Linking Formal Organization Practice

to Social Welfare Policy

Much of what we think of as social service provision is related to principles associated with the English

Poor Laws

• Principle of Lesser Eligibility – No one should receive more than they earn.

• The Able-bodied should be encouraged to work.• The deserving poor should receive more than

the able-bodied.• Those able, but unwilling to work should be

considered to be immoral. • Assistance can be provided by government, but

charities should also do their part.

In the early U.S. most social service provision:

• Made the able-bodied poor (even children) work.

• Used a mix of for-profit, charitable, and government provision.

• Relied on the church to provide some services.

• Differentiated between the able-bodied (undeserving) and worthy poor.

Charitable work started to change in the late 19th century

• Some charities were reformed.

• Some new professions (social work) were started.

• “Scientific methods” for assessing social problems were developed.

• In some cases, reformers forced government to improve living conditions for the poor.

The social work profession initially took two different approaches to the problems of the poor

• Charity Organization Societies – immoral poor need to be reformed.

• Settlement houses – poor need assistance, but programs should be created, government has a role in improving social conditions.

Social service organizations continue this dichotomy. Organizations may:

• Focus exclusively on social change.

• Focus on the delivery of services to the poor.

• Engage in a mix of advocacy and service delivery.

Organizations may face some hard choices in choosing an approach:

• Government restricts how much money some nonprofit organizations (501 c) 3) organizations) can spend on lobbying.

• Very little foundation or government funding can be used by organizations for social change.

• Low income communities have immediate needs that must be addressed.

• Few low income communities can generate local funds to support organizations. Kretzman & McKnight (1993) argue that most resources for community organization efforts should come from within communities.

The dilemma for organizations serving the poor is:

• To acquire as many resources for services for possible.

• While using these resources in the most effective way possible.

• And not running out of resources for people in need.

According to Rein (1983):

in any social service organization, tensions exist between efforts to get clients to adjust to organizational rules and the principle of client self-determination. Client “adjustment” or compliance with organization policies is often used as a mechanism that helps the organization standardize services and keep their cost to a minimum.

An example of using standardization to lower costs:

Domino’s Pizza – only a few options for service that will be ready within a short

period of time!

Individualization vs. Standardization

Organizations that try to make services “fit” client needs or individualize them will encounter the higher costs associated with maximizing benefits. The process of standardization also takes place in situations when social service organizations must verify that services are provided in an equitable manner to all eligible people who apply for them (Smith & Lipsky, 1993).

Standardization in Public Bureaucracies

This push for standardization is particularly the case with public agencies that are accountable to taxpayers for the manner in which they spend public funds. Such agencies must also make efforts to minimize the costs associated with service delivery while providing services in an equitable manner.

Nonprofit Organizations only need to be accountable to funders, the IRS, and their boards of directors. But they often struggle to limit or ration the

services they provide. They often do this by limiting provision to:

• Members of one ethnic group.

• Members of one religious group.

• People they know or people who have previously volunteered or given money to the organization (mutual aid societies)

• People who they believe have good moral values.

As with the English Poor Laws, morality is incorporated into the decision of who gets service in

both nonprofits and government agencies:

• Services may not be given to people who do not work or who are viewed as immoral.

• People may be required to join a religious group or hear a religious talk in order to receive service.

• People are often required to “prove” they have no income or are otherwise eligible to receive service.

Proof of eligibility can include:

• Completion of complicated applications

• Pay stubs

• Receipts for rent and utilities

• Social security numbers

• Birth certificates for all family members

• Bank statements

Questions for Class Discussion

• Does everyone have these documents?

• Who is unlikely to have them?

• Are these documents easy to obtain?

• Are there monetary costs associated with these documents?

• What impact do document and income verification requirements have on whether a family applies for services?

Methods to limit demand for services:

• Locating the organization in a place that is difficult to travel to

• Charging user fees• Hours of operation• Requiring a referral from another agency or case

manager• Establishing a wait time for service• Making waiting rooms unwelcoming• Offices that are not accessible to people with

disabilities• Services are only available in English

Another way to discourage applicants involves social stigma:

• Some social problems such as poverty, having a child outside marriage, and substance abuse are still viewed as signs of immorality.

