutual benefit: it enables the capitalización farmer to increase his herd without incurring debts in the purchase of lands and without increasing costs for rental and workforce, and it enables the farmer in decapitalización to continue to own his lands and gradually build up his own herd again. After a few years the farmer in decapitalización can once again become a farmer in capitalización. The informal boarding-out system, which is developed at regional scale, favors strategic flexibility of farming systems, keeping farmers who are faced with serious disruption in their activities in work.

Conclusion

The concept of flexibility opens up new points of view for qualifying farming systems. Much research has been focused on food safety, notably in pastoral farming systems (Bellon et al., 1999), or on the biological plasticity of the animals (such as their capacity for mobilizing and rebuilding their body reserves during periods of food shortage). But choices in the type of product, commercial practices and production organization methods also contribute to the capacity of systems to resist uncertainties that are not always concerned with food. The characterization of production organization methods includes the consideration of decisions for adjusting the technical management, and the characterization of information systems (Vollberda & Rutges, 1999) that ensure the control, anticipation or responsiveness of the system as regards fluctuations in the environment. Finally, the concept of strategic flexibility implies a dynamic vision of the farm confronted by disruptions in family strategies and by considerable changes in its environment.

References

Bellon, S., N. Girard and G. Guerin, 1999. Caractériser les saisons pratiques pour comprendre l’organisation d’une campagne de pâturage. Fourrages 158: p. 115 – 132.

Chia, E. and B. Dedieu, 2002. Nouveaux dispositifs de RD en agriculture: le programme franco- argentin IDEAS. Cah. Agric. 11: p. 259 – 267.

Cittadini, R., J. Burges, V. Hamdan, R. Perez, P. Natinzon and B. Dedieu, 2001. Diversidad de sistemas ganaderos y su articulación con el sistema familiar. Revista Argentina de Producción Animal 21: p. 9-35.

Cohendet, P. and P. Llerena, 1999. Flexibilité et modes d’organisation. Revue Française de Gestion, March-Apr.-May: p. 72-79.

Crenovitch, H., O. Ruffini and R. Perez, 1994. Enteque Seco: perdidas economicas en la Cuenca del Salado. Doc EEA INTA Balcarce, septembre, 15 pp.

Perez, R., 1998. Réflexions sur l’analyse des comportements techniques en périodes à risque. Pratiques d’éleveurs du Bassin Versant du Salado (Argentine) face à la maladie Enteque seco. Thèse de master CNEARC, INTA/INRA SAD, 63 pp.

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Reix, R., 1997. Flexibilité. In: Encyclopédie de Gestion, Ed. Economica, Paris, Article 70.Tarondeau, J.C., 1999. Approches et formes de la flexibilité. Revue Française de Gestion

March-Apr.-May: p. 61-71.Vollberda, H. and A. Rutges, 1999. FARSYS: a knowledge-based System for managing strategic

change. Decision Support Systems 26: p. 99-123.

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The “production workshop” to model herd management decisions: examples in sheep and beef cattle dynamic herd models

B. Dedieu1, S. Cournut2, S. Ingrand1, L. Perochon3 & J. Agabriel3

1INRA Transformations des Systèmes d’Elevage Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France 2ENITAC, Département Agriculture et Espaces, Marmilhat, 63122 Lempdes, France 3INRA URH Theix, 63122 Saint-Genès Champanelle, France

Summary

We hereby present and discuss a decision sub-model framework (DS) aiming at representing i) herd management with various numbers of reproduction sessions throughout the year, and ii) young animals and culled adults cohorts management with variable ranges of products and distribution of sales. This decision sub-model framework has been included in the design of two herd dynamics simulators. It considers strategic steering as the rules for the configuration and coordination of production workshops (the batch production cycle, the product workshop). These production workshops are connected to the reproductive herd, the young and the culled cohorts and constitute management objects in the simulators. Validation refers to i) the ability of the decision framework to integrate various management types observed in farms, and ii) the functionality of the DS within the simulator design.

Keywords: decision models, strategic steering, herd dynamics, sheep, beef cattle.

Introduction

Dynamic herd models (DHM) simulate or optimise the dynamics of herd composition and production over the medium term. The common skeleton of the DHM decision sub-systems formalizes the management of reproduction and replacement/culling of the herd (Cournut, 2001). Most of them take into account the feeding strategies, notably via levels of feeding, and the economic context (market prices). Sheep and beef cattle DHM often refer to the occidental lambing/calving session reproduction system, and propose yearly assessments of production and herd composition. In France, sheep and beef cattle farmers’ and producers’ groups debate on herd management strategies that bring into play, along with the yearly herd production level, i) the number and the periods of the calving/lambing sessions; ii) the range of animal products for sale; and iii) the sale periods. The development of quality label markets for beef and lamb requires producers’ groups to be able to offer downstream operators a significant and regular volume of deliveries that can be certified throughout the year. Quality labels emphasize certain types of products. For example, as far as the “Label Rouge” (the sign associated with the highest level of beef quality) is concerned, young cows (up to 8 years old) and heifers over 30 months old are the targeted categories of animals, while 3 year old steers are being passed over (Roche et al., 2000). Regarding the other technical specifications (minimum /maximum carcass weight, body condition etc.), this tends to turn the range of sold products into a result of successive sorting operations. These sortings are coordinated with the general herd production (periods of birth) and herd replacement and culling strategies (periods and criteria). They mobilize information flows taking into account the

380

characteristics of the animals, either present (live weight) or referring to the lifetime production traits (Oltjen et al., 1990). In this paper, we present and discuss a decision sub-model framework (DS) aiming at representing: i) herd management with various numbers of reproduction sessions throughout the year, and ii) young animals and culled adults cohorts management with variable ranges of products and distribution of sales. This decision sub-model framework has been included in the design of two herd dynamics simulators, one in sheep (TUTOVIN – Cournut & Dedieu, 2004a), the other in beef cattle (SIMBALL - Ingrand et al., 2002). The objective is to produce knowledge on the interaction between management and biology in herd systems with its consequence on production (annual level, distribution of births and sales throughout the year). The simulators are object-oriented models: the formalization of the DS defines management objects that are in relation to the animal objects (with their biological responses and lifetime traits).

