linguistica generale e computazionale conoscenza lessicale: il lessico generativo
TRANSCRIPT
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LINGUISTICA GENERALE E COMPUTAZIONALE
CONOSCENZA LESSICALE:IL LESSICO GENERATIVO
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Introduction
• Lexicon— ideally collection of all words of a language
• Information stored in a lexicon- Phonetic information
pronunciation
Semantic information
meaning
Morphological information
transitivity and intransitivity (verbs) , count vs. mass (noun)
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Lexicon (contd…)
Example of “eat” in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
eat /i:t/ v (pt ate /et/; pp eaten /i:tn/):1. sth (up) to food into the mouth,chew and swallow it: he was too ill to eat
Lexical entry
Pronunciation
Morphological informationMeaning
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Mental Lexicon
• Mental Lexicon: information stored in the mind of a native speaker
• Native speakers store information
Phonetic information
pronunciation
Semantic information
meaning
Morphological information
transitivity vs.intransitivity (verbs), count vs. mass (noun)
• Additional information
use of a word in a new context, syntactic environment of a word, word-formation rules
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Example of Mental Lexicon
Example of eat in a native speaker’s mind
• Pronunciation: long /i:/ is used in eat
• Grammatical information: past tense is ate /et/
• Word-formation rules: /-s/ is the third person singular present tense marker as in
he eats
• Meaning: 1. Take in solid food: she ate a banana
2. Take a meal: we did not eat until 10 P.M.
3. Worry or cause anxiety in a persistent way: what’s eating you up.
• Syntactic Information: eat needs an agent to perform the action.
the agent role is obligatory.
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Lexicon in Computational Linguistics
Lexicon meant for Natural Language Processing (NLP) must have the
following properties:
• Morphological information
Parts of speech information
Rules should be there to deal with both regular and irregular forms
e.g ate (past tense of eat)
men (plural of man)
• Semantic information
Can handle lexical ambiguity
• Syntactic information
Action verbs will always have an agent
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Polysemy and the Logical Problem of Polysemy
Polysemy• An individual word can have indefinite number of subtle meaning
difference
• Natural Languages are highly polysemous
• This creates ambiguity
• Weinreich distinguishes between two types of ambiguity Contrastive ambiguity Complementary polysemy
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Polysemy and the Logical Problem of Polysemy (contd…)
Contrastive Ambiguity• A lexical item carries two distinct unrelated meanings• This is a case of homonymy
words spelled or pronounced in the same way but have different meanings
Example: bank a financial institution bank place beside a body of water.
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(1)a. Mary doesn’t believe the book. b. John sold his books to Mary.(2)a. Eno the cat is sitting on yesterday’s newspaper. b. Yesterday’s newspaper really got me upset.(3)a. Mary is in Harvard Square looking for the Bach sonatas. b. We won’t get to the concert until after the Bach sonatas.(4)a. I have my lunch in the backpack. b. Your lunch was no longer today than it was yesterday.(5)a. The phone rang during my appointment. b. My next appointment is John.
Complementary polysemy
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Sense Enumeration Lexicon (SEL)
• WordNet and similar resources are examples of SENSE ENUMERATION LEXICA
• Direct approach to handle polysemy is to allow the lexicon to have multiple listing of words, each annotated with a separate meaning or lexical sense.
• Widely accepted in both computational and theoretical linguistics.
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Sense Enumeration Lexicon (SEL)
• Example of Contrastive Senses
bank1
CAT= count-noun GENUS= financial-institution
bank2
CAT= count-noun GENUS= shore
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Nominal polysemy in sense enumeration lexica
• Newspaper
Newspaper2
CAT= count-noun GENUS= information
Newspaper1
CAT= count-noun GENUS= artefact
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Sense Enumeration Lexicon (SEL)
• Possible Modification of Complementary Polysemy in SEL
CAT= count-noun GENUS= information
CAT= count-noun GENUS= artefact
sense1
sense2
newspaper
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Syntactic polysemy deals with polivalency (I), object deletion (II) and the general properties of argument expression (III).
(I) a. Mary began to read the novel. b. Mary began reading the novel. c. Mary began the novel.
(II) a. Mary ate (her meal) quickly. b. Mary devoured *(her meal) quickly.
(III) a. John carved a doll (out of the wood). b. John carved the wood (into a doll).