• Consequently, people view recipients of some types of programs as immoral. Recipients sometimes view themselves negatively if they apply for these services.

• Sometimes social workers and other social service employees incorporate negative stereotypes into assessment and service delivery decisions.

Stigma and other access barriers:

Have been described as the “cost” of free services (Prottas, 1981). Organizations increase the cost of service by making it more difficult to receive it. This in turn limits the supply of clients.

Things that organizations can do to increase access if they have the money:

• Serve people who walk in and ask for help.• Have a welcoming waiting room.• Serve people that apply quickly.• Minimize the length of applications and the number of

documents required to establish eligibility.• Provide services at night or on weekends.• Help clients with day care and transportation.• Advocate to make sure people have access to services. • Make sure that the organization is wheelchair accessible

and provides appropriate services to other people with disabilities.

• Provide services in more than one language.

Social policy discussions have increasingly targeted three demographic groups for reductions in service:

• Immigrants – tightening immigration requirements – refusing services to undocumented people; limiting services to permanent residents who are not citizens.

• Women – requiring work for single mothers on welfare. Limiting benefits to welfare mothers who have more children. Funding programs to promote marriage.

• People with disabilities – Supreme Court decisions have limited the ability of people to sue for reasonable accommodation. Some cuts in Federal and state services for children and adults with disabilities have been made or are proposed.

Other recent developments include:

• Using faith-based organizations to deliver government services.

• De-emphasizing the role of professional service providers in the delivery of some services.

• Requiring that all government funded organizations use performance based measures – sometimes this leads to the exclusion of people with severe problems from the service system (creaming).

BECOMING A CLIENT

Rosa a single mother with two children, ages 4 and 16. She has been laid off from her job as a bookkeeper for a small business. She has exhausted her unemployment benefits during her job search. However, she has managed to find a part-time retail position without health benefits. Her youngest child has asthma; she thinks her oldest child has been abusing drugs. Her aunt has announced that she can no longer take care of the younger child while Rosa works. She decides to apply for welfare benefits and has also decided to obtain family counseling from a local nonprofit organization.

Rosa goes to the local welfare office to apply for welfare benefits, food stamps, day care assistance, and Medicaid. The intake clerk provides her with lengthy forms to fill out. The office is crowded and somewhat dirty. She must communicate with the clerk through a plate glass window. After a six hour wait, her name is called and she is interviewed by an intake worker. Rosa is told that it will take several weeks to process her application and that she may not qualify for assistance because of her income. She also is also told that she must provide the welfare office with birth certificates and social security numbers for each child and also provide proof of residence and proof of income in order to qualify for benefits. The worker advises her that if she does not have birth certificates she must pay a fee to obtain them from the county in which the child was born. She is also advised to photocopy all of the required documents rather than submit the originals to the welfare department because of the high risk that these documents might be lost. Rosa’s visit to the welfare office leaves her depressed and demoralized.

She has somewhat better luck at the family service agency. The waiting area is clean and inviting. Rosa is greeted warmly by the receptionist and given an application to fill out. She waits only 30 minutes to see a social worker. Although Rosa is treated with respect, the social worker requests a great deal of information about Rosa’s current situation and family history. She is told that the agency can provide her with job training in addition to family counseling. However, she is told that there will be a small fee for these services unless she qualifies for welfare. Consequently, she will need to wait to

obtain services from this agency until after her eligibility for welfare is established.

Additional Questions:

• Should morality be incorporated into service decisions?• What do you think would happen if there were no

controls on who could receive the service? • Do you ever use moral assumptions when you make

service-related decisions?• How are moral assumptions manifested in organization

documents or decisions?• How do these moral assumptions complement or conflict

with the values and ethics contained in the social work code of ethics?

• What should social workers do to improve access to services for social stigmatized service users?

Next week we will talk about:

• Organizational mission statements

• Regulations

• Needs Assessments

• Organization plans/goals and objectives

• Program Monitoring