The herd management DS framework

From the production project to the action program: the decision process

In order to formalize herd management, we took into account the procedures for analysing the management of production processes in an industrial environment, procedures that have already been applied to the management of farms (Hémidy et al., 1993), and forage systems (Coleno & Duru, 1999). These authors rely on the concepts of “production project”, “strategic steering” and “operational steering”, which we adapt to livestock. The livestock production project is defined by three components:1. The range of products plan (number of sales by commercial category, distribution of sales).

This plan includes the definition of targeted commercial categories either of young animals or culling ewes/cows.

2. The reproductive herd production plan (number of births, reproductive females’ productivity level, distribution of births).

3. The reproductive herd composition plan that specifies the herd size policy (growth, stability, or reduction) and the aptitude of the ewes/cows to respond to the production plan and the range of products plan.

On the other hand, the farmer implements an action program, which can be expressed as the definition, planning and adjustment of his interventions: operational steering, that is, carrying out the everyday management of the animals. The link between livestock plan and operational steering is established through the strategic steering, which organizes i) the production and replacement of the reproductive herd, and ii) the range of products. Referring to the management of production approach, strategic steering configures and coordinates production workshops. In our formalization model, the batch production cycle (BPC) is the elementary production workshop of the reproductive herd; the product workshop (PW) is the equivalent for the young and culled cohorts.

The batch production cycle

The BPC (Figure 1) is defined by a lambing/calving session. It starts with a mating/service session, ends with the last drying-off and is supported by a batch (Cournut, 2001). The strategic

A cohort is composed of animals that have in common the same event (Vu Tien Khang, 1983); in our case, the common event is a birth herd session or a culling session.

381

steering of the reproductive herd is then expressed as rules for the configuration and coordination of BPCs. The configuration concerns i) fixing the dates and duration of reproduction sessions and the end of drying-off, and ii) determination of the initial composition of the batch of reproductive females. The coordination refers to the organization of the linkage of successive PBCs of a single batch (for example, lambing in January and then in November for one batch in the 3 lambing per 2 years system), and to the movements of females from one batch to another (for example, because of infertility after one mating session).

The product workshop

As for the BPCs, the way the farmer manages the organization of the range of products is expressed in the form of rules for the configuration and coordination of PW (Figure 2). The finalized PW is defined as an oriented phase of the management of the cohort’s animals, leading to a commercial category or to replacement. The non - determined PW concerns animals that are temporarily reared together, although they are destined for different purposes (as far as commercial type or replacement are concerned). The configuration concerns the starting and ending dates of the PW. Notably, for the finalized PWs, the end depends on the selling rules (at fixed fair dates; at targeted weight or body condition; when there are enough animals to make up a selling batch; etc.); for heifers, the end of the PW depends on the replacement rules, notably the age or weight required for the first service. The coordination between PWs consists in the sorting rules (dates and criteria).

Figure 1. The batch production cycle (beef cattle example).

calving service drying off

heifers culling

changing batch cows changing batch cows

batch cows

Figure 2. Coordination of product workshops (beef cattle).

cohort of calves with undetermined

future

reproductive heifers

sorting n°1

sales

herd

beefs and meat heifers

382

Finally, herd strategic steering is expressed in the form of combined production workshops linked by coordination rules and by i) culling and lambing /calving sessions that give birth to culled and young cohorts; and ii) replacement rules that connect the reproductive herd and the heifers/ewe lambs workshop. In the conceptual model of the simulators, the BPCs product workshop, reproductive herd and cohorts are considered as management objects.

Discussion and conclusion

The validation of such a decision sub-model of simulators is a difficult problem. Two ways of validation can be discussed with respect to the purpose of the simulators: the ability of the decision framework to integrate various management types observed on farms, and the functionality of the DS within the simulator design, i.e. its interest for modelling the dynamic operation of the herd and its consequences on production. With regard to sheep, we validated that the model could make a report of expert knowledge on the precise components of the various reproduction systems studied in France (Cournut, 2001). The TUTOVIN simulator (Cournut & Dedieu, 2004) is focused on the most intensive of the systems (“three lambings in two years”) and models the effect on lamb production distribution of i) reproduction and replacement decisions; and ii) biological parameters relative to fertility, date of conception, prolificacy and longevity. Validation was achieved and the comparisons of the operations of flocks under different management are based on the BPCs coordination values, i.e. the estimation of the flows of ewes and ewe lambs from one BPC to the successive ones (Figure 3). For beef cattle, the DS framework has been validated with on-farm studies studying the adaptations of management due to quality label contracts in the centre of France (Ingrand et al., 2004). The SIMBALL simulator (Ingrand et al., 2002) aims at modelling the effect on sales distribution of i) herd reproduction and replacement management; ii) sorting rules in the cohorts of young animals; and iii) feeding levels. It includes a mechanistic model of inter-calving duration (Agabriel & Ingrand, 2004). BPCs and PWs are also the herd management entities that support the formalization of feeding systems, taking into account the different phases of rearing and fattening for the young animals and the various feeding schemes for adult females considering their pregnancy and lactating periods (outdoor or indoor). Validation of SIMBALL is in progress. In herd dynamics models, the decision sub-system components and details are not homogeneous as, in a more general way, in livestock or agricultural farming systems modelling (Girard & Hubert, 1999). What is strategic is not defined on the same basis: the question (and the rules considered) can be strategic because the future benefit of the farmer is engaged (Frazier & Pfeiffer, 1994); a combination of rules can be strategic because it has a long-term effect on herd dynamics (Jalving et al., 993; Romero et al., 2002). In our work, “strategic” refers to a specific level of the decision process (Papy, 1994). BPC and PW configuration and coordination lead to a strategic organization of the distribution of animal production throughout the year. This level of decision differs from the operational one which deals with the day to day production process. Combining these two levels of decision of the farmer’s action model (Sebillote & Soler, 1989) makes it possible to define and arrange in order the set of rules finalised by a livestock project. The BPC cannot report all dairy herd operations: in most situations, reproduction lasts the whole year and no specific reproduction sessions can be distinguished. Also, PWs are not adapted to herd milk quota management! But our intention is to adapt the “strategic – operational steering” way of modelling the decision sub-system in dairy herds.