Verbal polysemy in sense enumeration lexica
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GENERATIVE LEXICON THEORY
• (Pustejovsky, 1991, 1995)• Claim: the concepts associated with a word in
a context are GENERATED by a process starting from lexical entries structured into QUALIA STRUCTUREs and involving GENERATIVE DEVICES such as TYPE COERCION and CO-COMPOSITION
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Generative lexicon theory: lexical entriesA lexical entry in the generative lexicon consists of the
following elements at least:• Argument Structure
True Arguments
Default Arguments
Shadow Arguments
True Adjuncts
• Event Structure
• Qualia Structure Formal
Constitutive
Telic
Agentive
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Argument Structure• True Arguments: syntactically realized parameters of
the lexical item
John arrived late • Default Arguments: logically present in the expressions
but are not necessarily expressed syntactically.
John built the house out of bricks • True Adjuncts:
modify the logical expression part of the situational interpretation
She drove down to New York on Tuesday.
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Argument Structure (contd…)
• Shadow Arguments: semantically incorporated in the lexical item and are expressed by discourse specification and contextual factors
Mary buttered her toast hidden argument is the material being spread on the toast
these are not optional arguments but expressible only under specific conditions
refer to the semantic content that is not necessarily expressed in syntax
Example: Mary buttered her toast with margarine
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SELECTION
1. a. The man fell/died. b. The rock fell/!died.
2. a. John forced/!convinced the door to open.b. John forced/convinced the guests to leave.
3. a. John poured milk into /!on his coffee.b. John poured milk into/on the bowl.
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Integrating Selection into Grammars
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CONSEQUENCE OF SELECTION: ONTOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS
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BUT …
• Unlike in other lexical theories, in GLT types can be modified via TYPE COERCION (see below)
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Event Structure
• event type of a lexical item and a phrase • events can be sub-classified into at least three sorts: State,
Process and Transition Event Structure of build as found in the following expressions They are building a new house
The house was built by John
build
EVENTSTR=E1= processE2= state
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Word meaning is structured on the basis of four generative factors, called qualia roles, that capture how humans understand objects and relations in the world and provide the minimal explanation for the linguistic behavior of lexical items.
FORMAL: the basic category that distinguishes an object within a larger domain
CONSTITUTIVE: the relation between an object and its constituent parts
TELIC: the object’s purpose and functionAGENTIVE: factors involved in the object’s origin or ‘coming to
being’
QUALIA ROLES
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Qualia structures and argument polysemy
Qualia Structure for novel
novel
const = narrativeformal = booktelic = readingagent = writingQualia
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A generative device: type coercion
• Type Coerciona lexical item or phrase is coerced to a semantic interpretation by a
governing item in the phrase, without changing its syntactic type
Mary began to read the novel Mary began reading the novel Mary began the novel
• • Function Application with Coercion
different complement type of the verb different interpretations of the verb that arise for the different
complements
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Other generative devices
• Selective Binding a lexical item or a phrase operates specifically on the substructure of a phrase,
without changing the overall type in the composition
a good knife: a knife that cuts well
• Co-composition multiple elements within a phrase behave as functors, generating new non-
lexicalized senses for the words in composition John baked the potato John baked the cake
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A dot object is a deeper structure relating the apparently contradictorysenses of the word. For each sense pair there is a relation that ‘connects’the senses in a well-defined way.
The dot object is characterized as:- a Cartesian type product of n types (the product τ1 x τ2, of types τ1 and τ2, each denoting sets, is the
ordered pair <t1 , t2>, where t1 ε τ1 , t2 ε τ2)- with some additional constraints: there exists a relation R between
the elements of τ1 and τ2 , namely, R(t1 , t2). This relation must be seen as part of the definition of the semantics for
thedot object.
NOMINAL POLYSEMY
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Type combinations included in the broad range of complex typesencountered in natural language:
a. phys_objinfo : e.g., book, record b. eventevent : e.g., construction, examinationc. eventquestion : e.g., examd. eventfood : e.g., lunch, dinnere. eventhuman : e.g., appointment
For each of these type products, there is a unique relation, Ri, thatstructures the types.
For example, nouns such as book or record, are structured by acontainment relation R (container-like concepts). This containment relation -hold(x,y)- must be encoded directly into thesemantics of the concept as the FORMAL quale value.
