Linguistic Anthropology

Found in all human groups

Develops along similar lines in all children

Can even develop in individuals with impairments

A product of human evolution

FOSSIL RECORD ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD

Pharynx Back of throat space for tongue

Larynx Location of vocal

cords

Human infants born with high larynx Begins to lower at three months Reaches adult location by 3-4 years

Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence.

Lowering of the larynx Adult humans cannot

breathe and swallow at the same time

Lengthening of the pharynx Provides more space

for tongue Enables increased

vowel resonance Differentiation of

vowels: [i] [a] [u]

a.k.a. the ”lingual bone”

Does not directly articulate with other

bones

Red Howler Monkey(Alouatta seniculus)

Position of hyoid bones (shaded) with tongue retracted (A) and extended (B), shown in the hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos villosus). Northern

Flicker (Colaptes auratus)

The hyoid apparatus and skull of a flicker

(Colaptes sp.)

Torso (left) and hyoid bone (above) ofNeanderthal individual known as

Kebara 2ca. 60,000 B.P.

(Kebara Cave, Israel)

Morphology of hyoid bone is essentially modern

Lack of preserved soft tissue makes it difficult to assess whether the rest of the Neanderthal vocal apparatus was like that of modern humans

The short answer: we cannot yet say…

Cortex Convoluted surface of the

brain Two millimeters thick Surface area 1.5 square

yards Contains 100 million

neurons

Oldest part of cortex Controls long term

memory and emotion

Newer part of cortex “Neocortex” Controls language 80% of human brain Divided (by sulci) into

lobes Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital

Broca’s area Clarity of speech Function words Some word

order Wernicke’s

area Understanding

words Producing

sentences

Fossilized face (left) and cranial endocast (right) of the “Taung” child

(Australopithecus africanus)

Reveal details of the brain case, which in turn reflect some detail of the brain’s surface

Do not provide an indication of the internal structures or architecture of the brain

Endocasts of several Australopithecus specimens

Position of lunate sulcus posterior in Australopithecus

Anterior to lunate sulcus: posterior parietal cerebral cortex

Responsible in humans for object appreciation, facial recognition, and social communication

Endocast of Stw 505 (A. africanus)(Sterkfontein, South Africa)

(ca. 3 mya – 2 mya)

Above: Virtual endocast of LB1 (Homo Floresiensis)

Right: LB1 (middle); mcHS (microcephalic Homo sapiens) HS

(Homo sapiens); He (Homo erectus); PT (Pan

troglodytes)

Indicate aspects of brain reorganization that may have led to the development of features now associated with language

Do not demonstrate that these features were used for language

Reconstructed brain and endocast of Zhoukoudian V

(Homo erectus)(ca. 400,000-500,000 ya)

Point mutation in humans results in

defects in the grammatical processing of words difficulties understanding complex sentence structures inability to form intelligible speechdefects in the ability to move the mouth and face not associated with speaking significantly reduced IQ

Vernes SC, Oliver PL, Spiteri E, Lockstone HE, Puliyadi R, et al. (2011) Foxp2 Regulates Gene Networks Implicated in Neurite Outgrowth in the Developing Brain. PLoS Genet 7(7) http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002145; accessed 2 Sept. 2013

Chromosome 7 Codes for

transcription factor (protein that regulates neural development)

715 amino acids Difference of 2

amino acids in chimpanzee vs. human proteins

Mutation likely arose 10,000-100,000 yBP

Image modified from Enard et al, 'Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language', Nature 418, 869 - 872, (2002); found at http://www.evolutionpages.com/FOXP2_language.htm; accessed 2 September 2013.

250 to 500 kyaFranschhoek, South

Africa

550 kyanorth-east Norfolk,

England

How to make a handaxe

Blombos Cave - Ochre Tablet Ca. 73 kya

Blombos Cave Shell Beadsca. 73 kya

Acheulean figurine, Israel

ca. 230 kya

Hyena – Chauvet Cave, Franceca. 32 kya

HarappaCa. 5,500 B.P.

EgyptCa. 5,300 – 5,200 B.P.

Left: Cuneiform text, MesopotamiaCa. 5,100 B.P.

We cannot clearly determine when human language first emerged

Both anatomical and artifactual material suggests that human intelligence evolved in a series of steps

A gradual emergence? A “final” step? We do not yet know…