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Batch A

Batch B

102 209 128

128 128102280 191 280

276 280191

76 53135 76 135

19 32 22

4615 46

461513

22 19 32

culled ewes

culled ewes

Ewe lambs

Ewe lambs

Infertile ewes changing batch

Year n Year n+1

148 203 181227 236202

Batch production cycle

winter spring autumn

Number of ewes concernedby mating

Number of lambing ewes

Figure 3. The animal flows between batch breeding cycles. Results from a three lambings per two years simulation. Management is following the INRA technical package; low fertility at each mating.

References

Agabriel, J. and S. Ingrand, 2004. Modelling the performance of the beef cow to build a herd functioning simulator. Anim. Res. 53: p. 34-36.

Coleno, F.C. and M. Duru, 1999. A model to find and test decision rules for turnout date and grazing area allocation for a dairy cow system in spring. Agric. Syst. 6: p. 5-64.

Cournut, S., 2001. Le fonctionnement des systèmes biologiques pilotés: simulation à événements discrets d’un troupeau ovin conduit en trois agnelages en deux ans. Thèse, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, ENITAC, INRA SAD-URH, 418 pp.

Cournut, S. and B. Dedieu, 2004. A discrete event simulation of flock dynamics: a management application to three lambings in two years. Anim. Res. 53: p. -2.

Frasier, W.M. and G.H. Pfeiffer, 1994. Optimal replacement and management policies for beef cows. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 76: p. 847-858.

Girard, N. and B. Hubert, 1999. Modelling expert knowledge with knowledge based systems to design decision aids. The example of a knowledge based model on grazing management. Agric. Syst. 59: p. 23-44.

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Hémidy, L., F. Maxime and L.G. Soler, 1993. Instrumentation et pilotage stratégique dans l’entreprise agricole. Cah. Eco. Socio. Rur. 28: p. 91-118.

Ingrand, S., B. Dedieu, J. Agabriel and L. Pérochon, 2002. Modélisation du fonctionnement d’un troupeau bovin allaitant selon la combinaison des règles de conduite. Premiers résultats de la construction du simulateur SIMBALL. Renc. Rech. Rum. 9: p. 61-64.

Ingrand, S., B. Dedieu, B. Roche, M.O. Nozières and I. Carrasco, 2004. Produire de la viande bovine pour les filières de qualité : quelles implications sur les pratiques de conduite des éleveurs? In: Transformation des pratiques techniques et flexibilité des systèmes d’élevage, E. Chia, B. Dedieu, C.H. Moulin and M. Tichit (editors), Séminaire INRA SAD TRAPEUR, 15-16 March 2004, Montpellier, France, www.inra.fr/sad/actualite/trappeur/.

Jalvingh, A.W., J.A.M. Van Arendonk and A.A. Dijkhuizen, 1993. Dynamic probabilistic simulation of dairy herd management practices. II. Comparison of strategies in order to change a herd’s calving pattern. Livest. Prod. Sci. 37: p. 133-152.

Oltjen, J.W., G.E. Selk, L.G. Burditt and R.E. Plant, 1990. Integrated expert system for culling management of beef cows. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 4: p. 333-341.

Papy, F., 1994. Le management de la production agricole. Proceedings of the IV Symposium Recherche Système en Agriculture et Développement Rural, 21-25 November 1994, Montpellier, France, p.12.

Roche, B., B. Dedieu and S. Ingrand, 2000. Analyse comparative des cahiers des charges Label Rouge gros bovins de boucherie. Renc. Rech. Rum. 7: p. 259–262.

Romera, A.J., S.T. Morris, J. Hodgson, W.D. Stirling and S.J.R. Woodward, 2004. A model for simulating rule based management of cow-calf systems. Computer and Electronics in Agriculture 42: p. 67-86.

Sébillote, M. and L.G. Soler, 1990. Les processus de décision des agriculteurs. Acquis et questions vives. In: Modélisation systémique et systèmes agraires, J. Brossier, B. Vissac and J.J. LeMoigne (editors), INRA Editions, Paris, p. 88-102.

Vu Tien Khang, J., 1983. Méthodes d’analyse des données démographiques et généalogiques dans les populations d’animaux domestiques. Genet. Sel. Evol. 15: p. 263-298.

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Comparison of grazing management systems for calf and yearling steers

M.G. Keane

Teagasc, Grange Research Centre, Dunsany, Co. Meath, Ireland

Summary

The objective of this experiment was to compare leader/follower (L), separate (S) and mixed (M) grazing systems. Forty-eight Charolais x Friesian calves and yearling steers were assigned to the L, S and M treatments (16 calves and 16 yearlings per treatment). The L treatment was operated conventionally. In the S treatment, paddocks were assigned to calves and yearlings in proportion to their metabolic weight. In the M treatment, calves and yearlings grazed together. The yearlings were finished for slaughter the following spring. The calves were retained to the end of the following grazing season. Mean liveweight gains of the yearlings were 891, 948 and 1076 (s.e.d 36, P< 0.01) g/day for L, M and S, respectively. Corresponding mean slaughter weights were 642, 661 and 678 (s.e.d 9.4, P< 0.05) kg. Mean calf liveweight gains during the experimental treatments were 964, 685 and 573 (s.e.d 29, P< 0.001) g/day. Compared with separate grazing, leader/follower grazing increased calf housing weight by 5 kg, subsequent turn out weight by 52 kg and end of second grazing season weight by 39 kg. It is concluded that L advantaged the calves but disadvantaged the yearlings. M was intermediate between L and S, and S advantaged the yearlings but disadvantaged the calves. Keywords: calves, grazing, steers.

Introduction

The standard grazing management in dairy calf-to-beef systems is a rotational leader/follower arrangement where the calves graze ahead of the yearlings. This assists in the control of gastrointestinal parasites in the calves (Downey and Hope-Cawdrey, 1988). Leader/follower grazing management should benefit the leaders (calves), but disadvantage the followers (yearlings). The objective of this study was to compare the standard leader/follower system (L) with separate (S) and mixed (M) grazing management systems.