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The lexical structure for newspaper as a dot object is represented as follows:
newspaper ARGSTR = ARG1 = y:information
ARG2 = x:phys_obj
QUALIA = informationphys_obj
FORM = hold(x,y)
TELIC = read(e,w,xy)
AGENT = write(e,v,xy)
This translates to the following logical expression:λx yev[newspaper (x:physobj y :info) hold(x,y)
λwλe [read (e,w,xy) [write(e;v,x y)]]
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MORE FORMAL DETAILS
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Three Ranks of TypeEntities
Events
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System of Generating Types
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Qualia are incorporated into Type Itself
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Qualia as Types
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Functional Selection
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Functional Type Coercion
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Co-composition
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Coercion in Function Composition
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Selection and Coercion
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Type Specification
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GLT AND LEXICAL RESOURCES
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Generative lexicon vs. WordNet
• Formal role is similar to the hypernymy relation• Constitutive role is similar to the meronymy relation• Nothing in WordNet like
• the functionality link• Event structure
• Exists in some WordNets, e.g., Hindi WordNet
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LEXICAL RESOURCES BASED ON GLT
• SIMPLE• LKB
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SIMPLE
• Lessico creato all’Universita’ di Pisa
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Concrete_entity
Abstract_entityPropertyRepresentation
TELIC
•Furniture
•Instrument
•Clothing
•Artwork
•Sign
•Language
•Information
•.....
•Living_entity
•Human
•Animal
•Vegetal_entity
•Artifact
•Susbstance
•Location
•Food
•Material
•Quality
•Quantity
•Physical_prop
•Psychol_prop
•.....
•Convention
•Cognitive_fact
•.....
Artifactual_material
Artifact
TOP
AGENTIVE CONSTITUTIVE ENTITYEvent...
...
...
some semantic types for abstract & concrete entitiessome semantic types for
abstract & concrete entities
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Phenomenon
Change
Psych_eventAspectual
State Act
EVENT
Cause_change
Relational_state
Non_relational_act
Relational_act
Move
Cause_act
Relational_change
Change_possession
Change_location
Acquire_knowledge
Natural_transition
...
Creation
......
......
...
...
Speech_act
...
...
some semantic types for events
some semantic types for events
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some semantic types for adjectives
some semantic types for adjectives
ExtensionalIntensional
TOP
Psychological_prop
Social_prop
Physical_prop Intensifying_prop
Temporal_prop
Relational_prop
Temporal
Modal
EmotiveManner
Object_related
Emphasizer
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isaantonym_compantonym_gradmult_opposition
FormalFormal
result_ofagentive_progagentive_causeagentive_experiencecaused_bysource
AGENTIVE
ARTIFACTUAL
AGENTIVE
created_byderived_from
AgentiveAgentive
used_forused_asused_byused_against
TELIC
ACTIVITY
INSTRUMENTAL
DIRECT
TELIC
indirect_telicpurpose
object_of_activity
is_the_activity_ofis_the_ability_ofis_the_habit_of
TelicTelicmade_ofis_a_follower_ofhas_as_memberis_a_member_ofhas_as_partinstrumentkinshipis_a_part_ofresulting_staterelatesuses
CONSTITUTIVE
causesconcernsaffectsconstitutive_activitycontains has_as_colourhas_as_effecthas_as_propertymeasured_bymeasuresproducesproduced_by property_ofquantifiesrelated_tosuccessor_ofprecedestypical_ofcontainsfeeling
P
R
O
P
E
R
T
Y
is_inlives_intypical_location
LOCATION
ConstitutiveConstitutiveExtended
Extended
Extended
roles
Extended
roles
Qualia
Qualia
Structure
Structure
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Formal role
Agentive role
Tel
ic r
ole
Con
stit
utiv
e ro
le
instrument
is_a
used_forcr
eate
d_byis_made_of
Orthogonal dimensions of meaningOrthogonal dimensions of meaning
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Formal role
Agentive role
Tel
ic r
ole
Con
stit
utiv
e ro
le
violin
is_a
mus
ical
_ins
trum
ent
used_forplaying
crea
ted_
bym
ake
has_as_partstrings
is_made_ofwood
Orthogonal dimensions of meaningOrthogonal dimensions of meaning
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recipienterecipientedi legnodi legnofattofatto
che serve per la conservazione e il trasportoche serve per la conservazione e il trasporto
Formal: isa Constitutive: made_of
Agentive: created_by
Constitutive:contains
Telic:Used_for
di doghe arcuate tenute unite da cerchi di ferrodi doghe arcuate tenute unite da cerchi di ferro
Constitutive: made_of
di liquidi, specialmente vinodi liquidi, specialmente vino
bottebottebottebottebarrel
traditional dictionary definition
meaning dimensions expressed by Qualia relations
meaning dimensions expressed by Qualia relations
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REFERENCES
• Pustejovsky, J. (1995). The generative Lexicon. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• Slides borrowed from– Debasri Chakrabarti– James Pustejovsky– Nilda Ruimy