Materials and methods

Forty-eight Charolais x Friesian yearling steers and the same number and breed type of calves were blocked according to liveweight and assigned to L, M and S. They were managed on a 16 ha grassland unit which provided both grazing and silage for the animals. Silage was cut from 9.25 ha in late May and from 7.75 ha in mid July, leaving 6.75 and 8.25 ha available for grazing until early June and late July, respectively. The 6.5 ha area grazed until early June was divided into 2 plots of 0.25 ha each, and from these, 9 plots were assigned at random to each of the 3 grazing managements. The silage area was divided into groups of 3 plots and one plot from each group of 3 was assigned to each grazing treatment. During a rotation, the treatment groups moved independently based on a target post-grazing sward height (measured every two days by falling plate meter) of 6 cm, but all groups of yearlings started each rotation together. Herbage in excess of that required for grazing was removed by cutting one

386

or more plots for baled silage. The L treatment was operated conventionally with the calves grazing the plot immediately ahead of the yearlings. In the S treatment, plots were assigned to calves and yearlings in proportion to their mean metabolic body weight at the start of each rotation, subject to a minimum of three plots for the calves. In the M treatment, the calves and yearlings grazed together. The yearlings were turned out on March 19 and put on their experimental areas on April 15. The calves were weighed on May 8 and turned out on May 14. The treatments lasted until September and from then until September 23 all the animals grazed together to equalise gut contents. The yearlings remained at pasture until housing on October 28. Finishing commenced on November 17 on grass silage plus 5 kg concentrates per head daily. After 4 days the animals were slaughtered. The calves were fed silage plus kg mineralised barley per head daily over a winter period of 26 days, after which they were put to pasture. The duration of the second grazing season was 224 days. Data were analysed using the general linear model least squares procedure of the Statistical Analysis Systems Institute (SAS, 1989/92). The model had terms for block, treatment and error. The significance of differences between treatments was determined by the least significant difference procedure.

Results

Liveweights and liveweight gains of yearlings are shown in Table 1. Mean liveweight of yearlings at turnout was 326 (s.e.d. 2.2) kg. Mean liveweight gain to the end of the grazing treatments was 972 kg/day and differed significantly between treatments, being lowest for L and highest for S (Table 1). At the end of the grazing treatments, the S group was 24 kg and 35 kg respectively heavier than the M and L groups. By the start of finishing these differences had declined to 15 kg and 27 kg, respectively. Liveweight gain during finishing averaged 0.85 kg/day and did not differ significantly between groups. At slaughter, the M and S groups were 19 kg and 36 kg respectively heavier than the L group. Compared with L, carcass weight was 12 kg heavier for M and 21 kg heavier for S. Liveweights and liveweight gains of the calves are shown in Table 2. Mean liveweight at turnout was 115 (s.e.d. 1.9) kg. Liveweight gain was highest for L and lowest for S. For the 8 week period from the end of the grazing treatments to housing there was no compensatory gain. Neither was there any compensatory gain over the following winter. There was, however, some compensatory growth during the second grazing season. From turnout to the end of August, M gained significantly faster than L, and S tended to do likewise but the difference was not significant. For the entire period from calf turnout to the end of the second grazing season, L gained significantly faster than M, which in turn gained significantly faster than S. The liveweight advantages of 42 kg and 52 kg for L over M and S respectively at the end of winter, were reduced to 22 kg and 39 kg at the end of the second grazing season. Total yearling gains from turnout to slaughter were 316, 335 and 352 kg for L, M and S respectively. The corresponding values for the calves from turn out to the end of the second grazing season were 400, 378 and 361 kg, giving combined totals of 716, 713 and 713 kg for the treatments as listed.

Discussion

At the end of the evaluation period (slaughter for the yearlings and end of second grazing season for the calves), differences between the treatments in total liveweight gain (yearlings + calves combined) were small. Earlier work (Drennan & Harte, 1979) indicated that there was no compensation for differences in growth in the calf stage. In the present study there was some compensatory gain for differences in calf growth rate but it was delayed until the following grazing season.

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Table 1. Liveweights and liveweight gains of yearling steers on three grazing treatments. Liveweights at (kg) L M S s.e.d. Sig End of treatments (23/9) 494a 505a 529b . ** Start of finishing (17/11) 523a 535a 550b .6 * Slaughter (13/4) 642a 66b 678c 9.4 * Carcass weight (kg) 345a 35b 366c 5.6 * Liveweight gains for (g/day): Yearling grazing period 891a 948a ,076b 35.5 ** Calf grazing period 709a 96b 888c 34.8 ** Total period 808 855 899 29.9 NS

a,b Values within a row followed by different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05). Date of event in brackets. L = Leaders (calves)/followers (yearlings), M = Mix of calves and yearlings, S = Calves and yearlings grazed separately. Table 2. Liveweights and liveweight gains of calves on three grazing treatments. Liveweights at (kg) L M S s.e.d. Sig End of treatments (23/9) 242a 205b 190c .3 *** st housing (18/11) 259a 220b 208b 7.0 *** 2nd turnout (24/3) 332a 290b 280b 8.6 *** 2nd housing (3/11) 55a 493b 46c 8.3 ** Liveweight gains for (g/day): First grazing season 964a 685b 53c 28.8 *** First winter 53 554 566 35.0 NS Second grazing season ,033a ,b ,091a 38.9 * Total period 44a 702b 6c 3.5 *

a,b Values within a row followed by different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05). Date of event in brackets. L = Leaders (calves)/followers (yearlings), M = Mix of calves and yearlings, S = Calves and yearlings grazed separately.

Because the calves were not followed through the slaughter, the full implications of the findings cannot be assessed. Clearly, where animals are disposed of at intermediate stages of production, leader/follower is the system of choice where disposal takes place after the first grazing season, and separate grazing is the system of choice where disposal takes place after the second grazing season. The ideal arrangement would be a leader/follower system for calves and separate grazing for yearlings with another category of animals (e.g. culled dairy cows, replacement heifers) serving as followers for the calves.

References

Downey, N. and M.J. Hope-Cawdrey, 1988. Parasites of Cattle. Beef Series No. 7, An Foras Taluntais, ISBN 0948321407.

Drennan, M.J. and J.F. Harte, 1979. Compensatory growth in cattle. 2. Influence of growth rate in the calf stage (birth to 8 months) and during the first winter (8 to 13 months) on subsequent performance and carcass composition. Irish Journal of Agricultural Research 18: p. 145-156.

Statistical Analysis Systems Institute, 1989/92. SAS/STAT USERS Guide, Version 6.03. SAS Institute, Cary, NC.

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389

Effect of feed block supply on in vitro fermentation and growth kids reared on woody vegetation

A. Gasmi-Boubaker & C. Kayouli

Institut National Agronomique, 43 Avenue Charles Nicolle. Cité Mahrajéne, 1082 Tunis, Tunisia

Summary

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of feed block supply on in vitro fermentation of simulated diet (Experiment 1) and growth kids reared on rangelands under drought conditions (Experiment 2). In experiment 1, a mixture of 6 species (Erica arborea, Phillyrea angustifolia, Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus communis, Quercus suber and Viburnum tinus) was incubated with 10 % of feed blocks, or without any feed blocks, in a closed fermenter for 24 hours. Gas production, volatile fatty acid and fermented organic matter were increased (P<0.05) with feed block supply. In experiment 2, 14 six-month-old local kids (18.75 kg; s.d. ± 1.4) were divided into 2 equal groups and allowed to browse in shrublands from July to December. The control group did not receive any supplement whereas the other group received feed blocks in the stalls at night. Feed blocks contained mainly wheat bran, molasses, urea and minerals. Cement and quicklime were used as binders. The live weight of control group decreased with time (P<0.05), while the supplemented group maintained body weight.

Keywords: feed block, in vitro fermentation, shrub, kid.

Introduction

It is essential that local feed resources be used for livestock, particularly if a system is to remain sustainable. In mountainous zones of northern Tunisia, leaves of trees and shrubs are the main diet of ruminants throughout the year. This vegetation is often low in energy, protein and minerals, and fails in most cases to cover livestock maintenance requirements. Farmers are thus obliged to supplement animals with grain feed. However, the purchase of supplementary concentrate feed is expensive, and farmers cannot offer them regularly to small ruminants (Kayouli & Buldgen, 2001). Several authors (Chenost & Kayouli, 1997; Ben Salem & Nefzaoui, 2003) recommended to give feed blocks to ruminants on poor quality fibrous feed. Feed blocks are a solidified mixture of agro-industrial by-products, urea, binder and salt. The purpose of these supplements is to enhance microbial activity in the rumen, thereby improving digestion and intake of low quality roughages by stall-fed or free grazing ruminants. Feed blocks may reduce the use of concentrate feeds, thus reducing feeding costs (Ben Salem & Nefzaoui, 2003). Moreover, huge amounts of agro-industrial by-products are produced but most of them are not fully used for animal feeding. Their incorporation in blocks can limit environmental pollution. Thus far only few feeding experiments have been carried out to evaluate the effect of feed blocks on the performance of browsing animals. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of blocks on: i) carbohydrate fermentation of a mixture of shrubs; and ii) growth of kids reared on shrubland during the summer.

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Materials and methods

Experiment 1

Leaves of six browse species were harvested in the summer (July), dried (at 40°C), ground (1 mm) and mixed to simulate goats’ diet on the basis of previous work (Kayouli & Buldgen, 2001), which indicated that in the summer, goats’ diet consisted of Phillyrea angustifolia (244 g), Pistacia lentiscus (225 g), Quercus suber (221 g), Erica arborea (126 g), Viburnum tinus (101 g) and Myrtus communis (82 g). Gas production was obtained through in vitro incubation of samples during 24 hours at 39°C, using the methodologies described by Jouany and Thivend (1986). The equivalent of 13 g dry matter (DM) of mixed diet with or without 10 % of blocks was incubated in a flask with 100 g of solid rumen contents, 100 ml of filtrated rumen juice, 300 ml of artificial saliva and 5 ml of ammonium sulphate (NH4 2 SO4). Each sample was incubated in duplicate, in three separate series performed in different days. Duplicate blank, i.e. rumen fluid without sample, was included in each to correct for possible effect of rumen fluid on the fermentation process. Liquid samples (9ml) were taken from the flasks at the beginning of incubation (T0), then after 24 h, and stored at –18°C pending volatile fatty acids (VFA) analysis (Jouany, 1982). Gas production was recorded every hour during the first 6 hours and then at increasing intervals (at 8, 10 , 12 and 24 hours).

Experiment 2

Growth trial was carried out in the North-West of Tunisia during the dry season (July-December). The area is a typical Mediterranean shrubland dominated with Erica arborea, Myrtus communis, Phillyrea angustifolia, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus spp. Herbaceous species were not available. Fourteen six-month-old local male kids were used for six months to control growth rate. They were adapted to experimental conditions during the first month (July) before the start of the measurement period. Animals were randomly divided into two equal groups. The first group (n=7 kids, 18.4 ± 0.7 kg) browsed in the shrubland each day for 7 hours. The second group (n=7 kids, 19.1± 0.6 kg) browsed likewise and had free access to the block in stalls at night. Blocks contained, on crude weight basis, wheat bran (54 %), molasses (10%), salt (10%), urea (5%), bi-calcium-phosphate (5%), and sulphur (1 %). Cement (10%) and quicklime (5%) were included in the bloc as binders. The intake of blocks was controlled daily. Live weight change was determined by weighing all animals at the same time of the day every 3 weeks.

Calculations and statistical analysis

Data for gas production were fitted to the exponential equation: Y= b (1 – e – ct), where Y is the volume of gas produced at time t (ml / fermenter); b is the potential gas production (ml / fermenter); and c is the fractional rate of gas production (ml/h). The quantity of carbohydrates theoretically fermented (organic matter fermented), measured in g/fermenter, was calculated from the amount of the different VFA (in mol) produced in the fermenter over 24 h of incubation according to the stochiometric equations of Demeyer (1991). The effects of blocks on in vitro fermentation and kid growth were assessed by a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using GLM procedures of SAS (1985).

39

Results

The addition of 10 % feed blocks increased significantly (P<0.05) the volume of gas produced, the rate of fermentation, VFA concentration, and OM fermentation of simulated diet (Table 1). Kids’ weight changes were affected (P<0.05) by the feed block supply (Table 2). During the first two months of trial, the control group lost (P<0.05) more weight (-21%) than the supplemented group (-6%). Final body weight was higher (P<0.05) in the supplemented group than in the control group (20.8 and 15.5 kg respectively). Indeed, while the control group lost 19 g/day, the supplemented group grew at a rate of 2 g/day.

Discussion

The gas production technique is widely used to assess the nutritive value of forages and is known to give a good estimation of digestibility (Menke & Steingass, 1988). The increase of the control diet for the addition of blocks was estimated at 18.4 % for gas production, 10.3 % for VFA and 8.7 % for OM fermentation. This could be explained by the effect of urea, molasses and minerals on the microbial activity and should be observed in animal performance.

Table 1. Rate (C) and total gas volume produced (ml/ fermenter), volatile fatty acids (VFA) production and organic matter fermented (OMF) after 24 h of incubation. Diet mean (Std.) Diet + 10% blocks - Mean (Std.) C (ml/h) 0.144 (0.01)b 0.168 (0.04)a Gas (ml / fermenter) 566b 670a AGV (mmol / fermenter) 38.8 (1.5)b 42.8 (1.5)a Acetic acid (%) 73.2 (1.7) 72.9 (0.6) Propionic acid (%) 16.1 (0.3) 15.9 (1.4) Butyric acid (%) 10.2 (0.3) 10.1 (0.2) MOF (g / fermenter) 2.3 (0.09)b 2.5 (0.09)a % OM Fermented 18.5 (0.7)b 20.9 (0.7)a

a, bmeans in the same line with different letters differ significantly (P<0.05). Table 2. Effects of feed blocks on kid growth reared on rangelands during drought conditions. Control group Supplemented group Initial live weight (kg) 18.4 (0.7) 9.1(0.6) Final live weight (kg) 5.5 (0.8)b 20.8 (1.3)a Variation (kg) -2.8 (1.0)b +1.7 (1.05)a ADG(g/j) 9 – 29 Aug. - 87 (22)b - 44 (27)a 30 Aug. – 18 Sep. - 81 (23)b - 30 (26)a 9 Sep – 8 Oct. - 17 (11)b 17 (21)a 9 – 30 Oct. 5 (6)b 19 (9)a 3 Oct.- 20 Nov. 6 (26) 23 (15) 2 Nov.-7 Dec. 16 (9) 42 (29) 8 -29 Dec. 21 (17)b 55 (21)a

a, bmeans in the same line with different letters differ significantly (P<0.05). average daily growth.

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In the growth trial, the initial live weight of kids was not significantly different (P>0.05) between groups. During the first two months (August and September), control and supplemented groups lost weight, which may have resulted from high temperatures (38 °C). After that, liveweight decreased with time for the control group, while the supplemented group maintained body weight. Supplemented kids consumed approximately 130 g DM of feed blocks per day. The same range of block intake was also reported by Ben Salem et al. (2000) on range goats receiving olive cake-based blocks. In previous studies with goat kids pasturing on natural range and shrubland, Galina et al. (2004) observed an improvement of digestibility and intake with feed block supplementation. In the same region of this study, goats supplemented with feed blocks increased their intake by 44 % (Kayouli & Buldgen, 2001). A low nutrient intake is one of the most important factors limiting performance of goats under range conditions (Allison, 1985). Unfortunately, forage intake data were not collected in our study due to laboratory limitations. However, the low rate of gas production noted with the simulated diet in in vitro conditions could be a mechanism by which feed intake is decreased. Indeed, while the control group lost 9 g/day, the supplemented group grew at a rate of 2 g/day. This small difference does not appear to be biologically important, despite its statistical significance, but supplemented kids gained 1.7 kg (P<0.05) while unsupplemented kids lost 2.8 kg in 150 days. Silanikove et al. (1996) reported that when browses were offered as the sole feed, they did not sustain the maintenance requirements of the animals and weight gain decreased rapidly (100 g/day). The level of energy in woody species seems to be too low to enhance the growth rate of kids considerably. Therefore, feed blocks should be considered as an alternative supplement to maintain goats in shrublands.

Conclusions

This study has shown that feed block supplementation of ranging kids can reduce live weight loss under harsh environments. Since the methods for producing, storing and using them are simple, feed blocks seem to be convenient in the context of extensive livestock rearing systems.

References

Allison, C.D., 1985. Factors affecting forage intake by range ruminants: a review. J. Range Manage. 38: p. 305-309.

Ben Salem, H., A. Nefzaoui and L. Ben Salem, 2000. Supplementing range goats in central Tunisia with feed blocks or a mixture of Opuntia fiscus indica var. inermis and Atriplex nummularia. Effects on behavioural activities and growth. Proceedings of the International Conference on Goats, Tome II: p. 988-989.

Ben Salem, H. and A. Nefzaoui, 2003. Feed blocks as alternative supplements for sheep and goats. Small Ruminant Research 49: p. 275-288.

Chenost, M. and C. Kayouli, 1997. Utilisation des fourrages grossiers en régions chaudes. FAO, Etude FAO Production et Santé Animales 135: 226 pp.

Demeyer, D.I., 1991. Quantitative aspects of microbial metabolism on rumen and hindgut. In: Rumen microbial metabolism and ruminant digestion, J.P. Jouany (editor), INRA Editions, p. 2-23.

Galina, M.A., M. Guerrero, C.D. Puga and G.F.W. Hovenlein, 2004. Effects of slow-intake urea supplementation on goat kids pasturing natural Mexican rangeland. Small Rum. Res. 55: p. 85-95.

Jouany, J.P, 1982. Dosage des acides gras volatils dans les contenus digestifs, les jus d’ensilage, les cultures bactériennes et les contenus de fermenteurs aérobies. Sc. Aliments 2: p. 131-144.

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Jouany, J.P. and P. Thivend, 1986. In vitro effects of avoparcin on protein degradability and rumen fermentation. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 5: p. 25-229.

Kayouli, C. and A. Buldgen, 2001. Elevage durable dans les petites exploitations du Nord-Ouest de la Tunisie. Faculté universitaire des Sciences agronomiques, Belgique.

Khazaal, K., X. Markantonatos, A. Nastis and A.S. Ørskov, 1993. Changes with maturity in fibre composition and levels of extractable polyphenols in Greek browse: effects on in vitro gas production and in sacco dry matter degradation. J. Sci. Food Agric. 63: p. 23-244.

Menke, K.H. and H. Steingass, 1988. Estimation of the energetic feed value obtained from chemical analysis and in vitro gas production using rumen fluid. Anim. Res. Develop. 28: p. -55.

SAS, 1985. SAS User’s Guide. Statistics, 5th Ed., SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC.Silanikove, N., N. Gilboa, A. Perevolotsky and Z. Nitsan, 1996. Effect of a daily supplementation

of polyethylene glycol on intake and digestion of tannin-containing leaves (Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia lentiscus and Ceratonia siliqua) by goats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 44: p. 199-205.

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395

Conclusion

A. Gibon

UMR 1201 DYNAFOR INRA-INPT/ENSAT, INRA Centre de Toulouse, BP 52627, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan cedex, France

Introduction

The concept of product quality is moving away from the accepted view that prevailed during the intensification of worldwide agriculture in the second half of the 20th century. The phrase is no longer simply synonymous with food safety and the provision of energy and protein nutrients; rather, it includes references to consumer preference and also many other things. The quality of animal products is therefore not to be regarded as a separate objective to be considered independently. Livestock farming increasingly means much more than just food production (Sorensen, 1997). The contents of this book stress a variety of reasons for this change in opinion.

The renewal in approach to the nutritional quality of animal food

Recent progress, particularly in medicine and human nutrition, has led to a reassessment of the contribution of various animal foods to a balanced and healthy diet. The concept of “functional food” is currently opening new horizons for assessing the nutritional value of animal products and the understanding of the many complex interactions between animal biology, livestock management practice and human health (see Caporaso et al., Kijora et al., this book). The advances gained in this respect offer several striking aspects of concern to any animal scientist. Most often they stress the abilities of local ancient breeds and “forgotten” products, such as equine milk. Also traditional practices, that appeared obsolete in the course of mainstream economic development, appear now to provide humans with animal products of special interest with respect to nutrition and health and also providing the pleasure associated with food. The cultural skills they incorporate contribute additionally to provide consumers with an array of products meeting their current material and non-material objectives and values (see Sylvander et al., this book). Quality and specificity of milk and meat products increasingly appear to depend on complex relationships between the biological traits of the animals, the local flora, herd management and feeding practices, and local-specific know-how and technology in product processing. The many examples of such facts provided in this book speak firstly of a new concept of the relationships between empirical knowledge, accumulated and embodied in traditional agricultural practices over the centuries, and modern scientific knowledge (see Pilla et al., this book). This raises basic questions as to those approaches best able to assist current progress in the scientific area, the answer appearing mostly to lie in the combination of sophisticated new technological research tools, such as genomics, together with the peer cooperation of livestock farmers that maintain animal populations and husbandry practices of very ancient origin. There is a remarkable convergence with the evolution in the scientific thinking in ecology and nature conservation, where researchers are currently searching for strategies for integrating farmer knowledge with scientific knowledge (Millar & Curtis, 1999; Bignal & MacCracken, 2000). They consider cooperation with farmers who have maintained a tradition-based management of particular benefit, due the “sophisticated ecological rationality underlying their practice” (Walker & Sinclair, 1998).

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The awareness of the many material and non-material benefits of livestock husbandry

The quantity of animal food produced is still a very important challenge for global food security and remains therefore a first and foremost function in animal production (Nardone & Gibon, 2000). In particular, food self-sufficiency remains a prime objective of many small-scale producers in all parts of the world whenever they are faced with particularly harsh economic conditions (Laurent, 1998; see also Dinev & Todorov, Vieyra et al., Wardani et al., this book). Products from animal husbandry convey a large range of additional material and non-material benefits that economic development led to neglect in mainstream animal science until the late 1980s. Some of these remained important over time with regard to developing countries, and are therefore well known to some of us. For example, the herd is a precious source of fertiliser for crops. It constitutes also a “savings bank” for many traditional - and less traditional - households. Draught animals, which are an important power resource in many developing countries, could also offer an alternative to unwise fossil energy consumption in our western societies, for instance, in forest production (see Miraglia et al., this book). Other benefits currently attached to animal production appear to be new in origin. Animal production can indeed help us to meet certain modern challenges such as the mitigation of urban organic waste accumulation, the maintenance of social networks and the enhancement of the social economy in megapolis conditions (see Vieyra et al., this book), the provision of new means of children’s education and rehabilitation of disabled persons (see Miraglia et al., this book). The most increasingly recognised within the “new” services of livestock production are those currently attached to the exploitation and maintenance of our natural resources. Beyond the direct economic interest of producing food from otherwise non-beneficial land resources (Nardone & Gibon, 2000), livestock husbandry appears to be important in terms of confronting some worldwide environmental issues, especially in our western societies. It is increasingly acknowledged that it constitutes an irreplaceable land management tool for mitigating the erosion of biodiversity, the loss of grassland areas and unique ecosystems (mountain, wetlands), the risk of fire subsequent to agricultural land abandonment and reforestation, etc. (Gibon, 2005). The recent emphasis placed upon sustainable landscape management in Europe and other countries reinforce further the interest in the land management capacity of livestock husbandry in its traditional areas (Antrop, 2004). Livestock husbandry appears also to be a source of new economic development in rural areas (see for instance Miraglia et al.; Panella et al., this book). In many places rural tourism growth is tightly bound to the aesthetic and cultural values of specific landscapes shaped by centuries of animal husbandry. Nature conservation and also nature tourism often rely on its role in the preservation of a rich flora and fauna. Expanding activities, such as farm accommodation and other on-farm services, are grounded in the need of some urban populations to “go back to their roots”: contact with agriculture, especially animal husbandry, is acknowledged by a number of psychologists as valuable for mental health. Therefore, due to many topical issues attached to the preservation of the environment, the economic development and social concerns, a variety of functions of animal husbandry come increasingly under the spotlight in today’s society, in particular in reference to its land-use capacity within grazing systems. Nevertheless, in a sustainable development scope, there is also a need not to forget the negative effects of livestock on the environment, e.g. water polution, methane emission impact on global warming.

The need for an integrated approach to livestock systems far beyond the farm‑gate

The wide changes in consumer attitude and the human nutrition approach on the one hand, and the unanimously recognised need to preserve biodiversity and the environment on the other hand, would be individually sufficient justification for the renewed interest given to local resources in the search

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for paths of sustainable development of livestock production. The contents of this book demonstrate however the interest to go beyond partial views to consider as one the three-pillar dimensions of sustainability when considering the future of livestock production in reference to local resources. The reader will no doubt be impressed, as was I, by the many examples that reveal the strength, inventiveness and refinement of the relationships between land resources and management practices that local societies have woven within traditional husbandry systems in heavily constrained natural environments (see for example El Aich et al., this book). The local breeds always appear as masterpieces of construction. Their abilities, following from long term matching with local-specific requirements, appear in general to present a mixture of local specificities and common traits that are both of relevance in the present day (see Casabianca & Matassino; Pilla et al., this book). Many of the case studies that are provided in this book stress the ability of traditional livestock farming systems to meet concurrently various economic, societal and environmental concerns. What is remarkable indeed is the strong convergence they reveal between the conditions necessary for supporting the economic and social functions of animal production and the ones for meeting environmental requirements in geographical areas of strong natural constraints. They together shape a sort of desired global direction for livestock husbandry development. From there, multifunctionality, which is currently spreading as a novel concept in agricultural development, doesn’t appear to be a totally new challenge whose solutions should be designed from a purely intellectual and scientific analysis of the current problems we are facing. It becomes evident that sustainable development of multifunctional livestock husbandry is likely to have been the classic challenge mankind had to face everywhere and anytime throughout history. Thompson and Nardone (1999) taught us indeed that the very challenge for the sustainable development of livestock production is the maintenance of the functional integrity of livestock farming systems. Such a view can help us to become aware that this challenge can likely never find a definitive and steady solution: development consists of the continuous adaptation of a changing society to a changing environment. It would therefore be a mistake to try to restore a past situation, which would lead to a false artificial solution that would be unsustainable. But it is our duty in animal science to develop new fundamentals and methods that can support the development of sound solutions for coping with present day challenges.

The search for integrated frameworks of the relationships between the social and biotechnical dimensions of livestock farming at the region level

Due to the strong relationships between the many dimensions of animal production at the regional level, integrated frameworks are needed to support the search for operational solutions for sustainable development. Lessons from the past can help in building the required frameworks. There are obviously potential advantages for animal science in enhancing the local study of historical development of livestock husbandry and cooperating with farmers who have maintained traditional practices and product-processing technology. But at the same time, as exemplified in this book with genomics and medicine, cooperation with a widening range of disciplines and an increased reliance on modern scientific approaches are requested for dealing with such complex systems encompassing many social and biological dimensions. Special hope may be placed in livestock farming systems (LFS) research advances in that respect. This area of animal science assumes as essential the dual nature of animal production, which encompasses both a human activity system and a biotechnological system, and makes use of systemic modelling for developing integrated framework approaches to help in its sustainable development. The advances of system theories can help the assessment of many important relationships in the real-life livestock farming systems, and interdisciplinary and participatory research methods are now available that can facilitate the requested cooperation of animal scientists with scientists in other disciplines and animal production stakeholders (Gibon et al., 1999). LFS research progressively enlarged its research

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focus from an integrated approach of the herd production and management up to the whole-farm and, more recently, the region. This evolution accompanied indeed the general change in how the functions of agriculture in the society were viewed. It provides us now with workable scientific directions for addressing the questions raised. This book and the ones previously produced by the LFS Working Group of the EAAP (Gibon & Flamant, 1996; Dent et al., 996; Sorensen, 99; Gagnaux et al., 1999; Gibon & Mihina, 2003) include a variety of useful examples in that respect.

The problems faced in developed countries in the last decades warn us that it would foolhardy not to consider together the various dimensions that animal production encapsulates. New insights in the local variety of the real-life livestock farming systems and their rationales are therefore of much interest to LFS research and the whole community of animal science. They can help designing the global scientific directions requested for meeting the challenges for multifunctional and sustainable animal production.

References

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Bignal, E.M. and D.I. McCracken, 2000. The Nature conservation value of European traditional farming systems. Environ. Rev. 8: p. 149-171.

Dent, J.B., M.J. Mc Gregor and A.R. Sibbald (editors), 1996. Livestock Farming Systems: research, development, socio-economics and the land manager, Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, EAAP Publ. 79, 360 pp.

Gagnaux, D., J.R. Poffet, R. Daccord, A. Gibon and A.R. Sibbald (editors), 2000. Livestock Farming systems: integrating animal science advances in the search for sustainability, Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, EAAP Publ. 97, 430 pp.

Gibon, A., 2005. Managing grassland for production, the environment and the landscape. Challenges at the farm and the landscape level. Livest. Prod. Sci. 96: p. -3.

Gibon, A. and J.C. Flamant (editors), 1996. The study of Livestock Farming Systems in a research and development framework, Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, EAAP Publ. 63 (2nd Edition), 449 pp.

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Gibon, A., A.R. Sibbald, J.C. Flamant, P. Lhoste, R. Revilla, R.Rubino and J.T. Sorensen, 1999. Livestock farming systems research in Europe and its potential contribution for managing towards sustainability in livestock farming. Livest. Prod. Sci. 6: p. 2-3.

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Nardone, A. and A. Gibon, 2000. Livestock farming systems, research and development issues. In: Technical and social systems approaches for sustainable development, W. Doppler and J. Calatrava (editors), Mergraf Verlag, Weikersheim, p. 71-92.

Sørensen, J.T. (editor), 1997. Livestock farming systems: more than food production, Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, EAAP Publ. 89, 367 pp.

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Walker, D.H. and F.L. Sinclair, 1998. Adquiring qualitative knowledge about complex agroecosystems. Part 2. Formal representation. Agric. Syst. 56: p. 365-386.